In: Concrete and Concrete Structures ISBN: 978-1-53612-795-9

Editors: D. Thomas and P. Vivien © 2017 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Chapter 5

THE EVALUATION OF SUGARCANE BAGASSE

ASH (SCBA) AS SUPPLEMENTARY
CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS ON SULFATE
RESISTANCE OF CONCRETE

Alireza Joshaghani*
Zachry Department of Civil Engineering,
Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, US

ABSTRACT

This chapter deals with the study of the durability of concrete

prepared with sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA) as a partial replacement of
Portland cement that has been dramatically increased in recent years. The
purpose of this study is an evaluation of sulfate resistance of concrete
containing SCBA. The weight loss and the strength loss of samples that
were in sulfate solutions have been measured for a year. The different
conditions were defined to test specimens in various solutions of Na2SO4
and MgSO4 by exposing samples to wetting-drying and heating-cooling

* Corresponding Author address: 199 Spence St., DLEB, Rm 508K, Texas A&M University,
3136 TAMU, Email: joshaghani@[Link].
152 Alireza Joshaghani

cycles. The results indicated that after passing 28 days, the concrete
samples contained 10-30% SCBA (by weight) had a greater compressive
strength than the control sample. Also incorporating SCBA as a
supplementary material enhanced the durability of concrete and reduced
detrimental effects of sulfate attack.

Keywords: sugarcane bagasse ash (SCBA), concrete, sulfate, compressive

strength, weight loss

INTRODUCTION

Cement is the most demanding component of concrete industries.

Cement productions not only are energy consuming but also counts as one
of the largest CO2 emission sources in the world. Depending on the
production technology, the CO2 emission ranges from 0.73 to 0.99 tons of
CO2 per 1 ton of cement [1]. Carbon dioxide is a major component of the
greenhouse gas responsible for global warming, which has become recently
at the top of the list of environmental problems. More than half of this
amount is caused by calcination that is an integral part of the cement
production [2]. This continuous growth in cement industry has created an
increasing concern over its impact on the environment. Accordingly, the
idea of using supplementary cementitious materials gained wide acceptance
as an attempt to embrace sustainability in cement and concrete industry, and
as a step to make the cement industry more environmentally friendly [3].
Moreover, pozzolanic materials in concrete are suitable alternatives for
cement, which is important in increasing the durability of concrete [4]. The
supplementary cementitious materials used in concrete chemically react
with the calcium hydroxide released by the hydration of Portland cement in
the presence of moisture to form cementing compounds [5]. The usage of
pozzolans as a partial replacement for cement was proved to be effective in
improving concrete and mortar properties, such as sugarcane bagasse ash
(SCBA) [6].
The SCBA is a waste produced in sugar manufacturing plants after
extraction of juice from sugar cane. recently, the properties of SCBA
 The Evaluation of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) … 153

pozzolan materials in concrete components have been considered. Sugar

cane is cultivated in about 74 countries, and its production rate is
increasing, particularly in developing countries [7]. There is a large volume
of sugarcane bagasse produced worldwide, which implies the importance
of approaches for disposal purposes of material. The sugarcane bagasse is
used as fuel in the cogeneration process to produce steam and electricity in
sugar industries. When bagasse is burnt in the combustion boiler under the
controlled burning, reactive amorphous silica is formed in the residual ashes
[8]. After burning process, SCBA is collected as a by-product from
cogeneration boiler and directly dumped in the nearest disposal area. SCBA
disposal is a critical issue for sugar industries because of environmental
constraints and land requirement. Furthermore, one of the most important
properties of SCBA is it's high ability in a reduction of pores and
permeability of concrete [9]. Chemical analyses have shown that the ash
achieved by burning the bagasse, namely SCBA, is rich in alumina and
silica (SiO2). It acts as a pozzolanic material when added to cement because
of its silica content, which reacts with free lime released during the
hydration of the cement and forms additional calcium silicate hydrate
(CSH) as a new hydration product [10, 11]. This additional CSH improves
the mechanical strength of the cement mortar and concrete. The silica
content of the ash depends on the type of soil and harvesting. It is also
found that it depends on the burning temperature of the bagasse. Therefore,
SCBA could be one of the most desirable alternative cementitious material
due to environmental advantages, good pozzolanic performance and low
production cost.
The sulfate attack is one of the principal causes of concrete deterioration,
and it imposes a considerable risk to the structures’ durability. It occurs mainly
in concrete that is placed on soils containing sulfate or groundwater. The
degradation mechanism of concrete exposed to external sulfate attack and the
chemistry of the attack is significantly dependent on the source of sulfate and
the cement composition; however, the manifestations or damages of sulfate
attack on concrete may vary according to the exposure conditions [12]. Thus,
the cement composition is essential in determining the extent of deterioration
in concretes exposed to sulfates. In addition, the properties of hardened
154 Alireza Joshaghani

