CHAPTER -1

NETWORK ELEMENTS
INTRODUCTION:

An electric circuit is an interconnection of electrical elements such as

resistors, capacitors, inductors, voltage source etc. In electrical engineering, transfer of
energy takes place from one point to another, which requires interconnection of
electrical devices. Such interconnection is known as electric circuit and each component
of the circuit is known as an element.

EXAMPLE # Consider an electrical circuit as shown in

the figure. This electric circuit consists of four elements
a battery, a lamp, switch & connecting wires. Circuit and
network theorem is the study of the behaviour of the
circuit: Its behaviour tells us how does it respond to a
given input how do the interconnected elements and
devices in the circuit interact?

ELECTRIC CURRENT:
Electric current may be defined as the time rate of net motion of an
electric charge across a cross sectional boundary as shown in the figure given below. A
random motion of electrons in a metal does not constitute a current unless there is a net
transfer of charge with time i.e. electric current.

i = Rate of transfer of electric charge

= Quantity of electric charge transferred during a given time
duration/ Time duration
𝑑Q
= 𝑑𝑡

Coulomb is the practical as well as SI unit for measurement of electric

charge. Since current is the rate of flow of electric charge through conductor and
coulomb is the unit of electric charge, the current may be specified in coulombs per
second. In practice the ampere is used as the unit of current. Coulomb is the practical as
well as SI unit for measurement of electric charge. Since current is the rate of flow of
electric charge through conductor and coulomb is the unit of electric charge, the current
may be specified in coulombs per second. In practice the ampere is used as the unit of
current.
VOLTAGE:
The voltage is the potential difference between two points of a
conductor carrying a current of one ampere when the power dissipated between these
two points is equal to one watt. The practical unit of voltage is volt.

POWER:
Power is defined as the rate of doing work or rate at which it can perform
work. So Power = work done/ Time in seconds
𝑑w 𝑑w 𝑑𝑞
P = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑡 = v i
Absolute unit of power is watt. One watt is that power which is required to perform one
joule of work in one second. The practical unit of power is horse power (HP). This value
in metric system is 75kg meters per second and in British system is 550 Foot
Pounds/second. Therefore
1 HP (Metric) = 75 Kg meters per second= 735.5
watt 1 HP (British) = 550 Foot Pound/ second = 746 watt

ENERGY:

𝑡
𝐸 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑡
Energy of a body is its capacity of doing work.
0
The unit of energy in MKS system is joule and in SI system is KWH. A
system can have this energy in various forms, such as electrical, mechanical, heat,
chemical, atomic energy etc. Energy of one form can be transformed to other form, but
cannot be created nor be destroyed. If one form of energy disappeared, it reappears in
another form. This principle is known as law of conservation of energy.

CIRCUIT ELEMENTS/PARAMETERS:

1. RESISTANCE:
Resistance restricts the flow of electric current through the material. Unit
of Resistance(R) is Ohm. From Ohm’s law
R=V/I
When an electric current flows through any conductor, heat is generated due to collision
of free electrons with atoms. If I amp is the strength of current for potential difference V

P=VI= (IR).I=𝐼2𝑅 watts

volts across a conductor, the power observed by resistor is :

𝑡
Energy lost in the resistor in form of heat is then
𝑡
2 𝑉2
2
E=∫0 𝑝. 𝑑𝑡=∫0 𝐼 𝑅 𝑑𝑡=𝐼 𝑅t=
𝑅
xt

2. INDUCTANCE:
It opposes any change of magnitude or direction of electric current
passing through the conductor. Unit is Henry (H).When a current will flow through the
coils/Inductor an electromagnetic field is created. However in the event of any change
 of flow on direction of current, the electromagnetic field also changes. This change of

𝑉 = 𝐿. 𝑑𝑖
field induces a voltage (V) across the coil & is given by
𝑑𝑡 ------(1)
Where ‘i’ is current through the inductor.
Voltage across an inductor is zero when current is constant.
Hence an inductor acts like short circuit to dc.

