Science NCERT'S NOTES BY D

Science NCERT'S NOTES BY D

CLASS 6
COMPONENTS OF FOOD
Food Components: Food contains various substances necessary for the body to gain
energy and perform life activities. These include CARBOHYDRATES, PROTEINS, FATS,
VITAMINS, and MINERALS.
Balanced Diet: A diet that provides adequate amounts of CARBOHYDRATES, FATS,
PROTEINS, and VITAMINS is called a BALANCED DIET.

Classification of Food Groups

Energy Giving Food: CARBOHYDRATES and FATS provide energy to the body.
Body Building Food: PROTEINS are responsible for the construction and repair of the
body (e.g., used by people going to the gym).
Protective Food: VITAMINS and MINERALS protect the body against diseases and
increase immunity.

Nutrient Details and Sources

Carbohydrates: Present in the form of GLUCOSE (C6H12O6) or STARCH.
Sources: Wheat, Potatoes, Rice, Cereals, Pulses, and Oats.
Proteins: Present in the form of AMINO ACIDS.
Sources: Pulses (Dals), Eggs, and Meat.
Fats: Present as FATTY ACIDS or LIPIDS.
Sources: Oil, Ghee, Butter, Cheese, and Chocolate.
Vitamins: Found in Fruits and Vegetables.
CITRUS FRUITS: Contain VITAMIN C.
Sweeteners in Food:
FRUCTOSE: The natural sugar found in fruits.
SUCROSE: The sugar found in SUGARCANE.
TABLE SUGAR: Refined sugar. ⭐️ (Note: CUBA is referred to as the "Sugar Bowl of
the World" because it produces high-quality sugar from beetroot.)

Testing for Nutrients

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Nutrient Test Procedure & Observation

Name
CARBOHYDRATES IODINE Add iodine solution to the food substance. If the color
(Starch) TEST changes from brownish to BLUE-BLACK, starch is
present.
PROTEINS BIURET Mix food sample with COPPER SULPHATE (CuSO4)
TEST and CAUSTIC SODA (Sodium Hydroxide). If the color
changes from blue to PURPLE/VIOLET, protein is
present.
FATS PAPER Wrap food in paper and crush it. If oily patches appear
TEST on the paper, fats are present.

Fibers and Roughage

FIBROUS FOODS: Important for muscle development, strength, and the digestive system.
Example: Mangoes (which contain fibrous strands).

Deficiency Diseases
DEFICIENCY DISEASES: Diseases caused by the lack of specific nutrients over a long
period.

Vitamin/Mineral Deficiency Disease Symptoms

VITAMIN A NIGHT BLINDNESS Poor vision, loss of vision in
darkness.
VITAMIN B1 BERI-BERI Weak muscles, weight loss, stunted
growth.
VITAMIN C SCURVY Bleeding gums, wounds take
longer to heal.
VITAMIN D RICKETS (Children) / Soft and bent bones, brittle bones.
OSTEOMALACIA (Adults)
VITAMIN E BEAUTY VITAMIN deficiency Skin issues, pimples, rapid aging
(looking 30 at age 15).
VITAMIN K HEMORRHAGE Lack of blood clotting, excessive
bleeding after injury.
CALCIUM OSTEOPOROSIS Weak bones and tooth decay.
PHOSPHORUS Bone/Tooth weakness Unformed or irregular teeth, weak
bone density.
IRON ANEMIA Low hemoglobin, weakness
(reduction in RBC count).
IODINE GOITRE Swollen glands in the neck, mental
disability in children.
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Vitamin Solubility
Water Soluble: VITAMIN B and VITAMIN C.
Fat Soluble: VITAMIN A, VITAMIN D, VITAMIN E, and VITAMIN K.

SORTING MATERIALS INTO GROUPS

Materials: Objects can be classified based on their properties such as state, appearance,
and solubility.
States of Matter: Materials are categorized as SOLID (e.g., Iron rod), LIQUID (e.g., Water),
or GAS.

Basis of Classification
1. Appearance:
LUSTROUS: Shiny materials, usually METALS (Gold, Silver, Copper).
NON-LUSTROUS: Dull materials, usually NON-METALS (Wood, Graphite). ⭐️ (Note:
DIAMOND is a non-metal but is lustrous.)
2. Hardness:
HARD: Cannot be easily compressed or scratched (e.g., Iron).
SOFT: Can be compressed or scratched easily (e.g., Sponge, Rubber).
3. Solubility:
SOLUBLE: Dissolves in water (Sugar, Salt).
INSOLUBLE: Does not dissolve in water (Sand, Chalk powder).
4. Transparency:
TRANSPARENT: Allows light to pass completely (Glass, Water).
TRANSLUCENT: Allows light to pass partially (Oiled paper, Plastic bottle).
OPAQUE: Does not allow light to pass (Wood, Metal).
5. Floatation: Based on BUOYANCY. Some objects float (Leaf), while others sink (Iron
spoon).
6. Density: Mass per unit volume (kg/m³). Objects denser than water sink.

SEPARATION OF SUBSTANCE
Mixture: Contains two or more substances mixed together.
Pure Substance: Contains only one type of substance.

Methods of Separation
HAND PICKING: Removing large impurities by hand (e.g., stones from pulses).
THRESHING: Beating stalks to separate grains (Manual or Machine).
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WINNOWING: Using wind to separate heavier components (grain) from lighter ones
(husk).
SIEVING: Using a sieve to separate components of different sizes (e.g., flour from bran,
tea leaves from tea).
SEDIMENTATION: Heavier components in a liquid mixture settle at the bottom (e.g., mud
settling in water).
DECANTATION: Removing the liquid layer without disturbing the sediment.
FILTRATION: Using a filter to separate fine insoluble solids from a liquid.
EVAPORATION: Converting liquid into gas to recover dissolved solids (e.g., salt from
water).
CONDENSATION: Converting gas (water vapor) back into liquid.

Solutions
SOLUTE: Substance that is dissolved (e.g., Sugar).
SOLVENT: Substance in which the solute dissolves (e.g., Water).
SATURATED SOLUTION: A solution where no more solute can be dissolved at a given
temperature.
CHURNING: Agitating a liquid to separate components (e.g., butter from milk).

GETTING TO KNOW PLANTS

Classification:
HERBS: Small plants with green, tender stems (e.g., medicinal plants).
SHRUBS: Medium plants with hard stems branching near the base (e.g., Berry
bushes).
TREES: Tall plants with hard, thick brown stems (Trunks).
CREEPERS: Plants with weak stems that spread on the ground.
CLIMBERS: Plants that take support on neighboring structures to climb.

Plant Parts and Functions

Leaf:
PHOTOSYNTHESIS: Process of making food using CARBON DIOXIDE, Water, and
Sun energy.
TRANSPIRATION: Release of excess water vapor through STOMATA.
Structure: Includes MIDRIB, VEINS, and LAMINA.
Roots: Absorb water and minerals from the soil.
TAP ROOT: One main root with smaller lateral roots (e.g., Neem, Peepal).
FIBROUS ROOT: A cluster of similar-sized roots (e.g., Grass).
Stem: Provides strength and conducts water/minerals to leaves.
Flower: The reproductive part of the plant.
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STAMEN: Male part (includes ANTHER and FILAMENT).

PISTIL/GYNOECIUM: Female part (includes STIGMA, STYLE, and OVERY).
POLLINATION: Transfer of POLLEN GRAINS from Anther to Stigma.

Seeds
Structure: Includes SEED COAT, COTYLEDONS (food store), and EMBRYO.
RADICLE: Part of the embryo that becomes the ROOT.
PLUMULE: Part of the embryo that becomes the SHOOT.
Classification:
MONOCOT: Seed with one cotyledon (Wheat).
DICOT: Seed with two cotyledons (Gram/Chana).

BODY MOVEMENTS
Skeletal System: Composed of BONES, MUSCLES, and CARTILAGE.
Cartilage: Flexible bone-like structure (e.g., Upper ear).

Types of Joints
BALL AND SOCKET JOINT: Allows movement in all directions (Shoulder, Hip).
PIVOTAL JOINT: Allows rotation (Neck/Head).
HINGE JOINT: Allows back and forth movement (Knee, Elbow).
FIXED JOINT: No movement allowed (Skull).

Movement in Other Animals

EARTHWORM: Moves by muscle contraction and expansion; has tiny bristles for grip; no
bones.
SNAIL: Moves using a muscular foot; secretes a lubricating substance.
COCKROACH: Has an outer skeleton; three pairs of legs for walking and wings for flying.
BIRDS: Hollow bones make them light; strong breast muscles for flying.
FISH: Streamlined body; uses fins and tail for direction and balance.
SNAKE: Long backbone; moves in loops by pressing against the ground.

THE LIVING ORGANISMS — CHARACTERISTICS AND

HABITATS
Habitat: The surroundings where an organism lives (Dwelling place).
Biotic Components: Living things (Plants, Animals).
Abiotic Components: Non-living things (Air, Water, Soil, Sunlight).
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Types of Habitats
TERRESTRIAL: Land-based (Forests, Grasslands, Deserts, Mountains).
AQUATIC: Water-based (Oceans, Lakes, Rivers, Ponds).

Characteristics of Living Beings

Nutrition: Need food for energy.
Growth: Increase in size over time.
Respiration: Taking in Oxygen and releasing Carbon Dioxide to gain energy from food.
Response to Stimuli: Reacting to changes in surroundings (e.g., blinking in bright light).
Excretion: Removal of waste (like Urea) from the body.
Reproduction: Producing offspring (via eggs, seeds, or live birth).
Movement: Animals move; plants show internal movement (water/minerals).

LIGHT, SHADOWS AND REFLECTIONS

Light: A form of energy that travels in a straight line (RECTILINEAR PROPAGATION).
Luminous Objects: Objects that emit their own light (Sun, Stars).
Non-Luminous Objects: Objects that do not emit light (Moon, Table).

Shadows and Reflections

Shadow: Formed when an OPAQUE object blocks light. Requires a source, an object, and
a screen.
PINHOLE CAMERA: Forms an inverted (upside-down) image.
Reflection: Bouncing back of light when it strikes a surface (like a mirror).
Mirror Image: A colorful, real-sized representation formed by reflection.