concrete, mainly porosity and permeability, may govern the rate of reaction
between sulfate and cement since it affects the depth of penetration of sulfate.
Factors that influence the resistance of concrete to sulfate attack have been
studied widely. It was found that the use of low water-to-cement-ratio with
proper proportioning, mixing, placing and curing of concrete will result in an
acceptable resistance to sulfate and other chemical attacks [13]. This study
aims at evaluation of the quality of SCBA and sulfate resistance of concrete
that contained this supplementary cementitious material.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Researchers considered the characterizing of SCBA at 500°C, 600°C,

700°C, 800°C, 900°C, and 1000°C for 4 hours, and calcined the SCBA
through the XRD and SEM techniques [14]. At 800°C and 900°C burning
temperature, sharp and intense peaks appeared on top of amorphous
background as amorphous silica recrystallized with increasing temperature.
It was highly crystallized at 1000°C while minor compound like calcium
and iron oxides emitted [15]. The SCBA has been chemically and
physically characterized, and was partially replaced with the ratio of 0%,
5%, 15% and 25% by weight of cement in concrete [16]. The results
showed that the strength of concrete increased as the percentage of SCBA
replacement increased. In addition, the SCBA in blended concrete had a
higher compressive strength, tensile strength, and flexural strength
significantly compared to that of the concrete without SCBA.
Based on the recent studies, incorporating SCBA to concrete showed a
high pozzolanic potential and a satisfactory compressive strength [17]. The
compressive strength attained the equivalent value as the control sample
when SCBA was used up to 20% [18]. Several authors have reported that
20% replacement is the optimal limit replacement for SCBA since it
increased the compressive strengths of mortar [8, 19, 20]. They believed
that increasing replacement of 20% of cement with SCBA decreased
permeability, penetration of chloride ions, and the diffusion coefficient by
about 50%. Several studies were conducted to examine the chemical effect
 The Evaluation of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) … 155

or pozzolanic activity of SCBA. The main products of the reaction between

calcium hydroxide and SCBA are C–S–H. The free lime values in pastes
and the pozzolanic products of SCBA were decreased. The differential
scanning calorimetry (DSC) proved substantial amounts of C–S–H in the
presence of SCBA. The chemical effect of SCBA was reported by
measuring SCBA/calcium hydroxide and SCBA/Portland cement pastes
[21].
Abdulkadir et al. [22] evaluated the suitability of SCBA as a partial
replacement for cement in concrete. Total weight of 34.7 kg of sugarcane
bagasse (SCB) was obtained and burnt at 700°C. A total of 2.71kg of
SCBA was obtained after passing the residual through a 45μm sieve
(standard size of OPC). After having chemical tests conducted on the
SCBA, the replacement levels were selected 0%, 10%, 20% and 30% of
total binder weight. The compressive strength of the concrete cubes for all
the mix ratios increased with curing age and decreased as the SCBA
content increased. The percentage reduction in compressive strength at
10%, 20% and 30% replacement of cement with SCBA, compared with
control, were 16.8%, 25%, and 35.5% respectively. The authors concluded
that this reduction was probably due to some factors like mode of mixing,
specifically hand mixing, compaction and the reactivity of the SCBA.
Pozzolanic properties of SCBA have convinced the researchers around the
world to investigate the feasibility of SCBA incorporation in concrete.
Although SCBA utilization in concrete is proved to be an efficient
approach for disposal of waste, there are limited investigations studying
the influence of SCBA on mechanical and durability properties of
concrete.
Different experiments have been carried out to examine the durability
of the concrete with SCBA. Most of them confirmed that the SCBA
enhanced the concrete durability. Shafiq et al. [23] studied the effect of
SCBA incorporation on the resistance of concrete against chloride ion
ingress. The SCBA was utilized at the rate of 5-50% with 5% intervals as
cement replacement. 100 mm cubes were cast and cured in water for 28
days followed by six months of curing in 4% NaCl solution. The resistance
to chloride penetration was assessed by measuring the chloride penetration
156 Alireza Joshaghani