Power absorbed by inductor

P=V x i=Li 𝑑𝑖 watts.-------------------------------------(2)
𝑑𝑡
Energy absorbed. 𝑡
E=∫ 𝑝. 𝑑𝑡 = 1 Li2-------------------------------------------------------(3)
0 2

From equation (2) & (3): The inductor can store finite amount of energy,
even the voltage across it may be nil. A pure inductor does not dissipate energy but can
only store it.

3. CAPACITANCE:
It is the property of capacitor, which have the capability to store electric
charge in its electric field established by the two polarities of charges on the two
electrodes of a capacitor.
The amount of charge store by capacitor is
q = cv
i= 𝑑𝑞 =>i=c 𝑑𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Therefore if voltage across capacitor is constant, current through it is
zero. Hence capacitor acts like a open circuit to dc.
P=V.I= VC𝑑𝑣
𝑡 𝑑𝑡
E=∫ 𝑝. 𝑑𝑡 = 1 CV2
Power absorbed
Energy stored
0 2
A capacitor can store finite amount of energy. Even if the current through it is zero. It
never dissipates energy.

TYPES OF ELEMENTS:
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE ELEMENT:
An active element has capability to generating energy while passive
elements have not.
Ex: Active Element: Generators, Batteries, And Amplifiers.
Passive Element: Resistor, Inductor, capacitor.

BILATERAL AND UNILATERAL ELEMENT:

If the magnitude of current passing through the element is affected due to
change in the polarity of the applied voltage, the element is called unilateral element.
And if the current magnitude remains same, it is called as bilateral element.
Ex: Unilateral Element: - Diodes, Transistors.
Bilateral Element: - Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor
LINEAR AND NON-LINEAR ELEMENTS:
A linear element shows linear characteristics of voltage Vs current.
Resistors, Inductor, Capacitor are linear elements and their property does not change in
applied voltage on circuit current.
For non-linear elements the current passing through it does not change
linearly with the time as change in applied voltage at a particular frequency.
Ex: Semiconductor devices.
ENERGY SOURCES:
Independent Energy sources: The voltage & current sources whose values or
strength of voltage and current does not change by any variation in the connected
network are called independent sources.

Series connected independent

sources: Consider the series connection of two
voltage sources as shown in the figure. By KVL
the total voltage between the terminals is equal
to algebraic sum of individual sources i.e. the
voltage sources connected in series may be
replaced by a single voltage source whose
voltage is equal to the algebraic sum of the
individual sources.

Dependent Energy sources: When the strength of voltage and current changes
in the sources for any change in the connected network, they are called dependent
sources. There four different types of dependent sources
a) Voltage controlled voltage source (VCVS)
b) Voltage controlled current source (VCCS)
c) Current controlled voltage source (CCVS)
d) Current controlled current source (CCCS)
 SOURCE TRANSFORMATION:
The voltage and current sources are mutually transferable as shown in
the figure below.

KIRCHHOFF’S LAW:
These laws are more comprehensive than Ohm’s law and are used for
solving electrical networks which may not be readily solved by latter. Kirchhoff’s law is
of two types, Kirchhoff’s current law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law. Kirchhoff’s current law
is used when voltage is chosen as variable while Kirchhoff’ voltage law is used when
current is chosen as variable.

KCL: According to Kirchhoff’s current law the algebraic sum of currents at any
node of a circuit is zero. From the figure given below:

-I1-I2+I3-I4+I5=0
=>I1+I2+ I4=I3+I5

Hence:
Algebraic sum of currents entering a node =
Algebraic sum of current leaving a node.

Example1: Find the magnitude and direction of the unknown current as shown
in figure given I1= 10 A, I2= 6A, I5= 4A

Solution: Assume direction of current in the

network
(i)
I1= I7= 10 A
(ii)
I1= I2 + I4=> I4= I1- I2= 10- 6= 4 A
(iii)
At node b: I2 - I3 - I5= 0
=> 6 - I3- 4=0 => I3= 2A
(iv)
At node d: I4 + I3 - I6= 0
=>4 + 2 – I6 =0
=> I6 = 6 A
 Assume direction of all current are correct because of their positive
magnitude. Assume directions of unknown current are arbitrary and any direction can
be taken.

Example2: Find v and the

magnitude and direction of the unknown
currents in the branch xn, yn and zn as
shown in figure.