ELECTRICITY AND CIRCUITS

Electric Current: The flow of electric charge. Measured in AMPERES.
Electric Cell: Converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Has a POSITIVE and
NEGATIVE terminal.
Electric Bulb: Contains a FILAMENT made of TUNGSTEN (high melting point).
Circuit: A closed path for current to flow.
Switch: A device to "make" (ON/Closed) or "break" (OFF/Open) a circuit.
Conductors: Materials that allow current to pass (Metals like Copper, Aluminum).
Insulators: Materials that do not allow current to pass (Wood, Rubber, Plastic).

FUN WITH MAGNETS

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Magnet: A substance that attracts materials like IRON, NICKEL, and COBALT.
Discovery: Natural magnet called MAGNETITE was discovered by a shepherd named
MAGNES.
Poles: Every magnet has a NORTH POLE and a SOUTH POLE.
Magnetic Compass: A device with a magnetized needle used to find directions.
Properties:
LIKE POLES (N-N or S-S) repel each other.
UNLIKE POLES (N-S) attract each other.
If a magnet is broken, each piece becomes a new magnet with two poles.
Loss of Magnetism: Heating, hammering, or dropping a magnet can destroy its
properties.

AIR AROUND US
Composition of Air:
NITROGEN: 78% (Prevents rapid burning).
OXYGEN: 21% (Necessary for respiration and burning).
ARGON: 0.9%.
CARBON DIOXIDE: 0.03% - 0.04% (Used by plants for photosynthesis).
WATER VAPOR & DUST: Variable amounts.
Atmosphere: The layer of air surrounding the Earth.
Respiration in Plants: Plants use STOMATA to exchange gases.
Symbiotic Relationship: Humans/Animals provide Carbon Dioxide to plants; Plants
provide Oxygen to Humans/Animals.

Key Points
Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts
Heading)
COMPONENTS OF Nutrients - Carbohydrates/Fats: Energy
FOOD (00:00) - Proteins: Bodybuilding
- Vitamins/Minerals: Protection
COMPONENTS OF Deficiency - Vitamin A: Night Blindness
FOOD (00:00) Diseases - Vitamin B1: Beri-beri
- Vitamin C: Scurvy
- Vitamin D: Rickets
- Iron: Anemia
SORTING MATERIALS Properties - Lustre (Shiny) vs Dull
(00:00) - Soluble vs Insoluble
- Transparent, Translucent, Opaque
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Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts

Heading)
SEPARATION OF Methods - Winnowing: Wind
SUBSTANCES (00:00) - Threshing: Beating
- Sieving: Size
- Sedimentation: Settling
GETTING TO KNOW Plant Parts - Roots: Tap/Fibrous
PLANTS (00:00) - Leaves: Photosynthesis/Transpiration
- Flower: Stamen (Male)/Pistil (Female)
BODY MOVEMENTS Joints - Ball & Socket: Shoulder
(00:00) - Hinge: Elbow/Knee
- Pivotal: Neck
- Fixed: Skull
LIVING ORGANISMS Characteristics - Respiration, Growth, Excretion,
(00:00) Reproduction, Response to Stimuli
LIGHT & SHADOWS Light Properties - Rectilinear propagation (straight line)
(00:00) - Reflection: Bouncing of light
- Shadow: Formed by opaque objects
ELECTRICITY (00:00) Circuit - Cell: Chemical to Electrical
Components - Filament: Tungsten
- Conductors: Metals
- Insulators: Wood/Rubber
FUN WITH MAGNETS Magnetic - Poles: North and South
(00:00) Properties - Like poles repel; unlike attract
- Compass: Direction finding
AIR AROUND US Composition - Nitrogen: 78%
(00:00) - Oxygen: 21%
- CO2: 0.03%
- Air is a mixture

CLASS 7
NUTRITION IN PLANTS
Introduction to Living Organisms
LIVING ORGANISMS: Entities that can respire, show locomotion (movement), reproduce,
and respond to stimuli.
NON-LIVING ORGANISMS: Entities that do not breathe, move on their own, or
reproduce.
CELL: The structural and functional unit of life.
ROBERT HOOKE: The scientist who discovered the cell.
CELL MEMBRANE: The thin outer boundary of a cell.
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NUCLEUS: A central, spherical structure containing genetic material like DNA

(DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID) and RNA (RIBONUCLEIC ACID).
CYTOPLASM: The jelly-like fluid surrounding the nucleus.
PROTOPLASM: The combination of CYTOPLASM and NUCLEOPLASM.
CYTOLOGY: The study of cells.

Modes of Nutrition
NUTRITION: The mode of taking in food by an organism and its utilization by the body.
AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION: A mode where organisms make food themselves from
simple substances (e.g., GREEN PLANTS).
HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION: A mode where organisms take in ready-made food
prepared by plants (e.g., HUMANS, ANIMALS).

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
PHOTOSYNTHESIS: The process by which green plants synthesize food using sunlight,
carbon dioxide, and water.
CHLOROPHYLL: The green pigment in leaves that captures solar energy.
STOMATA: Tiny pores on the leaf surface for gas exchange, surrounded by GUARD
CELLS.
DESERT PLANTS: These plants have SPIKES (modified leaves) to reduce water loss
through TRANSPIRATION. Their stomata often open at night.

Other Modes of Nutrition in Plants

PARASITES: Organisms that live on a HOST and derive nutrients from it (e.g., CUSCUTA
or AMARBEL).
SAPROTROPHS: Organisms that take nutrients from dead and decaying matter (e.g.,
FUNGI).
INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS: Plants that eat insects to fulfill nitrogen requirements (e.g.,
PITCHER PLANT).
SYMBIOTIC RELATIONSHIP: A relationship where two organisms live together and share
shelter and nutrients (e.g., LICHENS, RHIZOBIUM bacteria in legume roots).

NITROGEN FIXATION
NITROGEN CYCLE: The process of converting atmospheric nitrogen into a usable form
for plants.
RHIZOBIUM: Bacteria that live in the root nodules of leguminous plants and fix
atmospheric nitrogen.
NITRATES: The form in which plants absorb nitrogen.
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NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
Human Digestive System
DIGESTION: The breakdown of complex components of food into simpler substances.
ALIMENTARY CANAL: The continuous path through which food passes, starting from the
BUCCAL CAVITY and ending at the ANUS.

Part of System Key Function

BUCCAL CAVITY Ingestion of food; contains SALIVA, TONGUE, and TEETH.
OESOPHAGUS Also called the FOOD PIPE; moves food via PERISTALSIS.
STOMACH Thick-walled bag; secretes HYDROCHLORIC ACID (HCl) and
digestive juices.
SMALL Highly coiled; site of maximum absorption via VILLI.
INTESTINE
LARGE Absorbs water and salts; stores undigested waste.
INTESTINE
LIVER Largest gland; secretes BILE JUICE stored in the GALL BLADDER.
PANCREAS Secretes pancreatic juice to break down carbohydrates and proteins.

Digestion in Grass-Eating Animals

RUMINANTS: Animals like cows that quickly swallow grass and store it in the RUMEN.
CUD: Partially digested food in the rumen that returns to the mouth for chewing
(RUMINATION).
CELLULOSE: A complex carbohydrate in grass that humans cannot digest but ruminants
can.

Digestion in AMOEBA
PSEUDOPODIA: "False feet" used by AMOEBA to capture food.
PHAGOCYTOSIS: The process by which AMOEBA engulfs food particles.

ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS

Properties and Indicators
ACIDS: Sour in taste; turn BLUE LITMUS red.
BASES: Bitter in taste; soapy to touch; turn RED LITMUS blue.
INDICATORS: Substances used to test whether a substance is acidic or basic.
NATURAL INDICATORS: LITMUS (extracted from lichens), TURMERIC, CHINA ROSE.
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OLFACTORY INDICATORS: Change smell in different mediums (e.g., ONION,

VANILLA).
NEUTRALIZATION: The reaction between an acid and a base to produce SALT and
WATER.
Example: HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O.
ANTACIDS: Bases like MAGNESIUM HYDROXIDE (MILK OF MAGNESIA) used to treat
acidity in the stomach.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES

Physical Changes
PHYSICAL CHANGE: A change in physical properties like shape, size, color, or state.
Usually REVERSIBLE.
CRYSTALLIZATION: Obtaining pure crystals of a substance from its solution (e.g., SALT
from sea water).

Chemical Changes
CHEMICAL CHANGE: A change in which one or more new substances are formed. Usually
IRREVERSIBLE.
Example: Burning of MAGNESIUM RIBBON to form MAGNESIUM OXIDE (MgO).
RUSTING: The formation of a brownish layer (iron oxide) on iron in the presence of
oxygen and water.
GALVANIZATION: The process of depositing a layer of ZINC on iron to prevent rusting.

RESPIRATION IN ORGANISMS
Types of Respiration
CELLULAR RESPIRATION: The process of breaking down food in the cell with the release
of energy.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION: Breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen.
ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION: Breakdown of food in the absence of oxygen (e.g., in YEAST
or human muscles during heavy exercise, producing LACTIC ACID).
ATP (ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE): The energy currency of the cell.

Human Respiratory System

PARTS: NOSTRILS, PHARYNX, LARYNX (Voice Box), TRACHEA (Windpipe), BRONCHI, and
LUNGS.
ALVEOLI: Tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs via DIFFUSION.
DIAPHRAGM: A muscular sheet that forms the floor of the chest cavity.
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TRANSPORTATION AND EXCRETION

Circulatory System
BLOOD: A fluid connective tissue consisting of PLASMA, RBC (containing HEMOGLOBIN),
WBC (fighting germs), and PLATELETS (clotting).
BLOOD VESSELS:
ARTERIES: Carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the body. (PULMONARY
ARTERY is an exception).
VEINS: Carry carbon dioxide-rich blood back to the heart. (PULMONARY VEIN is an
exception).
HEART: A four-chambered organ (ATRIA and VENTRICLES) that pumps blood.

Excretory System
KIDNEYS: Filter blood to remove waste as URINE.
NEPHRON: The structural and functional unit of the kidney.
DIALYSIS: Artificial filtering of blood when kidneys fail.

Transport in Plants
XYLEM: Tissue that transports water and minerals from roots to leaves.
PHLOEM: Tissue that transports food from leaves to all parts of the plant.

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Asexual Reproduction
FISSION: Cell division in organisms like AMOEBA.
FRAGMENTATION: Breaking of body into parts that grow into new individuals (e.g.,
SPIROGYRA).
BUDDING: Growth of a small bulb-like projection called a bud (e.g., YEAST, HYDRA).
SPORE FORMATION: Reproduction via spores (e.g., FUNGI, FERNS).
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION: Reproduction through vegetative parts like stems, roots, or
leaves (e.g., ROSE stem, POTATO eyes, BRYOPHYLLUM leaves).