depth, sample weight loss, compressive strength loss and bond strength
loss. Chloride penetration depth was measured using the AgNO3–based
method. According to chloride penetration depth tests results, replacing
OPC with only 5% of SCBA reduced the penetration depth about 50%
(from 18mm to 8.96mm). It was also observed that the penetration depth of
specimens decreased with SCBA incorporation up to 25%. Control
mixtures revealed about 2.8% weight loss due to chloride penetration while
all SCBA concrete mixes experienced weight loss in the range of 0.2%-
2.5%. Also, compressive strength loss and bond strength loss tests
indicated that SCBA has a very high potential to be used effectively in
structural concrete in contaminated chloride environments.
Researchers determined the effects of using SCBA with 0-50%
replacement on the durability of concrete against sulfate attacks [24]. The
sulfate resistance was assessed by measuring weight loss and compressive
strength loss. Results indicated that SCBA incorporation in concrete
regardless the replacement percentage improved the sulfate resistance
significantly and reduced weight loss and compressive strength loss. The
minimum weight loss and strength loss were 1.2% and 2.2%, respectively
by usage of 15% SCBA [25]. This improvement in sulfate resistance has
been attributed to pozzolanic reactions that prevented the formation of
gypsum.

EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION

Materials

Cementitious Materials
ASTM C150 type I Portland cement was used in this study [26].
Physical properties and chemical analysis of the cement and SCBA are
given in Table 1. The chemical components of the SCBA show that this
material was mainly composed of SiO2 (silica).
 The Evaluation of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) … 157

Table 1. Chemical analysis of cement and bagasse ash

Compositions Portland cement (Type I ASTM), % SCBA, %

SiO2 21.52 55.7
Al2O3 5.24 2.86
Fe2O3 3.06 3.51
CaO 61.60 15.34
SO3 2.12 -
MgO 4.16 4.08
Na2O 0.43 0.37
K2O 0.68 6.1
P2O5 0.23 --
TiO2 0.04 --
LOI 0.85 8.92
C3S 47.59 --
C2S 25.81 --
C3A 8.71 --
C4AF 9.13 --

Influence of the Temperature and Length of Burning on the

Properties of the SCBA
To provide high-grade SCBA in terms of pozzolanic activity, the
burning conditions, such as temperature and the burning time, were
controlled. To achieve a high-grade SCBA, a furnace was built to burn
sugarcane bagasse (Figures 1) in Concrete Technology and Durability
Research Center at Amirkabir University [13]. As mentioned before, the
controlled temperature, the rate of oxygen, and the burning duration were
important factors in the SCBA production. Thus, in this furnace, two fans
were used to supply the required air for burning. The first fan with a power
of 3700 W and 2950 cycles per minute has been placed in the lower part of
3
the furnace with a maximum flow ventilation of 745 . The second fan
ℎ
with a power of 75 W and 2900 cycles per minute has been installed on the
basic framework of a cylindrical body, which brings in the required air
158 Alireza Joshaghani

from the internal shells to the furnace via the embedded holes on the mixer
3
rods. The maximum output flow of the second fan was set to be 245 .
ℎ
The temperature inside the furnace is measured by three thermocouples in
three different parts of the furnace [27].

Figure 1. Schematic image of the furnace used to burn sugarcane bagasse [27].

To produce SCBA with suitable pozzolanic activities, different

specimens were burnt in various conditions of time and temperature. The
effectiveness of a pozzolan is mainly related to its silica content and the
crystallinity of silica. Amorphous or partially crystalline silica is essential
for the progress of pozzolanic reactions with calcium hydroxide.
According to the previous studies, it was confirmed that burning the
bagasse in the temperature between 500°C and 800°C produced amorphous
silica. Crystallinity started in SCBA after the temperature of burning
processes was higher than 800°C, which led to poor pozzolanic properties
[28]. The reason was after 800°C crystallization of the ash occurs from
amorphous SiO2 to cristobalite or tridymite [29]. Therefore, the ash might
contain black particles due to the presence of carbon and crystalline silica,
when burning occurred under elevated temperature or for a prolonged time
[30]. For the SCBA, it was found that at 800°C Cristobalite and Calcium
were formed. Controlling the crystalline phases of SCBA might be helpful
 The Evaluation of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) … 159