Solution:
At node y: 10 + Ix + Iz = Iy + 2
Ix – Iy + Iz= -8
𝑉
+ 𝑉 + 𝑉 = -8 [since Ix = 𝑉 , Iy=− 𝑉
, Iz= 𝑉 ]
5 2 4 5 5 5
𝑉 = −8.42 volt

Negative magnitude shows that n to be positive.

Ix = -8.42 = -1.684 A (i.e. from flowing current n to x)

5
Therefore
Iy = - (−8.42)= 4.21 A (ie Current flowing from n to y)
2
Iz = −8.42= -2.1 A (ie current flowing from n to z)
4

The circuit can be redrawn as given below

Example3: Find i1 and i2 as shown in figure

Solution: The circuit is redrawn in figure

According to KCL: i1 + i2 = 5 + 4 i2-------------------(1)
i1- 3 i2 = 5--------------------------(2)

𝑉 𝑉
Here i1 = ; i2 =
1 5
Therefore equation 2: V - 3𝑉 = 5
5
=> V = 12.5 volt
Therefore i1 = 12.5 A and i2 = 2.5 A
KIRCHHOFFS VOLTAGE LAW:
This law can be stated as
“The algebraic sum of voltage in any
closed path of a network that is traversed in single
direction is zero.”
Explanation: According to KVL
V1 – IR1 – V2 – IR2 – IR3 = 0
IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = V1 – V2
𝑉1−𝑉2
I=𝑅1+𝑅2+𝑅3

CURRENT DIVISION RULE:

Two resistors are joined in parallel
across a voltage V. The current in each branch, as given
in ohm’s law is
I1=V/R1 and I2= V/ R2

Therefore I1/I2 = R2/ R1 = G1/ G2

Hence the division of current in the

branch of parallel circuit is directly proportional to the
conductance of the branches or inversely proportional to their resistances. We may also
express the branch currents in terms of the total circuit current thus:
Now I1 + I2 = I
=> I2 =I - I1
I1 𝑅2
I−I =
Therefore
1 𝑅1
or I1 R1 = R2(I - I1 )
𝑅2 𝑅1
Therefore I1 = I and I2 =I
𝑅1+𝑅2 𝑅1+𝑅2

Thus current division rule is stated as

“The current in any of the parallel branches is equal to the ratio of
the opposite branch resistance to the total resistance, multiplied by the total current.”

Example4: A resistance of 10 ohm is connected in series

with two resistances each of 15 ohm arranged in parallel.
What resistance must be shunted across this parallel
combination so that the total current taken shall be 1.5 A
with 20 volt applied?
Solution: The circuit connected in figure
Drop across 10 ohm resister = 1.5 * 10=15V
Drop across parallel combination, VAB= 20-15=5V
Hence voltage across each parallel resistance is 5V.
I1= 5/15 = 1/3 A
I2= 5/15= 1/3 A
I3= 1.5-(1/3+1/3)= 5/6 A

Therefore I3R = 5 or (5/6) R = 5 or R=6 ohm

 Example5: Calculate the value of different current for
the circuit shown in given figure.

Solution: Total current I = I1 + I2 + I3

Let the equivalent resistance be R.
Then V= I R
Also V = I1 R1
Therefore I R = I 1 R1
Or I 1= I R/R1------------------------------------------------------------(1)
Now (1/R) = (1/R1) + (1/R2) + (1/R3)

𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
R= 𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3+ 𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅2 𝑅3
From equation 1: I 1=
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3+ 𝑅3 𝑅1
𝑅1 𝑅3
Similarly I 2=
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3+ 𝑅3 𝑅1

𝑅1 𝑅2
𝑅1 𝑅2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3+ 𝑅3 𝑅1
I3=

VOLTAGE DIVISION RULE:

A voltage divider circuit is a series network which is used to feed other
networks with a number of different voltages and is derived from a single input voltage
source. Figure shows a simple voltage divider circuit which provide two output voltages
V1 and V2. Since no load is connected across the output terminals, it is called an
unloaded voltage divider. We may also express the branch voltages in terms of the total
circuit voltage thus:
Now V1 + V2 = V
=> V2 =V - V1

𝑅1
V1
V−V
= or V1 R2 = R1 (V – V1)
𝑅2
Therefore
1

V1 = 𝑉
𝑅1
𝑅2
Therefore
𝑅1+𝑅2
𝑅1+𝑅2
and V2 = V
 Thus Voltage division rule is stated as
“The voltage across a resistor in series circuit is equal to the value of that
resistor times the total impressed voltage across the series elements divided by the
total resistance of the series elements.”