Sexual Reproduction
STAMEN: Male reproductive part (ANTHER and FILAMENT).
PISTIL: Female reproductive part (STIGMA, STYLE, and OVERY).
POLLINATION: Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma. Can be SELF-POLLINATION or
CROSS-POLLINATION.
FERTILIZATION: Fusion of male and female gametes to form a ZYGOTE.
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MOTION, TIME, AND ELECTRICITY

Motion and Light
SPEED: Distance divided by time (m/s).
RECTILINEAR MOTION: Motion in a straight line.
PERIODIC MOTION: Motion that repeats at regular intervals (e.g., PENDULUM).
REFLECTION: Bouncing back of light from a surface.
LENSES: CONVEX (converging) and CONCAVE (diverging).
DISPERSION: Splitting of white light into seven colors (VIBGYOR).

Electric Current
HEATING EFFECT: Used in heaters, toasters, and FUSES.
MAGNETIC EFFECT: Discovered by HANS CHRISTIAN OERSTED; used in
ELECTROMAGNETS and ELECTRIC BELLS.

Key Points
Main Topic (from H2 Heading) Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts
NUTRITION IN PLANTS (05:32) Photosynthesis - Requires CO2, Water, Sunlight,
Chlorophyll
- Produces Glucose and Oxygen
NUTRITION IN PLANTS (05:32) Specialized - PARASITES: CUSCUTA
Nutrition - SYMBIOSIS: RHIZOBIUM
- SAPROTROPHS: FUNGI
NUTRITION IN ANIMALS Human Digestion - STOMACH: HCl kills bacteria
(35:10) - VILLI: Increase absorption area
in small intestine
- BILE: Digests fats
ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS Neutralization - Acid + Base → Salt + Water
(55:20) - Uses: Antacids for indigestion
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL Rusting & - Iron + Oxygen + Water → Rust
CHANGES (01:10:00) Prevention - Prevention: GALVANIZATION
(Zinc coating)
RESPIRATION IN ORGANISMS Cellular Respiration - AEROBIC: Uses Oxygen
(01:35:00) - ANAEROBIC: No Oxygen,
produces Lactic Acid/Alcohol
TRANSPORTATION AND Blood & Heart - RBC: Hemoglobin
EXCRETION (01:55:00) - WBC: Immunity
- XYLEM: Water
- PHLOEM: Food
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Main Topic (from H2 Heading) Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS Pollination - Transfer of pollen
(02:25:00) - ZYGOTE: Formed after
fertilization
MOTION, TIME, AND Electric Effects - HEATING: Fuse (Low melting
ELECTRICITY (02:45:00) point)
- MAGNETIC: Electric Bell,
Electromagnets
MOTION, TIME, AND Light - CONCAVE MIRROR: Used by
ELECTRICITY (02:45:00) dentists
- CONVEX MIRROR: Rear-view in
vehicles

CLASS 8
CROPS PRODUCTION AND ITS MANAGEMENT
CROPS: These are plants grown to provide food products such as pulses or rice.
TYPES OF CROPS:
1. RABI CROPS: These are sown in the winter season (winter-कालीन) and harvested
around March.
Example: WHEAT.
2. KHARIF CROPS: These are sown during the rainy season (around July) and harvested
in October.
Example: PADDY (Rice).
3. ZAYAD CROPS: These are sown between February and April and harvested around
May.
Examples: WATERMELON, MUSKMELON, CUCUMBER, LADY'S FINGER.

Preparation of Soil
PREPARATION OF THE SOIL: The first step in crop production to make the soil soft for
sowing seeds.
TILLING or PLOUGHING: The process of loosening and turning the soil using a PLOUGH.
PLOUGH: A traditional triangular-shaped tool made of wood or iron used for tilling,
adding fertilizers, and removing weeds.
HOE: A manual tool used for digging, loosening soil, and removing weeds.
CULTIVATOR: A modern tractor-driven machine used for ploughing, which saves time
and labor.

Sowing and Seeds

SOWING: The process of putting seeds into the prepared soil.
QUALITY OF SEEDS: Good quality seeds are essential for a healthy crop.
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TEST FOR SEED QUALITY: Put seeds in a glass of water. POOR QUALITY SEEDS will
float on top, while GOOD QUALITY SEEDS will sink to the bottom.
TRADITIONAL TOOLS: Funnel-shaped tools used to drop seeds into the soil.
SEED DRILLS: Modern machines used with tractors for sowing seeds at uniform distances
and depths.
NURSERY: A place where small plants (like MANGO, GUAVA, or POMEGRANATE) are
prepared before being transplanted into fields.
GERMINATION OF SEEDS: Occurs when seeds are provided with adequate moisture,
water, and sunlight.

Manure and Fertilizers

MANURE: An organic substance formed by the decomposition of plant or animal waste
(like cow dung). It provides humus to the soil and has long-term results.
FERTILIZERS: Inorganic salts produced in factories using chemical methods. They are rich
in nutrients like NITROGEN, PHOSPHORUS, and POTASSIUM (NPK).

Feature FERTILIZERS MANURE

Nature Inorganic salts Organic/Natural substance
Production Prepared in factories Prepared in fields/homes
Humus Does not provide humus Provides a lot of humus
Nutrients Very rich in plant nutrients Relatively less rich in nutrients
Result Duration Short-term results Long-term results

DISADVANTAGES OF FERTILIZERS:
Excessive use makes soil too acidic or too basic.
They can seep into underground water, causing pollution.
They can kill the EARTHWORM, which is known as the FRIEND OF THE FARMER.
SOIL pH: Soil should not be too acidic or too basic for crops.
If soil is too acidic, QUICK LIME (Lime water) is added to make it basic.
If soil is too basic, organic manure (cow dung) is added to make it acidic.
CROP ROTATION: Growing different crops alternately (e.g., pulses then wheat) to
maintain soil fertility.

Protection and Harvesting

WEEDS: Unwanted plants that grow along with crops and compete for nutrients.
WEEDICIDES: Chemicals used to kill weeds.
HARVESTING: The cutting of the crop after it is mature.
THRESHING: The process of loosening the grain from the chaff.
WINNOWING: The process of separating grain from chaff using wind.
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MICROORGANISMS (45:10)
MICROORGANISMS: Extremely small living organisms that cannot be seen with the
naked eye and require a MICROSCOPE.
UNICELLULAR: Microorganisms are usually single-celled.
MULTICELLULAR: Humans and animals are made of many cells.

Types of Microorganisms
1. BACTERIA: Unicellular PROKARYOTIC CELLS (nucleus is absent or undeveloped).
Shapes: BACILLUS (rod-shaped), VIBRIO (comma-shaped), COCCI (spherical),
SPIRILLA (spiral).
Helpful: E. COLI in the human colon produces VITAMIN K.
Harmful: MYCOBACTERIUM TUBERCULOSIS causes TB.
2. FUNGI: Multicellular (except YEAST) organisms that are saprotrophs (live on dead matter)
or parasites.
3. PROTISTS/PROTOZOA: Single-celled organisms. Examples: AMOEBA, PARAMECIUM,
EUGLENA, PLASMODIUM.
4. VIRUS: They are a link between living and non-living. They are non-living outside a host
but become living inside a living body. Examples: HIV, CORONAVIRUS, POLIO VIRUS.

Key Biological Processes

PROBIOTICS: Live bacteria or yeast (like E. COLI) that are good for the digestive system.
FERMENTATION: The process of conversion of sugar into alcohol or milk into curd by
bacteria like LACTOBACILLUS. LOUIS PASTEUR discovered fermentation.
VACCINATION: The process of providing immunity against diseases by injecting vaccines
(e.g., POLIO, RABIES).
ANTIBODIES: Proteins (Immunoglobulins) produced by the body to fight ANTIGENS
(pathogens).
PATHOGENS: Disease-causing microorganisms.

Disease Transmission
CARRIER: An infected person showing symptoms who can spread the disease.
VECTOR: An organism that spreads the disease (e.g., FEMALE ANOPHELES MOSQUITO is
the vector for MALERIA).
AIRBORNE DISEASES: Spread through air (e.g., COVID-19).
WATERBORNE DISEASES: Spread through contaminated water (e.g., TYPHOID,
CHOLERA).

Common Diseases Table

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Disease Causative Microorganism Mode of Transmission

TUBERCULOSIS BACTERIA (MYCOBACTERIUM) Air
MEASLES / CHICKEN POX VIRUS Air/Contact
POLIO VIRUS Air/Water
CHOLERA BACTERIA (VIBRIO) Water/Food
TYPHOID BACTERIA Water
HEPATITIS B VIRUS Water
MALARIA PROTOZOA Mosquito (VECTOR)
SLEEPING SICKNESS PROTOZOA TSETSE FLY (VECTOR)

Plant Diseases
CITRUS CANKER: Caused by BACTERIA, spread by air.
RUST OF WHEAT: Caused by FUNGI, spread by air/seeds.
YELLOW VEIN MOSAIC OF BHINDI: Caused by VIRUS, spread by insects.

Food Preservation
FOOD POISONING: Caused by consuming toxic food contaminated by pathogens.
PRESERVATION METHODS:
CHEMICAL METHOD: Using preservatives like SODIUM METABISULPHITE and
SODIUM BENZOATE.
SALTING: Using SODIUM CHLORIDE (NaCl) for pickles or meat.
SUGAR: Reduces moisture to inhibit growth of microorganisms.
OIL AND VINEGAR: Prevents spoilage in pickles.
PASTEURIZATION: Heating milk to a specific temperature and then chilling it to kill
pathogens. Discovered by LOUIS PASTEUR.

COAL AND PETROLEUM

ENERGY RESOURCES:
RENEWABLE (Non-conventional): Bar-bar renew किया जा सकता (e.g., SOLAR
ENERGY, WIND ENERGY).
NON-RENEWABLE (Conventional): Finite resources (e.g., COAL, PETROLEUM,
DIESEL).
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only
converted from one form to another.

Coal
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CARBONIZATION: The slow process of conversion of dead vegetation into coal under
high pressure and temperature.
TYPES OF COAL:
1. ANTHRACITE: Best quality (highest carbon content).
2. BITUMINOUS: Most commonly found in INDIA.
3. LIGNITE.
4. PEAT: Poor quality.
DESTRUCTIVE DISTILLATION OF COAL: Heating coal in the absence of air to obtain:
COKE: Used in steel manufacture.
COAL TAR: Thick liquid used in paints and roads.
COAL GAS: Used as fuel in industries.
AMMONIUM LIQUOR: Used to make fertilizers.