to enhance the pozzolanic activity [31]. Silica was the primary cause of the
SCBA pozzolanic reactivity in an amorphous phase. Thus, the researchers
calcined sugarcane at 400–800°C, and found the most important mass loss
was in this range due to organic matter. In another study, the SCBA was
obtained between 550 and 700°C resulting in spongy particles because the
temperature was lower than the fusion temperature of the SCBA [32].
Thus, the temperatures of 500, 600, 700, 800, and 1000°C were
determined. In addition to temperature change, the duration of ignition was
another variable parameter that was studied. Considering the system
performance, it was identified that all specimens in different temperatures,
finished the burning process in 30 minutes. Therefore, the time of 30
minutes was the criterion to study the samples at different temperatures in
all specimens. In the next step, to determine the crystalline composition in
different specimens, the experiment of X-ray diffraction (XRD) test was
carried out on the produced SCBA. Figure 2 depicts the development
procedure of the crystalline peaks of the SCBA specimens. The shape,
position and width of peak provide the information about its structure.
Diffraction peaks of ettringite and C–S–H phases are observable in
samples with SCBA replacement, which are properly acknowledged by
previous researchers [33]. Arif et al. believed that the XRD patterns show
an extremely strong sharp and narrow α-quartz peaks and a broad hump
that is distinctive of amorphous minerals. However, the broad amorphous
hump is very shallow compared to the α-quartz response, suggesting that
semi-amorphous/amorphous fraction is relatively small [18]. Viruthagiri et
al. investigated the evaluations of different phases with various
temperatures and reported the SCBA samples were composed mainly of
quartz, anorthite, kaolinite, cellulose, albite and calcite as major elements
as the predominant crystalline material [34].
The effectiveness of a pozzolan is mainly related to its silica content
and the crystallinity of silica. Amorphous or partially crystalline silica was
important for the progress of pozzolanic reactions with calcium hydroxide.
As shown in Table 2, the amount of SiO2 reached the highest value at the
800°C compared to other temperatures. Crystallinity started after the
temperature of 800°C, which led to poor pozzolanic properties. The reason
160 Alireza Joshaghani

is the crystallization of the ash occurred from amorphous SiO2 to

cristobalite or tridymite [29]. Controlling the crystalline phases of SCBA
might be helpful to enhance the pozzolanic activity [35].

Figure 2. X-ray diffraction patterns of bagasse ash in different temperature conditions.

Table 2. XRF results of bagasse ash in different

temperature conditions

Temperature SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O LOI

500°C 54.1 2.86 3.32 14.1 3.86 0.29 5.7 11.46
600°C 54.8 3.12 3.75 13.8 3.98 0.29 5.6 10.34
700°C 54 2.8 3.42 14.4 4.03 0.32 6 10.58
800°C 55.7 2.86 3.51 15.34 4.08 0.37 6.1 8.92
1000°C 53.4 2.91 3.46 14.5 4.05 0.37 6 12.1

By using the relative intensity method, the intensity of the main peaks
of the formed phases were measured in comparison with quartz phase and
the results are presented in Table 3. To calculate relative intensity, the
 The Evaluation of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) … 161

absolute intensity of every peak was divided by absolute intensity of the

most intense peak and presented as a percentage. As shown in Table 3, the
percentage of the quartz compared to other elements, such as calcite and
iron oxide, was higher.

Table 3. Relative intensity of the formed phases

500°C 600°C 700°C 800°C 1000°C

IQ/IC 19.07 19.9 24.59 38.42 39.65
IQ/IT - - - 17.57 -
IQ/IF 13 10.19 - 32 23.5

As shown in Figure 2 and Table 3, the silica of the ash in 800 ° was
crystallized less than at other temperatures and had a higher amorphous
degree, so in the temperature of 800°C, the silica of the SCBA had the
highest amorphous degree. As a result, the SCBA produced in 800°C
temperature and time duration of 30 minutes would be optimal. In
temperature of 800°C, SCBA had lower density and the higher surface
area, which led to higher pozzolanic reactivity.
Grinding is one important process to control the particle size
distribution of SCBA since it affects the crystalline compounds and
pozzolanic reactivity. The best use of the grinding process is to deploy
SCBA as an SCM in the same size with the OPC. Therefore, the produced
ashes were milled to the same size as cement particles using a vibrating
ball mill for a particular period. To determine the time required for
grinding SCBA particles, different samples of ash were prepared in periods
of 4, 8, 10, 12, 14 and 16 minutes. For this purpose, the residue of
materials on the sieve’s particle size 45µm compared to the OPC and
results are shown in Table 4. According to Table 4, it can be seen that the
amount of SCBA particles remaining on the sieve of 45 µm with a milling
time of 14 minutes corresponded to the OPC that is 25.6. Therefore, the
optimal milling time of 14 minutes was employed to prepare SCBA.
162 Alireza Joshaghani