Example9: Find the value of different voltages that can be

obtained from a 12 V battery with the help of voltage divider
circuit of figure.
Solution:

Drop across R1=VR1 = 12 × (4/8) = 6 volt

R= R1 + R2 + R3 = 4 + 3+ 1 = 8 ohm

Drop across R2=VR2 = 12 × (3/8) = 4.5 volt

Drop across R3=VR3 = 12 × (1/8) = 1.5 volt

Example10: What are the output voltages of the unloaded voltage divider shown in
figure what is the direction of current Through AB?

Solution:
It may be remember that both V1 and V2 are with
respect to ground.
R= 6+ 4 + 2 = 12 ohm

V1= Drop across R2= 24 × (4/12) = 8 volt

Therefore

V2 = Drop across R3= -24 × (2/12) = -4 volt

It should be noted that point B is negative potential with respect to the

ground. Current flows from A to b i.e. from a point at a higher potential to appoint at a
lower potential.
Problem 1
CHAPTER -2
NETWORK THEOREMS

INTRODUCTION
Electric circuits on network consist of a number of interconnected
single circuit elements. This circuit will generally contain at least one voltage on current
source. The arrangement of elements results in a new set of constraints between
currents and voltages. These new constraints and their corresponding equations added
to the current-voltage relationships of the individual elements provide the solution of the
network. There are different approaches for this but the solution is always unique.

STAR DELTA TRANSFORMATIONS

Figure shows a Y (star or wage) connected resistance circuit. Let

the resister value of Y network are Ra, Rb and Rc. Figure shows a (delta)
connected resistances and Let the resistor values are Rab , Rbc and Rca .

Star Connected Delta Connected

It is possible to substitute a star connected system of resistance for a delta

system and vice-versa if proper values are given to the substituted resistances.

DELTA TO STAR CONVERSION

The two systems will be exactly equivalent if the resistance between any
pair of terminals A, B and C in figure for the star is the same as that between the
corresponding pair for the delta connection when the third terminal is isolated.
For the Y-network resistance between the terminal
A and B is Rab = Ra + Rb---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- eq. (i)
For the network resistance between the terminals AB is
Rab = Rab (Rac + Rbc)

= Rab (Rac+Rbc)-------------------------------------------------------eq. (ii)

Rab+Rac+Rbc
Hence Ra + Rb = Rab (Rac+Rbc) eq. (iii)
Rab+Rac+Rbc
 Simalarly for Y-network resistance between terminal B and C is
Rbc = Rb+Rc
For the network resistance between terminal B and C is
Rbc = Rbc (Rab+Rac)
Rb+Rc = Rbc (Rab+Rac) eq. (iv)
Rbc+Rab+Rac
Similarly we can find Rac between terminal A and C is
Ra+Rc = Rac (Rab+Rbc) eq. (v)
Rac+Rab+Rac
Subtracting eq.(v) from the sum of eq.(iii) and eq.(iv) yields
2 Rb = 2 Rab . Rbc
Rab+Rbc+Rca
Rb = Rab . Rbc
Rab+Rbc+Rca

Subtracting eq.(iv) from the sum of eq.(iii) & eq.(v) yields

2 Ra = 2 Rab . Rac
Rab+Rbc+Rac
Ra = Rab . Rac
Rab+Rbc+Rac

Similarly subtracting eq.(iii) from the sum of eq.(iv) and eq.(v) yields
2 Rc = 2. Rbc . Rca
Rab+Rbc+Rca
Rc = Rbc . Rca
Rab+Rbc+Rca

Therefore, the equivalent impedance of each arm of the star is given by the
product of the impedance of the two delta sides that meet at its ends divided by the sum of
there delta impedance