Petroleum
PETROLEUM: Formed from dead organisms in the sea.
REFINING: The process of separating various constituents of petroleum using
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION.
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION: Separation based on different BOILING POINTS.
PETROLEUM PRODUCTS:
PETROL: Fuel for vehicles.
KEROSENE: Fuel for stoves/lamps.
PETROLEUM JELLY: Used in VASELINE.
PARAFFIN WAX: Used for candles.
BITUMEN: Used for paints and road surfacing.
GEOPHONES: Devices used to detect oil sources through vibrations.

Natural Gas
CNG (COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS): A cleaner, less polluting fuel.
LPG (LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS): Used for home cooking.
GLOBAL WARMING: Caused by the emission of CARBON DIOXIDE from burning fossil
fuels, leading to increased earth temperature and melting glaciers.

COMBUSTION AND FLAME

COMBUSTION: A chemical process in which a substance reacts with oxygen to give off
heat.
COMPLETE COMBUSTION: Produces CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2).
INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION: Produces CARBON MONOXIDE (CO), a poisonous
gas.
 Science NCERT'S NOTES BY D

COMBUSTIBLE SUBSTANCES: Substances that burn easily (e.g., PAPER, WOOD).

NON-COMBUSTIBLE SUBSTANCES: Substances that do not burn (e.g., GLASS, SOIL).
IGNITION TEMPERATURE: The lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire.
INFLAMMABLE SUBSTANCES: Substances with very low ignition temperature (e.g., LPG,
PETROL, ACETONE).

Fire and Flames

FIRE TRIANGLE: Fire requires three things: FUEL, OXYGEN, and HEAT.
FIRE EXTINGUISHER: Works by cutting off the oxygen supply or bringing down the
temperature. CARBON DIOXIDE is used to extinguish fires.
STRUCTURE OF A FLAME:
1. OUTER ZONE: Blue color; hottest part; complete combustion.
2. MIDDLE ZONE: Yellow color; moderately hot; partial combustion.
3. INNERMOST ZONE: Black color; least hot; contains unburnt wax vapors.

Fuel Efficiency
CALORIFIC VALUE: The amount of heat energy produced on complete combustion of 1
kg of fuel.
Unit: KILO JOULE PER KG (kJ/kg).
IDEAL FUEL: Cheap, readily available, burns easily, and does not produce pollution.
POLLUTION: Burning fuels releases SULPHUR DIOXIDE and NITROGEN OXIDES, which
cause ACID RAIN. Acid rain damages buildings (like the TAJ MAHAL) and crops.

CONSERVATION OF PLANTS AND ANIMALS

EXTINCT SPECIES: Species that no longer exist (e.g., DINOSAURS, DODO BIRD).
ENDANGERED SPECIES: Species facing the risk of extinction (e.g., TIGER).
RED DATA BOOK: The source book which keeps a record of all endangered animals and
plants.
DEFORESTATION: Clearing of forests for industries, houses, or furniture. It leads to
GLOBAL WARMING and drought.
REFORESTATION: Planting new trees to restore destroyed forests.
3 R's METHOD: REDUCE, REUSE, RECYCLE.

Protected Areas
WILDLIFE SANCTUARY: Provides protection and suitable living conditions to wild
animals.
NATIONAL PARK: Areas reserved for wildlife where they can freely use habitats and
natural resources (e.g., KANHA NATIONAL PARK, GIR FOREST).
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BIOSPHERE RESERVE: Large areas of protected land for conservation of biodiversity and
culture.
ENDEMIC SPECIES: Species found exclusively in a particular area (e.g., LIONS in GIR
FOREST).
PROJECT TIGER: Launched in 1973 to protect tigers in India.

REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
REPRODUCTION: The process of giving birth to OFFSPRINGS to continue the species.
TYPES OF REPRODUCTION:
1. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Only a single parent is involved. No mixing of genetic
information.
2. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Involves two parents (MALE and FEMALE). Produces
GAMETES.

Asexual Reproduction Types

FISSION: A single body divides into two or more parts (e.g., AMOEBA).
BUDDING: A small bulb-like projection (bud) grows and detaches from the parent (e.g.,
HYDRA, YEAST).

Cell Division
CELL DIVISION: Essential for growth, repair, and reproduction.
MITOSIS (सम सूत्र): One cell divides into two identical daughter cells. Used for growth and
repair. Occurs in 5 stages: INTERPHASE, PROPHASE, METAPHASE, ANAPHASE,
TELOPHASE.
MEIOSIS (अध सूत्री): Occurs in sexual organs to produce gametes. The cell divides twice.

Sexual Reproduction in Humans

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: Includes TESTES, SCROTUM, and PENIS.
TESTOSTERONE: The male sex hormone produced by testes.
SPERM: The male gamete. Consists of a HEAD (contains nucleus), MIDDLE PIECE
(contains MITOCHONDRIA for energy), and a TAIL (for movement).
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: Includes OVARIES, FALLOPIAN TUBES, and UTERUS.
ESTROGEN: The female sex hormone.
OVUM: The female gamete (egg).
FERTILIZATION: The fusion of sperm and ovum to form a ZYGOTE. It occurs in the
FALLOPIAN TUBE.
UTERUS: The part where the development of the baby (FETUS) takes place.

ADOLESCENCE AND ENDOCRINE SYSTEM

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ADOLESCENCE: The period of life when the body undergoes changes leading to
reproductive maturity (around 12-13 years).
GLANDS:
ENDOCRINE GLANDS: DUCTLESS glands that secrete HORMONES directly into the
blood.
EXOCRINE GLANDS: Have DUCTS and secrete ENZYMES (e.g., SWEAT GLANDS,
SALIVARY GLANDS).
MIXED GLAND: PANCREAS (both endocrine and exocrine).

Important Endocrine Glands

PITUITARY GLAND: Known as the MASTER GLAND. Located in the FOREBRAIN. Secretes
GROWTH HORMONE.
THYROID GLAND: Located in the neck, butterfly-shaped.
Secretes THYROXINE.
T3 (Tri-iodothyronine) and T4 (Tetra-iodothyronine).
CALCITONIN: Decreases calcium levels in the blood.
GOITER: Caused by deficiency of THYROXINE (lack of iodine).
PANCREAS: Secretes INSULIN.
INSULIN controls blood sugar levels.
DIABETES: Caused by deficiency of insulin.
ADRENAL GLAND: Located on top of the KIDNEYS.
Known as the 4S GLAND (Sugar, Salt, Sex, Source of energy).
Secretes ADRENALINE (FIGHT OR FLIGHT HORMONE) during stress.
Parts: CORTEX (outer) and MEDULLA (inner).

Sex Determination
CHROMOSOMES: Humans have 23 PAIRS (46 total).
AUTOSOMES: 22 pairs that transfer general traits.
SEX CHROMOSOMES: 1 pair that determines gender.
XX: Female.
XY: Male.
The FATHER is responsible for the sex of the baby because he provides either an X or a Y
chromosome.

FORCE AND PRESSURE

FORCE: A PUSH or a PULL on an object. It is a VECTOR QUANTITY (has both magnitude
and direction).
UNIT OF FORCE: NEWTON (N).
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NET FORCE: The resultant of all forces acting on a body.

CONTACT FORCE: Requires physical contact (e.g., MUSCULAR FORCE, FRICTIONAL
FORCE).
NON-CONTACT FORCE: Does not require contact (e.g., MAGNETIC FORCE,
ELECTROSTATIC FORCE, GRAVITATIONAL FORCE).
INERTIA: The tendency of an object to resist changes in its state of motion.

Pressure
PRESSURE: Force acting per unit area. PRESSURE = FORCE / AREA.
UNIT OF PRESSURE: PASCAL.
RELATIONSHIP: Pressure is inversely proportional to area. A smaller area (like a nail tip)
exerts more pressure.
LIQUID PRESSURE: Liquids exert pressure on the walls of the container. Pressure
increases with depth.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE: The pressure exerted by the weight of the air in the
atmosphere on the earth's surface.

SOUND
SOUND: A form of energy produced by VIBRATIONS.
WAVES:
MECHANICAL WAVES: Require a medium (SOLID, LIQUID, or GAS). Sound is a
mechanical wave.
NON-MECHANICAL WAVES: Do not require a medium (e.g., LIGHT, X-RAYS).
LONGITUDINAL WAVES: Particles move in the same direction as the wave (e.g., SOUND
WAVES). They involve COMPRESSION and RAREFACTION.
TRANSVERSE WAVES: Particles move perpendicular to the wave direction (e.g., LIGHT
WAVES). They involve CREST and TROUGH.

Characteristics of Sound
AMPLITUDE: The maximum displacement of a vibrating object. Determines LAUDNESS.
FREQUENCY: Number of vibrations per second. Determines PITCH.
Unit: HERTZ (Hz).
TIME PERIOD: Time taken for one complete vibration.
AUDIBLE RANGE: Humans can hear sounds between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz.
INFRASONIC: Below 20 Hz.
ULTRASONIC: Above 20,000 Hz.
SONAR: SOUND NAVIGATION AND RANGING used in submarines to measure distance.
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CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

CONDUCTORS: Materials that allow electric current to pass (e.g., METALS, SALT WATER).
INSULATORS: Materials that do not allow current to pass (e.g., RUBBER, PLASTIC,
DISTILLED WATER).
ELECTROLYSIS: The chemical decomposition of a liquid (electrolyte) when an electric
current is passed through it.
ELECTRODES:
ANODE: Positive terminal.
CATHODE: Negative terminal.
ELECTROPLATING: The process of depositing a layer of any desired metal on another
material by means of electricity.
Example: GEVALNIZATION (coating iron with ZINC to prevent rust).

LIGHT AND HUMAN EYE

REFLECTION: The bouncing back of light from a shiny surface.
LAWS OF REFLECTION:
1. Angle of incidence is always equal to the angle of reflection.
2. Incident ray, reflected ray, and the normal all lie in the same plane.
REGULAR REFLECTION: Occurs on smooth surfaces.
DIFFUSED REFLECTION: Occurs on irregular surfaces.
PLANE MIRROR IMAGES: VIRTUAL, ERECT, and LATERALLY INVERTED (left appears
right).
DISPERSION: Splitting of white light into seven colors (VIBGYOR).