Table 4. The retained percentage of SCBA and RHA

on the #325 sieve, 45 µm (%)

Milling time (minute) Retained on #325 sieve, 45 µm (%)

4 78.8
8 58.4
10 44.9
12 32.6
14 23.0
16 20.8

The particle size distribution curve for SCBA is shown in Figure 3. As

indicated in Figure 3, the particle size distribution of OPC and SCBA is
close, but the SCBA is slightly coarser. The results confirmed the other
studies on particle size distribution [36, 37]. According to ASTM C618,
the amount retained when wet-sieved on 45 µm (No. 325) sieve for SCBA
was 23%, and it should be less than 34% [38].

Figure 3. Cumulative curves of particle size distribution of OPC and SCBA.

The Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis was also carried out
on a blend of cement with the 15% SCBA at two different ages of 7-day
 The Evaluation of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) … 163

and 28-day and two different scales. Figures 4 and 5 indicate SEM with the
scale bar of 10 and 20 µm, respectively. Figures in left and right are
showing the SEM results of the specimens at the age of 7-days and 28-days
respectively. The pictures indicate needle-shape ettringite and C–S–H
became denser over time. It is indicated that most particles in SCBA image
are irregularly shaped, porous with a few spherical particles, as shown
Figure 4; however, there were some particles with a specific shape, chiefly
box shaped, as shown in Figure 5. The needle-shaped particles formation,
which is mostly crystalline silica, were inevitable since minimum level of
crystalline compound was achieved by chosen temperature. Moreover,
irregular silica with minor amounts of hematite exists around amorphous
silica. Each material will participate in hydration reactions based on the
particles size and microstructure type. It was reported that spherical ash
particles were generally aluminosilicates whereas boxed shape particles
were silica and fibrous particles were carbon [39, 40]. Smaller particles
which presented rough surfaces appeared due to the removal of organic
substances from bagasse and leaving the inorganic fraction, such as silicon
and potassium.

Figure 4. 15% SCBA at ages of 7-day and 28-day with scale bar of 10 µm.
164 Alireza Joshaghani

Figure 5. 15% SCBA at ages of 7-day and 28-day with a scale bar of 20 µm.

Aggregates

In this study, fine and coarse aggregates were obtained from a local
source. The crushed gravel with the maximum size of 19 mm and sand
were used as the coarse and fine aggregates, respectively. The grading of
the coarse and fine aggregates are presented in Figure 6. Physical
properties of aggregates are shown in Table 5.

Figure 6. Grading curve.

 The Evaluation of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) … 165

Table 5. The physical properties of aggregates

Water absorption (%) Density (gr/cm3) Aggregate

1.8 2.58 Gravel
1.6 2.55 Sand

Superplasticizer

The superplasticizer used in this study was polycarboxylate ether base

with the aqueous polycarboxylate polymer solution. This additive was
opaque and cloud color, which the density at 20°C was 1.1 kg/m3 and
contained less than 0.1% chloride ion. The domain of usage was about
0.2% to 1.2% by weight of the cement. The superplasticizer was active
only for a short time (10 minutes), and after 30-90 minutes the efficiency
was reduced as usual. Therefore, it was necessary to add the
superplasticizer to the mixture just before casting the concrete.

Concrete Mixture

It should be mentioned that the objective of this study was to evaluate

long-term performance and durability of concrete. The ratio of water-to-
cementitious-materials and cement content selected 0.45 and 420 kg/m3 in
all mix designs, respectively. Six mix designs were made: one as a control
sample without any pozzolan and five series of concrete mixtures
containing SCBA by replacement of 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 percentages by
weight. The mixture designs are represented in Table 5.
In each batch, both fine and coarse aggregates were placed in a mixer.
After mixing dry aggregate, a portion of water was added to the
aggregates. Then, cement and pozzolan were added in two steps and
remaining water was added to the mixture. After the mixing process, the
slump test was carried out on the fresh concrete, which was between 70 to
100 mm. A total number of specimens made for this study was 540. From
166 Alireza Joshaghani

these specimens, 108 were cubic 100 mm were cast for compressive
strength tests in 6 ages. Others were subjected to sulfate conditions to
measure compressive strength loss and weight loss. Age of experiments,
specimen dimensions, curing method, and kinds of test are presented in
Table 7.