STAR TO DELTA CONVERSION

Similarly we can find conversion formula for Y to as

Rab = Ra . Rb + Rb .Rc + Rc . Ra
Rc
Rbc = Ra . Rb + Rb .Rc + Rc . Ra
Ra
Rca = Ra . Rb + Rb .Rc + Rc . Ra
Rb
SOURCE TRANSFORMATIONS
In the circuit analysis, a circuit with either voltage source or current
sources is preferred. Sometimes a circuit may have both i.e. voltage source & current
source. In that case it is convenient to transform voltage source to equivalent current
source and current source to equivalent voltage source .

(Transformation of Voltage source to (current source to an equivalent

an equivalent current source) voltage source)

NODE ANALYSIS & MESH ANALYSIS

Two methods one Node analysis and the other mesh analysis are used to
analyse a circuit depending on the arrangement and types of elements in the circuit.
Nodal analysis is based on Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and Mesh analysis is based on
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).

NODAL ANALYSIS
Let us consider a circuit shown in fig 2.2 with four
nodes. A convenient way of defining voltages for any network is
the set of node voltages.
One node i.e. 4 (generally the node at the
bottom)is marked as reference node with ground and other
nodes are associated with a voltage. The reference node also can be called as Ground
Node. In fig 2.2, the voltages V1, V2, V3 are called Node Voltages because they represent
the potential differences between the nodes 1,2 & 3 and reference node respectively.
That is the voltage of each of the non-reference
nodes with respect to the reference node is defined
as a node voltage.
Consider the circuit in figure

i 1 = V1 – V 2 , i 5 = V1 – V3
R1 R5
Now applying KCL at node 1, the sum of currents
leaving is zero.
Therefore i1+i5 –i = 0
 i = V1-V2 + V1-V3 eq. (1)
R1 R5

Similarly at node 2 -i1= V2 – V1 , i2 = V2 , i3 = V2 – V3

R1 R2 R3
V2 – V1 + V2 –V3 + V2 =0 eq.(2)
R1 R3 R2
At Node 3 Sum of currents leaving are
-i3 = V3-V2 , i4 = V3 , -i5 = V3 – V1
R3 R4 R5

V3 – V 2 + V3 + V3 - V 1 eq. (3)
R3 R4 R5
All the above these equation can be solved to determine the individual
node voltages V1, V2& V3.
Example 1
Find the node voltages V1 and V2 for the
circuit at figure.
Solution At node 1 apply KCL sum of all
the current leaving the node (1) is zero current leaving
node 1 are V1, V1-V2 and -2A (2A is entering)
10 15
V1 + V1- V2_ -2 = 0

V1 ( + ) –
10 1 15 1 𝑉2
=2
10 15 15
5V1 – 2V2 = 60------------------------------------------------------eq. (1)
Similarly At node 2 current leaving are 𝑉2 , 𝑉2−𝑉1 and -4A
5 15
𝑉2 𝑉2−𝑉1
5+ 15
-4 = 0
4V2 – V1 = 60 eq. (2)
Solving the above two equations (1) & (2)
We get V1 = 20V, V2 = 20V

Example 2
Find V1, V2 and V3 for the circuit in figure.
Solution
𝑉1−𝑉3
At node 1
V1 –V2 + +3=0
2
3V1-2V2-V3 = -6 eq. (1)
At node 2 𝑉2 𝑉2−𝑉3
V2-V1 + + =0
3 4

-12V1 + 19V2 -3V3 = 0 eq.(2)

 At node 3
𝑉3−𝑉1 𝑉3 𝑉3−𝑉2
2 +5 + 4 =7
-10V1- 5V2 +19V3 = 140 eq. (3)

By solving we get V1 = 5.238V, V2 = 5.12V & V3 = 11.47V

Example 3

Find the node voltage V1& V2

Solution

To write node equation treat node 1 and 2

and the voltage source together as a Sort of Super node
and apply KCL to both nodes at the same time. The
super node is individual by dotted line.
Applying KCL, we get
-1+𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉2 = 0 eq. (1)
2 2 5
And from voltage source V1 – 2 = V2 eq. (2)
Now we can solve for V1 and V2 using both equations.