Human Eye
CORNEA: The thin transparent front part.
IRIS: Controls the size of the PUPIL.
PUPIL: The small opening in the iris.
RETINA: The screen where the image is formed.
BRAILLE SYSTEM: A system of 63 dot patterns used by visually challenged persons to
read. Invented by LOUIS BRAILLE.

Key Points
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Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts

Heading)
CROPS PRODUCTION (05:32) Crop Types - RABI: Winter (Wheat)
- KHARIF: Rainy (Paddy)
- ZAYAD: Summer (Watermelon)
CROPS PRODUCTION (05:32) Soil & Tools - TILLING: Loosening soil
- NPK: Nitrogen, Phosphorus,
Potassium
- EARTHWORM: Farmer's friend
MICROORGANISMS (45:10) Types & Diseases - BACTERIA: Unicellular
- VIRUS: Living/Non-living link
- LACTOBACILLUS: Curd making
- VECTOR: Female Anopheles
(Malaria)
COAL AND PETROLEUM Fossil Fuels - ANTHRACITE: Best coal
(01:15:00) - REFINING: Fractional Distillation
- CNG: Clean fuel
COMBUSTION AND FLAME Fire - FIRE TRIANGLE: Fuel, Oxygen,
(01:45:00) Heat
- CALORIFIC VALUE: Energy per
1kg fuel (kJ/kg)
- ACID RAIN: Sulphur/Nitrogen
oxides
REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS Sexual - ZYGOTE: Formed in Fallopian
(02:30:00) Reproduction tube
- MITOSIS: Growth/Repair
- MEIOSIS: Gamete production
ADOLESCENCE (02:45:00) Endocrine Glands - PITUITARY: Master gland
- ADRENAL: Fight/Flight
hormone
- INSULIN: Controls sugar
(Pancreas)
FORCE AND PRESSURE Physics of Force - PRESSURE: Force/Area (Pascal)
(03:15:00) - GRAVITY: Non-contact force
- INERTIA: Resistance to change
SOUND (03:45:00) Wave Properties - LONGITUDINAL: Sound
- LAUDNESS: Depends on
Amplitude
- PITCH: Depends on Frequency
CHEMICAL EFFECTS (04:15:00) Electroplating - ELECTROLYSIS: Chemical change
via current
- GALVANIZATION: Zinc on Iron
LIGHT AND HUMAN EYE Vision - REFLECTION: Angle i = Angle r
(04:45:00) - RETINA: Image screen
- BRAILLE: 63 dots
 Science NCERT'S NOTES BY D

CLASS 9
PHYSICS
Introduction to Motion
Motion: Discussion on speed, displacement, distance, velocity, and acceleration.
NEWTON'S LAWS OF MOTION: Includes the first, second, and third laws.
Equations of Motion:
1. v = u + at
2. s = ut + 1
2
2
at

3. v2
− u
2
= 2as

Average Velocity: Concept and numerical applications.

Units and Measurements

Measurement: Expressed in two parameters: MAGNITUDE (value) and UNIT (physical
quantity identifier).
FUNDAMENTAL UNITS:
LENGTH: METER (m)
MASS: KILOGRAM (kg)
TIME: SECOND (s)
CURRENT: AMPERE (A)
LUMINOUS INTENSITY: CANDELA (cd)
TEMPERATURE: KELVIN (K)
MASS OF A SUBSTANCE: MOLE (mol)
Supplementary Units:
PLANE ANGLE: RADIANS (rad). Note: π Radian = 180 . ∘

SOLID ANGLE: STERADIAN (sr). Used for 3D structures like cylinders and cones.

Systems of Units
System Length Mass Time
MKS METER KILOGRAM SECOND
CGS CENTIMETER GRAM SECOND
FPS FOOT POUND SECOND
SI METER KILOGRAM SECOND

Scalars and Vectors

SCALAR QUANTITIES: Have only MAGNITUDE. Examples: DISTANCE, TIME, WORK
DONE, MASS.
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VECTOR QUANTITIES: Have both MAGNITUDE and DIRECTION. Examples:

DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY, ACCELERATION, FORCE.
Representation: Vectors are denoted by an arrow (s→) or a cap (s^) over the symbol.

Distance vs. Displacement

DISTANCE: The complete path traveled by an object.
DISPLACEMENT: The shortest path between the INITIAL POINT and the FINAL POINT.

Speed vs. Velocity

SPEED: Distance/Time. SI Unit: m/s.
VELOCITY: Displacement/Time. SI Unit: m/s. It is a vector quantity.

Acceleration
ACCELERATION: Change in velocity divided by change in time (a = v2−v1

t2−t1
).
RETARDATION: Negative acceleration (when velocity decreases).
SI Unit: m/s . CGS Unit: cm/s .
2 2

Uniform and Non-Uniform Motion

UNIFORM MOTION: Equal distance covered in equal intervals of time. Examples: Rotation
of Earth, movement of clock hands.
NON-UNIFORM MOTION: Variation in speed over distance.
INSTANTANEOUS SPEED/VELOCITY: Speed or velocity at any specific instant of time
where Δt is approximately zero.

Graphs in Motion
DISTANCE-TIME GRAPH: The slope represents SPEED.
VELOCITY-TIME GRAPH:
The slope represents ACCELERATION.
The area under the curve represents DISPLACEMENT.

Uniform Circular Motion

Occurs when a body moves in a circular path with uniform speed.
Velocity: Changes at every point (direction changes).
Acceleration: Remains CONSTANT.
Formula: T =
2πr

v
.

FORCE AND LAWS OF MOTION

Force
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Definition: A push or pull on a body that changes its state of rest or motion.
Formula: F = ma (MASS × ACCELERATION).
SI Unit: NEWTON (N). 1 Newton = 1 kg ⋅ m/s . 2

CGS Unit: DYNE. 1 Dyne = 1 g ⋅ cm/s . 2

Relation: 1 Newton = 10 5
Dyne .

Concepts of Proportionality
Directly Proportional: If A ∝ B, increasing A increases B.
Inversely Proportional: If A ∝ 1/B, increasing A decreases B.
Pressure: P = F /A . Pressure is inversely proportional to area.
Torque: τ = F × r . Force is inversely proportional to the distance from the fixed point.
Examples: Handles of hand pumps and doors are placed at the extreme ends to reduce
required force.

Momentum
MOMENTUM (p): Product of MASS and VELOCITY (p = mv).
SI Unit: kg ⋅ m/s.

Newton's Laws of Motion

1. FIRST LAW (LAW OF INERTIA): A body remains at rest or in motion unless acted upon by
an external force. INERTIA is the tendency of a body to resist change and is related to
mass.
2. SECOND LAW: The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the applied
force (F ).
dp
=
dt

3. THIRD LAW: To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Examples: Recoil of
a gun, rocket propulsion, rowing a boat.

Law of Conservation of Momentum

Total momentum before collision equals total momentum after collision (
m u + m u = m v + m v ).
1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2

Friction
FRICTION: An opposing force that acts between two surfaces in contact.
Types:
STATIC FRICTION: Acts on stationary bodies.
ROLLING FRICTION: Acts when a body rolls. Has the MINIMUM value.
SLIDING FRICTION: Acts when a body slides. Has the MAXIMUM value.
Ball Bearings: Used to convert sliding friction into rolling friction.
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Levers (Extra Topic)

LEVER: A straight or bent rod that moves around a fixed point (FULCRUM).
Parts: EFFORT, LOAD, FULCRUM.
Mechanical Advantage: Load/Ef f ort.
Classes:
FIRST CLASS: Fulcrum is in the middle (e.g., Scissors, Pliers).
SECOND CLASS: Load is in the middle (e.g., Lemon squeezer).
THIRD CLASS: Effort is in the middle (e.g., Tongs/Chimta).

Center of Mass
The point where the entire mass of a body is centralized.
Stability: An object remains stable if the vertical line from its center of mass passes
through its base. Example: LEANING TOWER OF PISA.

WAVES AND SOUND

Waves
Definition: A form of energy (ELASTIC ENERGY) that moves from one point to another
via vibrations or disturbances.
Types:
MECHANICAL WAVES: Require a medium (Solid, Liquid, Gas).
LONGITUDINAL: Particles vibrate parallel to wave direction (e.g., SOUND
WAVES). Consists of COMPRESSION and RAREFACTION.
TRANSVERSE: Particles vibrate perpendicular to wave direction. Consists of
CREST and TROUGH.
NON-MECHANICAL WAVES: Do not require a medium (e.g., ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES).

Electromagnetic (EM) Waves

Travel at the speed of light (3 × 10
8
m/s) in a vacuum.
Order (High Frequency to Low): GAMMA RAYS, X-RAYS, UV RAYS, VISIBLE LIGHT,
INFRARED, MICROWAVES, RADIO WAVES.
GAMMA RAYS: Highest frequency and maximum penetration power.
RADIO WAVES: Longest wavelength.

Sound Waves
Speed: 332m/s in air. Sound travels fastest in SOLIDS, then LIQUIDS, then GASES.
Categories:
INFRASONIC: < 20 Hz (Heard by dogs, cats).
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AUDIBLE: 20 Hz − 20, 000 Hz (Heard by humans).

ULTRASONIC: > 20, 000 Hz (Used in SONAR, tumor treatment, cleaning chimneys).
Characteristics:
INTENSITY: Related to loudness. SI Unit: DECIBEL (dB).
PITCH: Related to frequency. High pitch = shrill voice (e.g., mosquito, women); Low
pitch = deep voice (e.g., lion, men).
QUALITY (TIMBRE): Ability to distinguish between sounds of the same pitch and
intensity.

Doppler Effect and Echo

DOPPLER EFFECT: Change in frequency due to relative motion between source and
observer.
ECHO: Reflection of sound. Minimum distance for an echo is approximately 17 meters.
Persistence of hearing is 1/10 second.
MAC NUMBER: Ratio of the speed of an object to the speed of sound.
SUPERSONIC: Mac > 1.
HYPERSONIC: Mac > 5.

GRAVITATION
Universal Law of Gravitation
F = G
m1m2

r
2
.
G (GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT): 6.67 × 10 −11 2
Nm /kg .
2

Acceleration due to Gravity (g)

g =
GM

R
2
. Standard value: 9.8m/s . 2

Variations:
g decreases with HEIGHT.
g decreases with DEPTH.
g is MAXIMUM at POLES and MINIMUM at EQUATOR.
g on MOON is 1/6 of g on EARTH.