Table 6. Mixture designs

ratio of Fine Coarse

cement water
Mix water to Cement Pozzolan aggregat aggregat
replace- (kg/
design cementitiou (kg/m3) (kg/m3) e e
ment % m3 )
s materials (kg/m3) (kg/m3)
Control 0.45 0 420 0 189 930 772
10% BA 0.45 10 378 42 189 930 772
15% BA 0.45 15 357 63 189 930 772
20% BA 0.45 20 372 48 189 930 772
25% BA 0.45 25 315 105 189 930 772
30% BA 0.45 30 300 120 189 930 772

Table 7. Molds used in construction of concrete,

curing process and the standard tests

Age of Specimen
Curing Tests
experiment dimensions
3-7-28-90- Cured in saturated lime Compressive
10 cm cube
180-360 days water until test time Strength
Cured insaturated lime Sodium and
water for 28 days and magnesium
Monthly 10 cm cube
moved to 5% sodium sulfate attacks
sulfate solution (Weight change)
Cured insaturated lime
sodium and
28-90-120- water for 28 days and
10 cm cube magnesium
180-360 days moved to 5% sodium
sulfate attack
sulfate solution
 The Evaluation of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) … 167

Testing Methods

The compressive strength of the concrete specimens indicated the

cementitious materials reactions, quality of cement paste and its bonding
with the aggregates. Although in various studies sulfate resistance was
discussed, a developed standard has not been designed to evaluate concrete
sulfate attack yet. Therefore, researchers have proposed various methods to
investigate this type of damage. One of these procedures is placing
concrete specimens in a sodium sulfate solution to determine the weight
and compressive strength changes. The cubic specimens were prepared for
this experiment and cured in the lime-saturated water solution until the age
of 28 days. After the 28-day curing, specimens placed in solutions of 5%
sodium sulfate and magnesium sulfate. The sodium sulfate reacted with
cement hydration production, and its weight was reduced. Therefore, the
pH of the solution was increased by reducing the amount of sodium
sulfate. It was recommended to control the pH and keep the amount of
sodium sulfate constant by adding more sulfuric acid into solutions each
day. The pH of the solution of combined mix and magnesium were
measured; however, changes in the pH of these solutions were less than
sodium sulfate.
The positions of samples were changed in the container in order to
apply effects of the sodium sulfate uniformly on all sides. At the age of
testing, concrete specimens were removed from the container for the initial
weight reading, then their surfaces were dried, and their weights were
measured again. Factors that accelerated the sulfate attack included
temperature, sulfate concentrations solution and wet-dry cycles. The
practical solution was to use wet-dry cycles. Patterns that were used in this
study are as follow:

 Pattern 1: 6 days placing the specimens in a 5% sodium sulfate

solution and then dried in an oven at 80°C for 1 day.
 Pattern 2: 6 days of placing the specimens in a 5% magnesium
sulfate solution and then dried in an oven at 80°C for 1day.
168 Alireza Joshaghani

 Pattern 3: 6 days of placing the specimens in a solution of

combined magnesium-sodium sulfates at 5% and then dried in an
oven at 80°C for 1 days.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

Compressive Strength

The compressive strength test was carried out on the specimens at the
ages of 3, 7, 28, 56, 90, 180 and 360 days. The test results with various
mixture designs at different ages are shown in Figure 7. The results
indicate that in all cases, the compressive strength and pozzolanic activity
of SCBA increased with time. For instance, the ratio of the compressive
strength of SCBA concrete with 20% replacement to control specimen at 3
days was 1.15. The pozzolanic reaction started from early ages due to the
high quality of SCBA. The highest compressive strength belongs to the
replacement of 20% of SCBA, which was 6% higher than the control
specimen in 180-day. The lowest compressive strength was for the 30%
SCBA replacement, which was 4% less than that of the control sample. It
can be concluded that replacement of the SCBA up to 25% had positive
effects on compressive strength and replacing 30% reduced the
compressive strength.