MESH ANALYSIS
Mesh analysis is restricted to the category called Planar Circuit whereas
nodal analysis can applied to any electrical circuits. A planer circuit is a circuit if the
diagram of the circuit can be drawn on a plane surface without crossover. Example of
planner and non-planar circuit are shown in fig (2.7).

Figure depicts a circuit comprising two meshes.

They are
Mesh 1: V5  R1  R2 V3
Mesh 2: R3  R4  R2 R3
 The two mesh currents are labeled as i1 and i2 flowing in clockwise
direction. Now we will apply KVL around each mesh.

For mesh 1
i1R1 + (i1-i2) R2 = V5__________________________________________eq. 1
For mesh 2
i2R3 + i2R4 + R2 (i2-i1) = 0 eq. 2

Eq.(1) & (2) can be rewritten as

(R1+R2)i1 – R2i2 = V5 eq.3
-R2i1 + (R2+R3+R4) i2 = 0

𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑖1 𝑉5
] [ ]= [ ]
Finally the two equations can be put in matrix form
[
−𝑅2
−𝑅2 𝑅2 + 𝑅3 + 𝑖2 0
𝑅4

Which can be solved for i1 and i2.

Examples 4 find the mesh current i1 and i2 for the circuit shown in figure.

For first mesh 2i1+3(i1 – i2) = 9____________eq.1

4i2-5+3(i2-i1) =0 eq.2
Equation can be rewritten as
5i1 -3i2 = 9 eq.3
-3i1+7i2 = 5 eq.4
By solving i1 = 3A, i2 = 2A

Example 5
Determine the voltage drop across 3Ω resister using mesh analysis in figure.

SUPERMESH
When a current source is common to two meshes we use the concept of
super mesh to analysis the circuit using mesh current method. A super mesh is a larger
mesh created from two meshes that have a current source as common element. A super
mesh encloses more than one mesh for each common current source between two
meshes, the number of meshes reduce by one, thus reading the number of mesh
Solution to Example 6
The 2A current source is common to mesh 2 & 3. So we create a super
mesh as shown in dotted line.
For super mesh
6i3 + 3i2 + 5(i2-i1)-8= 0
 -5i1 + 8i2 + 6i3 = 8________________________eq. 1

For mesh 1
-12+8+5(i1-i2) = 0
 5i1 – 5i2 = 4_________________________eq.2

From current source i2-i3 = 2

By solving we get i2 = 2.664
Voltage across 3Ω resistor = 2.66×3 =
8v.

Example 7
Use node analysis to find V1, V2, V3 & i1

Solution
Applying KCL at node 1
We get
𝑉1−𝑉2 𝑉1−𝑉3
20 + 2 =2 eq. 1
Applying KCL at node 2
𝑉2−𝑉1
+ 𝑉2 + 8 = 0 eq.2
20 4
Applying KCL at node 3
𝑉3 𝑉3−𝑉1
2 + 2 =8 eq.3
By solving all these equations we can get V1= 16v, V2= -24v, V3 = 16v, i1 = 0A

Examples 8
Find the voltage V2 using mesh analysis.

Solution
Applying KVL for super mesh
30i1+20(05+i1)+10=0
2
 50i1 = -20
 i1 = - = - 0.4A, V2 = 20(i1+0.5)
5
= 20×0.1 = 2v
Superposition Theorem
In a linear bilateral network containing two or more independent sources,
the voltage across or current in any branch is algebraic sum of individual voltages or
currents produced by each independent sources acting separately with all the
independent sources set equal to zero.
Procedure to solve the circuit using superposition theorem
1. Select only one source and replace all other sources with
their internal resistance. If the source is an ideal current
source replace it by open circuit. If the source is an ideal
voltage source, replace it by short circuit.
2. Find the current and its direction through the desired
branch.
3. Add all the branch currents to obtain the actual branch
current.

Examples 9
Find the current through 2Ω register using
superposition theorem.

Solution
First we find the contribution to I due to 5V
source by replacing 2A current source with open-circuit.
Applying KCL for the circuit in figure.