Escape Velocity
Minimum velocity required to leave Earth's gravitational field.
Formula: v e . For Earth: 11.2km/s.
= √ 2gR

Circular Motion Forces

CENTRIPETAL FORCE: Acts toward the center (e.g., Earth orbiting the Sun).
 Science NCERT'S NOTES BY D

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE: Acts away from the center (e.g., Washing machine, cream
separator).

WORK, POWER, AND ENERGY

WORK: W . SI Unit: JULE (J). CGS Unit: ERG.
= F s cos θ

ENERGY: Capacity to do work.

KINETIC ENERGY: 1

2
2
mv .
POTENTIAL ENERGY: mgh.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only
transformed.
POWER: P = W /t . SI Unit: WATT (W).
Commercial Unit: 1 kWh = 3.6 × 10 6
.
Joules

CHEMISTRY
States of Matter
Five States: SOLID, LIQUID, GAS, PLASMA, BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE (BEC).
PLASMA: Ionized gas containing positive ions and electrons; occurs at very high
temperatures.
BEC: Formed by cooling gas of extremely low density to super-low temperatures
(ABSOLUTE ZERO).

Phase Changes
MELTING: Solid to Liquid.
VEPORIZATION: Liquid to Gas.
CONDENSATION: Gas to Liquid.
FREEZING: Liquid to Solid.
SUBLIMATION: Solid to Gas directly (e.g., Camphor, Naphthalene).
DEPOSITION: Gas to Solid directly.
LATENT HEAT: Heat required to change state without changing temperature.

Evaporation Factors
TEMPERATURE: Directly proportional.
SURFACE AREA: Directly proportional.
WIND SPEED: Directly proportional.
HUMIDITY: Inversely proportional.

Classification of Matter
PURE SUBSTANCES: Elements and Compounds.
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MIXTURES:
HOMOGENEOUS: Uniform composition (e.g., Salt solution).
HETEROGENEOUS: Non-uniform composition (e.g., Oil in water).
Sollution: SOLUTE (substance added) + SOLVENT (medium).
Sollubility: SATURATED (no more solute can dissolve) vs. UNSATURATED.

Separation Methods
CRYSTALLIZATION: To obtain pure solids from solutions.
DISTILLATION: Based on differences in boiling points.
CHROMATOGRAPHY: To separate colors/pigments.
CENTRIFUGATION: To separate denser particles from lighter ones (e.g., Cream from milk).

Atoms and Molecules

ATOMIC NUMBER (Z): Number of protons.
MASS NUMBER (A): Protons + Neutrons.
ISOTOPES: Same atomic number, different mass number (e.g., PROTIUM, DEUTERIUM,
TRITIUM).
Valency: Combining capacity of an atom; determined by electrons in the outermost shell
(OCTET RULE).

BIOLOGY
The Cell
Definition: Structural and functional unit of life.
Discovery: ROBERT HOOKE (Cell), ROBERT BROWN (Nucleus).
Types:
PROKARYOTIC: Primitive, lacks a defined nucleus.
EUKARYOTIC: Advanced, contains membrane-bound organelles.
Organelles:
MITOCHONDRIA: Powerhouse of the cell (ATP production).
LYSOSOMES: Suicidal bags.
GOLGI APPARATUS: Post office (packaging).
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: RER (Protein synthesis), SER (Lipid synthesis).
PLASTIDS: Found in plants (e.g., CHLOROPLAST for photosynthesis).

Tissues
PLANT TISSUES:
MERISTEMATIC: Growth tissues (APICAL, INTERCALARY, LATERAL).
PERMANENT: PARENCHYMA, COLLENCHYMA, SCLERENCHYMA.
 Science NCERT'S NOTES BY D

VASCULAR: XYLEM (Water transport), PHLOEM (Food transport).

ANIMAL TISSUES:
EPITHELIAL: Protective layer.
MUSCULAR: SKELETAL (voluntary), SMOOTH (involuntary), CARDIAC (heart).
CONNECTIVE: BLOOD, BONE, LIGAMENTS (Bone-to-Bone), TENDONS (Bone-to-
Muscle).

Key Points
Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts
Heading)
PHYSICS (00:00) FUNDAMENTAL - 7 Base Units: m, kg, s, A, cd, K, mol
UNITS - SI System is standard
PHYSICS (00:00) VECTORS vs - Scalars: Magnitude only (Mass,
SCALARS Time)
- Vectors: Magnitude + Direction
(Force, Velocity)
PHYSICS (00:00) NEWTON'S LAWS - 1st: Inertia
- 2nd: F=ma
- 3rd: Action/Reaction
PHYSICS (00:00) MOTION GRAPHS - Distance-Time slope = Speed
- Velocity-Time slope =
Acceleration
- Velocity-Time area =
Displacement
PHYSICS (00:00) CIRCULAR MOTION - Centripetal force acts toward
center
- Acceleration is constant, Velocity
direction changes
FORCE AND LAWS OF FRICTION - Static > Sliding > Rolling
MOTION (01:10) - Ball bearings reduce friction
FORCE AND LAWS OF LEVERS - Class 1: Fulcrum middle
MOTION (01:10) - Class 2: Load middle
- Class 3: Effort middle
WAVES AND SOUND EM WAVES - No medium needed
(02:10) - Speed: 3 × 10 m/s
8

- Gamma (highest freq), Radio

(longest wavelength)
WAVES AND SOUND SOUND PROPERTIES - Longitudinal wave
(02:10) - Audible range: 20Hz-20kHz
- Speed in Air: 332 m/s
- Fastest in Solids
 Science NCERT'S NOTES BY D

Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts

Heading)
GRAVITATION (03:10) GRAVITY (g) - g = 9.8m/s 2

- Max at Poles, Min at Equator

- Decreases with height/depth
WORK, POWER, AND ENERGY TYPES - Kinetic: mv
1

2
2

ENERGY (04:10) - Potential: mgh

- Unit: Joule
CHEMISTRY (05:10) STATES OF MATTER - 5 States: Solid, Liquid, Gas, Plasma,
BEC
- BEC at Absolute Zero
CHEMISTRY (05:10) ATOMIC STRUCTURE - Electrons (-), Protons (+),
Neutrons (0)
- Nucleus: Protons + Neutrons
- Isotopes: Same Z, different A
BIOLOGY (06:10) CELL ORGANELLES - Mitochondria: ATP
- Lysosome: Suicidal bag
- Chloroplast: Photosynthesis
BIOLOGY (06:10) TISSUES - Xylem: Water
- Phloem: Food
- Ligament: Bone-Bone
- Tendon: Bone-Muscle

CLASS 10
CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS (00:00)
Balanced Chemical Equation: A chemical equation where the number of atoms of each
element is equal on both sides.
Balancing Sequence:
1. METALS: SODIUM, POTASSIUM, SILVER, COPPER, MAGNESIUM, ZINC, CALCIUM,
IRON, ALUMINIUM, MANGANESE, LEAD, BARIUM.
2. NON-METALS: CHLORINE, BROMINE, SULPHUR, NITROGEN, CARBON,
PHOSPHORUS.
3. OXYGEN.
4. HYDROGEN.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS: Mass can neither be created nor be destroyed. Total
mass of reactants must be equal to the total mass of products.

Types of Chemical Reactions

 Science NCERT'S NOTES BY D

Reaction Type Definition Key Examples from Transcript

COMBINATION Two or more substances - Burning MAGNESIUM ribbon in
REACTION combine to form a single OXYGEN to form MAGNESIUM
product. OXIDE (White powder).
- Adding water to QUICK LIME
(CALCIUM OXIDE) to form SLAKED
LIME.
DECOMPOSITION A single reactant breaks - Heating CALCIUM CARBONATE
REACTION down to give two or more (LIMESTONE) to produce QUICK
simpler products. LIME and CARBON DIOXIDE.
- Thermal decomposition of LEAD
NITRATE.
DISPLACEMENT A more reactive element - IRON nail in COPPER SULPHATE
REACTION displaces a less reactive solution (Blue turns Green).
element from its compound. - ZINC reacting with SULPHURIC
ACID to produce HYDROGEN gas.
DOUBLE Exchange of ions between - SODIUM SULPHATE and BARIUM
DISPLACEMENT two compounds. CHLORIDE forming BARIUM
SULPHATE (White precipitate).
- LEAD NITRATE and POTASSIUM
IODIDE forming LEAD IODIDE
(Yellow precipitate).

EXOTHERMIC REACTION: A reaction in which heat is released (e.g., Burning of

MAGNESIUM, Respiration, Burning of NATURAL GAS/METHANE).
ENDOTHERMIC REACTION: A reaction in which heat is absorbed or required (e.g., All
DECOMPOSITION REACTIONS).

Specific Decomposition Processes

THERMAL DECOMPOSITION: Breaking down using heat.
FERROUS SULPHATE Crystals: Green crystals (F eSO .7H O) turn White (anhydrous)
4 2

then Reddish-Brown (FERRIC OXIDE) releasing SO and SO with a pungent smell.

2 3

PHOTOCHEMICAL DECOMPOSITION (PHOTOLYSIS): Breaking down using light.

SILVER CHLORIDE (AgCl): White turns Grey in sunlight. Used in BLACK AND WHITE
PHOTOGRAPHY.
ELECTROLYTIC DECOMPOSITION: Breaking down using electricity.
ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER: Water splits into HYDROGEN and OXYGEN.
Volume Ratio: H 2 : O2 = 2 : 1 .
Mass Ratio: H 2
: O2 = 1 : 8 .
PAO Rule: Positive Anode Oxygen.

Oxidation and Reduction

 Science NCERT'S NOTES BY D

OXIDATION: Gain of OXYGEN or loss of HYDROGEN.

REDUCTION: Gain of HYDROGEN or loss of OXYGEN.
REDOX REACTION: A reaction where both oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously.
OXIDIZING AGENT: The substance that gets reduced.
REDUCING AGENT: The substance that gets oxidized.

Corrosion and Rancidity

CORROSION: When a metal is attacked by substances around it such as moisture, acids,
etc.
RUSTING OF IRON: Formation of Reddish-Brown hydrated IRON OXIDE.
TARNISHING OF SILVER: Turns Black.
CORROSION OF COPPER: Turns Green (Basic COPPER CARBONATE).
RANCIDITY: Oxidation of fats and oils in food leading to bad smell and taste.
Prevention: Use of airtight containers, flushing bags with NITROGEN gas, or adding
antioxidants.

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

ACIDS: Produce H ions in water. Sour in taste. Turn Blue litmus Red.
+

BASES: Produce OH ions in water. Bitter in taste. Turn Red litmus Blue.
−

ALKALIS: Bases that are soluble in water (e.g., N aOH , KOH , N H 4OH ).