Sulfate Attack

The results showed that all the specimens had gained weight in a
sulfate solution up to 60 days. This is quite normal, and concrete weight
reduction in sulfate was seen after a few months. The weight gain in
concrete specimens was caused by ettringite and gypsum formation due to
the reaction between sulfate ions and calcium hydroxide and C3A. These
products were placed in the concrete voids and increased the concrete
weight. In the long term, due to the expansion volume cracks occurred in
 The Evaluation of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) … 169

cement paste and concrete got damaged and weight decreased. It could be
seen that after 90 days, the control specimens were in magnesium sulfate
have shown the highest weight loss. However, at the same age there was
no reduction in weight for sodium sulfate specimens because fewer
concrete cracks for low rate of devastation in sodium sulfate. Generally,
another factor that contributed to less destruction and lower weight loss
was less amount of C3A and Ca(OH)2 in these specimens, which produced
less ettringite and gypsum. These effects were observed in the results at
360-day.

Figure 7. Results of the compressive strength of concrete specimens.

According to the 360-day results, all pozzolan specimens had less

weight loss than the control sample. At this age, the effect of pozzolan in
the reduction of ettringite and gypsum formation was obvious. Moreover,
in the specimens with the SCBA replacement, weight loss was reduced
compared to the control sample. Specimens with 20% SCBA had the
lowest weight loss. As shown in Table 8 and 9, the weight loss percentage
compared to the control sample in the magnesium sulfate solution was
more than that in the sodium sulfate.
 Table 8. Percentage changes in weight of the concrete specimens to the initial weight in 5% sodium sulfate

Initial After After After

After 1 After 2 After 3 After 4 After 5 After 6 After 7 After 8 After 9
weight 10 11 12
month months months months months months months months months
(g) months months months
CTRL 2410 0.33 0.26 0.18 -1.45 -2.26 -2.79 -3.32 -3.78 -3.98 -4.09 -4.15 -4.21
10% SCBA 2370 0.21 0.33 0.29 -0.73 -1.24 -1.74 -2.32 -2.65 -2.88 -3.01 -3.09 -3.13
15% SCBA 2385 0.23 0.35 0.25 -0.83 -1.43 -1.86 -2.22 -2.56 -2.69 -2.88 -3.02 -3.06
20% SCBA 2380 0.1 0.27 0.19 -0.55 -0.91 -1.32 -1.54 -1.71 -1.69 -1.82 -1.92 -3.01
25% SCBA 2390 0.25 0.38 0.33 -0.93 -1.51 -1.92 -2.24 -2.61 -2.97 -3.09 -3.18 -3.21
30% SCBA 2380 0.28 0.42 0.35 -1.15 -1.71 -2.18 -2.48 -2.81 -3.15 -3.36 -3.50 -3.58

Table 9. Percentage changes in weight of the concrete specimens to the initial weight in 5% magnesium sulfate

Initial After After

After 1 After 2 After 3 After 4 After 5 After 6 After 7 After 8 After 9 After 11
weight 10 12
month months months months months months months months months months
(g) months months
CTRL 2390 0.19 0.22 -0.13 -1.67 -2.41 -2.87 -3.12 -3.39 -3.51 -3.65 -3.77 -3.79
10% SCBA 2360 0.22 0.35 0.34 -0.93 -1.41 -1.89 -2.33 -2.76 -2.98 -3.24 -3.48 -3.52
15% SCBA 2375 0.24 0.37 0.35 -1.05 -1.62 -1.98 -2.46 -2.86 -3.09 -3.41 -3.55 -3.61
20% SCBA 2370 0.15 0.29 0.24 -0.75 -1.21 -1.64 -1.95 -2.24 -2.61 -2.77 -3.02 -3.20
25% SCBA 2380 0.26 0.38 0.36 -1.15 -1.71 -2.06 -2.55 -2.95 -3.16 -3.55 -3.65 -3.72
30% SCBA 2360 0.45 0.43 0.39 -1.35 -1.92 -2.13 -2.61 -2.94 -3.19 -3.52 -3.62 -3.75

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 The Evaluation of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) … 171