𝑉−5 𝑉 𝑉
3 5+2 +6 5 =0
V = v, I1 = Amp
3 6
Next we find the contributions I2 due to 2A current source
by replacing the voltage source by short-circuit.

2
I2 = 2× = 1Amp
4 5 11
Total current flowing through the 2Ω resistor = I1+I2 = 1+ = Amp
6 6
Limitation of Super-position Theorem
1. Not applicable to the circuits consisting of only dependent sources.
2. Not applicable to the circuits consisting of non-linear elements.
3. Not applicable for calculation of power, since power is potential is propositional
to the sequence of current or voltage.
4. Not useful to the circuits consisting of less than two independent sources.

Example 10
Find current I using Superposition theorem for the circuit in the figure.

Solution:
The circuit has three voltage sources. First we find the contribution to I1
due to 2V. Therefore short-circuit the remaining two voltage sources as shown in figure.

2 10 5
I1 = = = A
6
2+5 16 8

5 2 1
I1 = × = A
8 5 4

When 4V acting as shown in figure

I1 = 4 6= 5 A
2+5 4

5 2 1
I2 = × = A
4 5 2

When 3V is acting alone as shown in figure

3
4
I3 = - Amp
When all the sources are acting together total
current will be 1 1 3 1+2−3
I = I1 + I2 + I 3 = + - = = 0Amp
4 2 4 4
 Example 11
Find current Ia

Solution: Let us assume that only 12V is acting done and current
through it ia1, open circuit 4A and 1A current source and short-circuit the 6V voltage
source as in the figure.

12 4
Ia1 = - =- A
9 3

When 4A current source is4×6 24

acting 8
alone as shown in figure.
Ia2 = = = A
9 9 3

3 1
When 1A is acting alone as shown in figure.
Ia3 = 1× = A
9 3

When 6V is acting alone as in figure

6 2
Ia4 = = - A
9 3

When all the sources are acting total current will be

Ia = Ia1 + Ia2 + Ia3 + Ia4
4 8 1 2 −4+8+1−2
= - 3 + 3 +3 - 3 = 3

3
=3
= 1amp
Ia = 1A

APPLICATION OF SUPER-POSITION THEOREM

The super-position theorem is applicable for any linear circuit having time
varying or time invariant elements. It is useful in circuit analysis for finding current &
voltage when the circuit has a large number of independent sources.
LIMITATION OF SUPER-POSITION THEOREM
1. Not applicable to the circuits consisting of dependent sources.
2. Not applicable to the circuits consisting of non linear elements like
diode, transistor etc.
3. Not applicable for calculation of power.
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Thevenin’s theorem states that any linear active two terminal network
containing resistance and voltage sources or current sources can be replaced by a single
voltage sources Vth in series with single resistance Rth. The Thevenin equivalent voltage
Vth is the open circuit voltage at the network terminal and the Thevenin resistance R th is
the resistance between the network terminals when all the sources are replaced with
their internal resistance.
Fig (a) shows a linear network containing resistance, voltage sources or
current sources with output terminal AB using Thevenin’s theorem the linear network
can be replaced by single voltage source V th in series with a single resistor Rth as shown
in fig(b). Now any resistor can be corrected between the terminal AB and current
through it can be obtained easily.
Procedure to find the current through a branch using Thevenin’s Theorem.

1. Remove the branch through which current is to be found and mark the terminal
AB.
2. Calculate the open circuit voltage Vth between the terminal AB.
3. Replace the independent sources with their internal resistance. (if the internal
resistances are zero, then voltage source should be short-circuited and current
source should be open-circuited)
4. Calculate Rth between the terminal AB.
5. Correct thevenin’s voltage sources in series with Thevenin resistance with output
terminal AB.
6. Correct the removed resistance between AB and find the current through it.

Example
Find VTH, RTH and the load current
flowing through and load voltage across the load
resistor in figure by using Thevenin’s Theorem.