Indicators
Indicator Color in Base Color in Acid
LITMUS Blue Red
TURMERIC Red Yellow
PHENOLPHTHALEIN Pink Colorless
METHYL ORANGE Yellow Red

OLFACTORY INDICATORS: Substances whose smell changes in acidic or basic media (e.g.,
VANILLA ESSENCE, CLOVE OIL, ONION).

Chemical Properties
Acid + Metal: Salt + HYDROGEN Gas (Tests with a "Pop" sound).
Base + Metal: Salt + HYDROGEN Gas (e.g., N aOH + Zn → SODIUM ZINCATE
"Na2ZnO2").
NEUTRALIZATION: Acid + Base → Salt + Water.
Acid + Metal Carbonate/Bicarbonate: Salt + CO + Water (CO turns LIME WATER
2 2

milky).
 Science NCERT'S NOTES BY D

Metal Oxides: Generally BASIC in nature.

Non-Metal Oxides: Generally ACIDIC in nature.

pH Scale
Range: 0 to 14.
pH 7: Neutral.
pH < 7: Acidic (Lower pH = Stronger Acid).
pH > 7: Basic (Higher pH = Stronger Base).
Universal Indicator: A mixture of indicators showing different colors at different pH
values.

Important Chemical Compounds from Common Salt (N aCl)

1. SODIUM HYDROXIDE (N aOH ): Produced by CHLOR-ALKALI PROCESS.
ANODE: CHLORINE gas.
CATHODE: HYDROGEN gas and N aOH .
2. BLEACHING POWDER (CaOCl or Ca(OCl) ): Produced by action of CHLORINE on
2 2

SLAKED LIME.
3. BAKING SODA (N aH CO ): SODIUM HYDROGEN CARBONATE. Used as an antacid and
3

for making crispy pakoras.

4. WASHING SODA (N a 2CO3.10H2O ): Used for removing permanent hardness of water.
5. PLASTER OF PARIS (CaSO 4.
1

2
H2O ): Obtained by heating GYPSUM (CaSO 4.2H2O ) at
373K.

METALS AND NON-METALS

METALS: Lustrous, hard, malleable, ductile, good conductors of heat and electricity.
NON-METALS: Non-lustrous (except IODINE, GRAPHITE), soft (except DIAMOND), poor
conductors (except GRAPHITE).
AMPHOTERIC OXIDES: Metal oxides that react with both acids and bases to produce salt
and water (e.g., ALUMINIUM OXIDE Al 2
O3 , ZINC OXIDE ZnO).

Reactivity Series and Extraction

Top Metals (K, N a, Ca, M g, Al): Highly reactive; extracted by ELECTROLYTIC REDUCTION.
Middle Metals (Zn, F e, P b): Moderately reactive; found as sulphides or carbonates.
ROASTING: Heating sulphide ores in excess air.
CALCINATION: Heating carbonate ores in limited air.
REDUCTION: Usually done using CARBON (Coke).
Bottom Metals (Cu, H g, Ag, Au): Least reactive; found in free state or as sulphides.
 Science NCERT'S NOTES BY D

THERMITE REACTION: Reaction of IRON OXIDE with ALUMINIUM to produce molten

iron; used to join railway tracks.

Alloys
STEEL: IRON + CARBON.
STAINLESS STEEL: IRON + NICKEL + CHROMIUM.
BRASS: COPPER + ZINC.
BRONZE: COPPER + TIN.
SOLDER: LEAD + TIN (Low melting point).
AMALGAM: Any alloy containing MERCURY.

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

Covalent Bonding: Carbon forms bonds by sharing electrons because it cannot gain or
lose four electrons due to energy and stability constraints.
Versatile Nature of Carbon:
1. CATENATION: Ability to form long chains with other carbon atoms.
2. TETRAVALENCY: Four valence electrons allowing four bonds.
3. SMALL SIZE: Allows the nucleus to hold shared pairs of electrons strongly.

Hydrocarbons
SATURATED: Single bonds only (ALKANES: C nH2n+2 ). Burn with a clean blue flame.
UNSATURATED: Double or triple bonds (ALKENES: C nH2n; ALKYNES: C nH2n−2 ). Burn with
a yellow sooty flame.
ISOMERS: Compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas
(e.g., BUTEANE, PENTANE).

Functional Groups
ALCOHOL: −OH (Suffix: -ol).
ALDEHYDE: −CH O (Suffix: -al).
KETONE: > C = O (Suffix: -one).
CARBOXYLIC ACID: −COOH (Suffix: -oic acid).

Chemical Properties of Carbon Compounds

COMBUSTION: Hydrocarbons burn in oxygen to give CO , water, heat, and light.
2

OXIDATION: ETHANOL to ETHANOIC ACID using alkaline KM nO . 4

ADDITION REACTION: Hydrogenation of vegetable oils using NICKEL catalyst.

SUBSTITUTION REACTION: ALKANES react with CHLORINE in sunlight.
 Science NCERT'S NOTES BY D

ESTERIFICATION: Reaction between ETHANOIC ACID and ETHANOL to form sweet-

smelling ESTERS.
SAPONIFICATION: Alkaline hydrolysis of esters to form SOAP.

Soaps and Detergents

SOAP: Sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids.
Structure: Hydrophilic head (attracted to water) and Hydrophobic tail (attracted to
oil/dirt).
MICELLE: Spherical structure formed during cleaning.
DETERGENTS: Effective in hard water, unlike soaps which form SCUM with calcium and
magnesium ions.

LIGHT: REFLECTION AND REFRACTION

REFLECTION: Bouncing back of light. i = r.
SPHERICAL MIRRORS:
CONCAVE: Converging. Forms real/inverted images (mostly) and one
virtual/erect/magnified image (when object is between F and P).
CONVEX: Diverging. Always forms virtual, erect, and diminished images. Used as
REAR VIEW MIRRORS.
REFRACTION: Bending of light when traveling from one medium to another.
SNELL'S LAW: sin i

sin r
= constant (Refractive Index).
REFRACTIVE INDEX (n): n = c

v
(Speed of light in vacuum / Speed of light in
medium).
LENSES:
CONVEX LENS: Converging.
CONCAVE LENS: Diverging. Always virtual, erect, diminished.
MIRROR FORMULA: 1

f
=
1

v
+
1

u
.
LENS FORMULA: 1

f
=
1

v
−
1

u
.
MAGNIFICATION (m): m = hi

ho
. For mirrors: m = − . For lenses: m =
u
v v

u
.
POWER OF LENS: P =
1

f
(in meters). Unit: DIOPTRE (D).

HUMAN EYE AND THE COLORFUL WORLD

Structure of Eye: CORNEA (refraction), IRIS (controls pupil size), PUPIL (controls light
amount), EYE LENS (convex), RETINA (screen with rods and cones).
POWER OF ACCOMMODATION: Ability of eye lens to adjust focal length using CILIARY
MUSCLES.
Defects of Vision:
 Science NCERT'S NOTES BY D

MYOPIA (Near-sightedness): Can't see far objects. Image forms before retina.
Corrected by CONCAVE LENS.
HYPERMETROPIA (Far-sightedness): Can't see near objects. Image forms behind
retina. Corrected by CONVEX LENS.
PRESBYOPIA: Old age defect. Corrected by BIFOCAL LENSES.
PRISM: Splits white light into seven colors (DISPERSION). RED bends least, VIOLET bends
most.
ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION: Responsible for Twinkling of stars, Advanced sunrise, and
Delayed sunset.
SCATTERING OF LIGHT: TYNDALL EFFECT. Blue color of sky, Red color of sun at
sunrise/sunset.

MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT

Magnetic Field Lines: Closed curves; emerge from North, merge at South (outside);
South to North (inside). Never intersect.
RIGHT HAND THUMB RULE: Thumb (Current), Fingers (Magnetic Field).
SOLENOID: A coil of many circular turns of insulated copper wire. Inside field is uniform.
ELECTROMAGNET: A solenoid with a soft iron core.
FLEMING'S LEFT HAND RULE: Force (F ), Magnetic Field (B), Current (I ). Used to find
direction of force on a current-carrying conductor.
DOMESTIC ELECTRIC CIRCUITS: LIVE WIRE (220V, Red), NEUTRAL WIRE (Black), EARTH
WIRE (Green). Parallel connection used in houses.
Safety Devices: FUSE, EARTH WIRE, CIRCUIT BREAKER.

Key Points
Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts
Heading)
CHEMICAL REACTIONS Types of Reactions - Combination: single product
(00:00) - Decomposition: requires energy
(thermal, photo, electrolytic)
- Displacement: reactivity series based
- Redox: oxidation + reduction
CHEMICAL REACTIONS Electrolysis of - H at Cathode, O at Anode
2 2

(00:00) Water - Volume ratio 2:1

- Mass ratio 1:8
ACIDS, BASES AND pH and Indicators - Acids (H ), Bases (OH )
+ −

SALTS (01:03:00) - Phenolphthalein: Acid (colorless),

Base (pink)
- pH 7 is neutral
 Science NCERT'S NOTES BY D

Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts

Heading)
ACIDS, BASES AND Important Salts - N aOH : Chlor-alkali process
SALTS (01:03:00) - N aH CO : Baking soda
3

- N a CO .10H O: Washing soda

2 3 2

- CaSO .1/2H O: POP

4 2

METALS AND NON- Extraction - Roasting (sulphides)

METALS (01:45:00) - Calcination (carbonates)
- Electrolytic reduction for top reactive
metals
CARBON AND ITS Versatility & - Catenation and Tetravalency
COMPOUNDS (02:28:00) Bonding - Covalent bonds (sharing)
- Isomerism
CARBON AND ITS Reactions & Soaps - Esterification: Acid + Alcohol
COMPOUNDS (02:28:00) - Saponification: Ester + Base
- Micelle formation in soaps
LIGHT (03:30:00) Mirrors & Lenses - Concave mirror/Convex lens:
Converging
- Convex mirror/Concave lens:
Diverging (VMCL: virtual, erect,
diminished)
- P = 1/f
HUMAN EYE (04:30:00) Defects & - Myopia: Concave lens
Correction - Hypermetropia: Convex lens
- Presbyopia: Bifocal lens
MAGNETIC EFFECTS Field & Force - Right Hand Thumb Rule: Field
(05:00:00) direction
- Fleming's Left Hand Rule: Force on
wire
- Solenoid: Uniform internal field
 SCIENCE NOTES BY D

SCIENCE NOTES BY D
CHEMISTRY
MATTER IN OUR SURROUNDINGS
MATTER: Anything that occupies space (volume) and has mass is called MATTER.
Criteria for MATTER:
It must occupy space and have mass.
It can be sensed by our five senses (eyes, ears, tongue, nose, and skin).
Ancient Indian Philosophers' View: All MATTER (living or non-living) is made up of five
basic elements: AIR, EARTH, FIRE, SKY, WATER.
Modern Day Scientists' Classification: MATTER is classified based on its PHYSICAL and
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES.
Nature of MATTER: MATTER is made up of PARTICLES (discrete nature), not continuous.
Evidence: When salt or sugar is dissolved in water, it occupies the spaces between
water particles, and the water level does not rise.
Characteristics of Particles:
SIZE: Particles are unimaginably small. (Example: POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE
crystals can color a large volume of water even after multiple dilutions).
SPACE: Particles of MATTER have space between them. The order of space is: GAS >
LIQUID > SOLID.
MOTION: Particles are constantly moving because they possess KINETIC ENERGY.
KINETIC ENERGY increases with an increase in TEMPERATURE.
Movement is maximum in GASES, less in LIQUIDS, and minimum in SOLIDS.
BROWNIAN MOTION: The zig-zag movement of small particles suspended in a
liquid or gas.
ATTRACTION: Particles attract each other. The strength of this force differs: SOLID >
LIQUID > GAS.