With respect to the concrete compressive strength test results in the

lime water, 5% sodium sulfate and 5% magnesium sulfate, the long term
compressive strength of the control samples in a 5% solution of sodium
sulfate and magnesium sulfate were lower than the control samples, as
shown in Figures 8 and 9. The strength reduction of the control sample was
started at early ages, but the specimens containing SCBA had a lower rate
of reduction in strength at initial ages, and the rate increased significantly
after 120 days. Finally, reduction in the compressive strength of the control
specimens was greater than the samples containing SCBA. The minimum
reduction in compressive strength was for specimens containing 20%
SCBA and maximum reduction in compressive strength belonged to the
control sample with 15% weight loss. The reduction of the compressive
strength in the magnesium sulfate was greater than sodium sulfate.
Specimens containing SCBA in the sulfate solution had less compressive
strength loss compared to the control sample.

Figure 8. Results of the Compressive strength of concrete specimens in 5% sodium

sulfate.

In terms of measuring the variability of the data, the standard deviation

was used to compare various mix designs because it is expressed in the
same concentration units as the data. By using the standard deviation, it is
possible to predict the range of the control values that should be observed
172 Alireza Joshaghani

if the method remains stable. One way to interpret the relative magnitude
of the standard deviation was to compare the coefficient of variation (CV,
which helped in understanding relative variability. It can be expressed
either as a fraction or a percent. Thus, the coefficient of variation of the
compressive strength for each replacement in different ages is shown in
Table 10.

Figure 9. Results of the Compressive strength of concrete specimens in 5% magnesium

sulfate.

The CV of each mix design with different replacement ratio increased

with time. The higher the CV, the greater the dispersion in the variable.
Because of the long-term age, more characteristics of concrete were
involved the in mechanical characteristics, and the possibility of dispersion
was increased. Also, a higher CV was noticeable by adding more SCBA. If
an external constituent was incorporated into the concrete matrix, it would
make inconsistency in the mechanical characteristics of the concrete. These
trends of standard deviation and CV for the mass loss and compressive
strength test of specimens subjected to sulfate attack were apparent.
 Table 10. Coefficient of variation of compressive strength for each replacement in different ages

After 6 After 7 After 8 After 9

After 1 After 2 After 3 After 4 After 5 After 10 After 11 After 12
month month month month
month months months months months months months months
s s s s
CTRL 0.47 0.71 0.69 0.88 0.91 0.99 1.23 1.19 1.28 1.45 1.53 1.54
10% SCBA 0.69 0.58 0.96 0.91 1.22 1.35 1.51 1.5 1.74 1.81 1.93 2.33
15% SCBA 0.57 0.75 0.88 0.94 1.32 1.25 1.48 1.69 1.95 1.91 2.28 2.56
20% SCBA 0.78 0.97 1.32 1.54 1.78 2.11 2.39 2.57 2.95 3.13 3.07 3.21
25% SCBA 0.84 1.12 1.44 1.84 1.91 2.32 2.21 2.79 3.04 3.43 3.39 3.66
30% SCBA 0.95 1.23 1.51 1.79 1.99 2.56 2.44 2.87 3.15 3.41 3.56 3.78

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174 Alireza Joshaghani

CONCLUSION

On the basis of the results obtained from this research work, the
following conclusions have been drawn:

1) In concrete specimens, SCBA replacement up to 25% indicated

more compressive strength than the control specimen and the
highest compressive strength was belong to the 20% SCBA
replacement, which the 360-day strength was 9% higher than the
control sample.
2) In all specimens containing SCBA in 5% sulfate, weight loss was
reduced, and SCBA specimens with 20% had least weight loss
than the control sample.
3) In all concrete specimens containing SCBA, the minimum
reduction in the compressive strength was for specimens
containing 20% SCBA and the minimum reduction of compressive
strength was for the control sample, which had 15% weight loss.
4) The lowest expansion percentage in all solutions was for the 15%
SCBA replacement. The expansion with the replacement of 30%
was higher than the control sample.
5) Based on the results of the expansion tests and ASTM C1157
standard, specimens containing 10% and 25% SCBA had less than
0.05 percent expansion and categorized as cement with high
strength in sulfate attack. Specimens containing 10% and 25%
SCBA had less than 0.1 percent expansion and categorized as
cement with medium strength in sulfate attack. Specimens
containing 30% SCBA were vulnerable to sulfate attack as the
control sample.
6) According to the coefficient of variation, dispersion in the
variables increased by time and incorporating SCBA percentages.

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 The Evaluation of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) … 175

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