Solution
Step 1
Open the 5kΩ load resistor figure.
Step 2
Calculate / measur e the Open Circuit
Voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH)
figure. We have already removed the load resistor from figure 1, so the circuit became an
open circuit as shown in fi g 2. Now we have to calculate the Theve nin’s Voltage. Since
3mA Current flows in both 12kΩ and 4kΩ resistors
as this is a series circuit because current will not
flow in the 8kΩ resistor as it is open.
So 12V (3mA x 4kΩ)
will appear across the
4kΩ resistor. We also kn
ow that current is not
flowing through the 8kΩ
resistor as it is open
circuit, but the 8kΩ resistor is in parallel with 4k
resistor. So the same voltage (i.e. 12V) will appear
across the 8kΩ resistor a s 4kΩ resistor. Therefore 12V will appear across the AB
terminals. So,

VTH = 12V

Step 3
Open Current Sources and Short
Voltage Sources figure.

Step 4
Calculate /measure the Open Circuit
Resistance. This is the Thevenin Resistance (RTH)

We have Reduced the 48V DC source

to zero is equivalent to repl ace it with a short in step
(3), as shown in figure () We can see that 8kΩ
resistor is in series with a p arallel connection of 4kΩ
resistor and 12k Ω resistor. i.e.:
8kΩ + (4k Ω || 12kΩ) ….. (|| = in parallel with)
RTH = 8kΩ + [(4kΩ x 12kΩ) / (4kΩ + 12kΩ)]

RTH = 8kΩ + 3kΩ

RTH = 11kΩ

Step 5
Connect the RTHin series with Voltage
Source VTH and re-connect the load resistor. This is
shown in figure i.e. Thevenin circuit with load
resistor.
 Step 6
Now apply the last step i.e. calculate the
total load current & load voltage as shown in figure.
IL = VTH/ (RTH + RL)

= 12V / (11kΩ + 5kΩ) →

= 12/16kΩ
IL = 0.75mA

And
VL = ILx RL

VL = 0.75mA x 5kΩ

VL = 3.75V
NORTON’S THEOREM

Norton’s theorem states that any linear active two

terminal network
contains resistance and voltage source or current source can be
replaced by single
current source or current source can be replaced by single current source IN in parallel
with a single resistance RN. The Norton’s equivalent current IN is the state circuit current
through the terminals AB and resistance RN is the resistance between the network
terminals when all the sources are replaced with internal resistances.
Procedure to find the current through a branch using Norton’s theorem.
1. Remove the branch through which current is to be found and mark terminal AB.
2. Short-circuit the terminal AB and find current through it and denote it as ISC.
3. Replace the independent sources with their internal resis ances (if internal
resistances are zero then voltage source should be short circuited and current
sources should be open-circulated).
4. Calculate RN between the terminals AB.
5. Connect the short-circuit current (Norton’s) In in parallel with RN with output
terminal AB.
Correct the removed branch between terminals AB and find current.
Example
Find the current in RL using Norton’s Theorem
 After Norton conversion . . .

Remember that
a current source is a co mponent
whose job is to provide a constant
amount of current, outputting as
much or as little voltage necessary
to maintain that constant current.

As with Thevenin's
Theorem, everything in the original
circuit except the load resistance has
been reduced to an equival ent circuit
that is simpler to analyze. Also similar
to Thevenin's Theorem are the steps
used in Norton's Theorem to
calculate the Norton source current (INorton) and Norton resistance (RNorton).

As before, the first step is to identify the load resistance and remove it
from the original circuit.

Then, to find the

Norton current (for the current
source in the Norton equivalent
circuit), place a direct wir e(short)
connection between the load points
and determine the resultant current.
Note that this step is exactly
opposite the respective step in Thevenin's Theorem, where we replaced the load
resistor with a break (open circuit).

With zero voltage dropped

between the load resis t or connection
points, the current through R1 is strictly a
function of B1's voltage and R1's resistance:
7 amps (I=E/R). Likewise, the current
through R3 is now strictly a function of B 2's
voltage and R3's resistance: 7 amps (I=E/R).

The total current through the short between the load connection points is the sum of
these two currents: 7 amps + 7 amps = 14 amps. This figure of 14 amps becomes the
Norton source current (INorton) in our equivalent circuit.

Current through load of 2  resistor = 14 X .8 /2.8 = 4 Amp.

Problem 3