Classification of Matter
Property SOLID LIQUID GAS
Shape Fixed Not fixed (takes container shape) Not fixed
Volume Fixed Fixed Not fixed
Boundaries Distinct No distinct boundaries No boundaries
Compressibility Negligible Moderate/Low Highest
Rigidity/Fluidity Rigid Fluid (can flow) Fluid (can flow)
Density High Moderate Low
 SCIENCE NOTES BY D

Property SOLID LIQUID GAS

Diffusion Very Low Moderate Very High

PLASMA (Fourth State): A super-energetic and super-excited state consisting of IONIZED

GAS (free electrons and ions).
Examples: SUN, STARS, NEON SIGN BULBS, FLUORESCENT TUBES.
BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE (BEC) (Fifth State): Formed by cooling a gas of extremely
low density to super-low temperatures.
Named after SATYENDRA NATH BOSE and ALBERT EINSTEIN.

IS MATTER AROUND US PURE

ATOM: The smallest unit of MATTER.
MOLECULE: Formed when atoms of the same or different elements are chemically
bonded (e.g., O2, H2O).
COMPOUND: A substance made of different kinds of atoms chemically bonded in a fixed
proportion by mass (e.g., H2O ratio is 1:8).
PURE SUBSTANCE: Consists of only one kind of particle (ELEMENTS or COMPOUNDS).
MIXTURE (IMPURE MATTER): Contains different kinds of particles physically mixed in any
proportion.
HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE: Uniform composition throughout; no visible
boundaries (e.g., SALT SOLUTION, ALLOYS, AIR, SULFUR IN CARBON DISULFIDE).
HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE: Non-uniform composition; visible boundaries (e.g.,
CHALK IN WATER, IRON FILLINGS IN SAND).

Comparison of Solutions, Colloids, and Suspensions

Feature SOLUTION COLLOID SUSPENSION
Type Homogeneous Heterogeneous (appears Heterogeneous
homogeneous)
Particle Smallest (< 1 nm) Intermediate (1-100 nm) Largest (> 100 nm)
Size
Tyndall Does not scatter Scatters light Scatters light
Effect light
Stability Stable (does not Quite stable Unstable (settles
settle) down)
Filtration Cannot be filtered Cannot be filtered Can be filtered
Example Salt solution Milk, Fog Muddy water

TYNDALL EFFECT: The scattering of a beam of light by particles, making the path of light
visible.
SEPARATION METHODS:
 SCIENCE NOTES BY D

FILTRATION: For insoluble solids in liquids.

MAGNETIC SEPARATION: Using magnets to separate magnetic materials.
SUBLIMATION: Solid directly to gas (e.g., AMMONIUM CHLORIDE, CAMPHOR,
ANTHRACENE, DRY ICE).
SEPARATING FUNNEL: For two IMMISCIBLE LIQUIDS (e.g., Oil and Water).
EVAPORATION: To separate a non-volatile solute from a volatile solvent (e.g., Dye
from Ink).
CHROMATOGRAPHY: To separate solutes that dissolve in the same solvent (e.g.,
Colors in a dye, Drugs from blood).
CENTRIFUGATION: Based on density; denser particles are forced to the bottom (e.g.,
Butter from cream, Blood/Urine tests).
DISTILLATION: For MISCIBLE LIQUIDS with boiling point difference > 25°C (e.g.,
Acetone and Water).
FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION: For miscible liquids with boiling point difference <
25°C (e.g., CRUDE OIL components, GASSES FROM AIR).

ATOMS AND MOLECULES

MAHARISHI KANAD: Named the smallest indivisible particle PARAMANU.
DEMOCRITUS & LEUCIPPUS: Named the indivisible particle ATOM.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS: Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a
chemical reaction (ANTOINE LAVOISIER).
LAW OF CONSTANT PROPORTIONS: A chemical compound always contains the same
elements combined in the same proportion by mass (JOSEPH PROUST).
DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY:
Atoms are indivisible ⭐️ [Note: Atoms are divisible into sub-atomic particles.]
Atoms of a given element are identical in mass ⭐️ [Note: ISOTOPES have different
masses.]
Atoms of different elements have different masses ⭐️ [Note: ISOBARS can have the
same mass.]
MOLE CONCEPT:
1 MOLE = 6.022 × 10²³ particles (AVOGADRO NUMBER).
MOLAR MASS: Mass of 1 mole of a substance in grams.
Formula: Number of Moles = Given Mass / Molar Mass.

STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM

SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES:
ELECTRON: Negatively charged; discovered by J.J. THOMSON.
PROTON: Positively charged; discovered by E. GOLDSTEIN.
NEUTRON: Neutral; discovered by JAMES CHADWICK.
MODELS:
 SCIENCE NOTES BY D

THOMSON’S MODEL: Plum Pudding/Watermelon model; positive charge is the

"pudding," electrons are "plums."
RUTHERFORD’S MODEL: Alpha-particle scattering experiment using GOLD FOIL.
Discovered the NUCLEUS (small, heavy, positively charged center).
Father of Nuclear Physics: ERNEST RUTHERFORD.
BOHR’S MODEL: Electrons revolve in discrete orbits called SHELLS (K, L, M, N)
without radiating energy.
VALENCY: The combining capacity of an atom.
ISOTOPES: Atoms of the same element with the same ATOMIC NUMBER but different
MASS NUMBER (e.g., PROTIUM, DEUTERIUM, TRITIUM).
ISOBARS: Atoms of different elements with different ATOMIC NUMBER but the same
MASS NUMBER (e.g., ARGON and CALCIUM, both mass 40).

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

CARBON occurrence: 0.02% in Earth's crust (minerals), 0.03% in atmosphere (CO2).
VERSATILE NATURE: Due to TETRAVALENCY (4 valence electrons) and CATENATION
(self-linking property).
ALLOTROPES OF CARBON:
DIAMOND: 3D tetrahedral structure; hardest known substance; bad conductor.
GRAPHITE: 2D hexagonal layers; soft/slippery; good conductor due to free
electrons.
FULLERENE: C-60 (Buckminsterfullerene); football-shaped.
GRAPHENE: Single layer of graphite.
HYDROCARBONS:
SATURATED: Alkanes (Single bond); General formula CnH2n+2.
UNSATURATED: Alkenes (Double bond, CnH2n) and Alkynes (Triple bond, CnH2n-
2).
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS:
Alcohol (-OH): Suffix "-ol".
Aldehyde (-CHO): Suffix "-al".
Ketone (>C=O): Suffix "-one".
Carboxylic Acid (-COOH): Suffix "-oic acid".
SOAP: Sodium or Potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids.
MICELLE: Structure formed by soap molecules in water (Hydrophilic head,
Hydrophobic tail).
DETERGENT: Ammonium or Sulphonate salts of long-chain carboxylic acids; effective in
HARD WATER.

ACID, BASES AND SALTS

INDICATORS:
 SCIENCE NOTES BY D

LITMUS: Acid (Blue to Red), Base (Red to Blue).

PHENOLPHTHALEIN: Colorless in acid, Pink in base.
METHYL ORANGE: Red in acid, Yellow in base.
OLFACTORY: Smell changes (Onion, Vanilla, Clove).
PH SCALE: 0-7 (Acidic), 7 (Neutral), 7-14 (Basic).
ACID RAIN: pH < 5.6.
TOOTH DECAY: Starts when mouth pH < 5.5.
IMPORTANT COMPOUNDS:
SODIUM HYDROXIDE (NaOH): Caustic Soda; made by CHLOR-ALKALI PROCESS.
BLEACHING POWDER (CaOCl2): Oxidizing agent; used for disinfecting water.
BAKING SODA (NaHCO3): Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate; used in fire extinguishers
and antacids.
WASHING SODA (Na2CO3.10H2O): Used to remove permanent hardness of water.
PLASTER OF PARIS (CaSO4.1/2H2O): Formed by heating GYPSUM at 373K.

CHEMICAL REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS

TYPES OF REACTIONS:
COMBINATION: A + B → C (e.g., Burning of coal).
DECOMPOSITION: C → A + B (e.g., Heating Calcium Carbonate).
DISPLACEMENT: More reactive metal displaces less reactive metal (e.g., Fe +
CuSO4).
DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT: Exchange of ions (e.g., AgNO3 + NaCl).
EXOTHERMIC: Heat released (e.g., Respiration, Decomposition of vegetable matter).
ENDOTHERMIC: Heat absorbed (e.g., Photosynthesis).
CORROSION: Degradation of metals (e.g., RUSTING of iron, Silver turning black, Copper
turning green).
RANCIDITY: Oxidation of fats/oils in food; prevented by NITROGEN GAS or antioxidants.

Key Points
Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts
Heading)
MATTER IN OUR States of Matter - Solid (Fixed shape/vol), Liquid
SURROUNDINGS (00:00) (Fixed vol), Gas (Fluid)
- Plasma (Ionized gas), BEC (Super
cooled)
IS MATTER AROUND US Mixtures & - Homogeneous (Uniform),
PURE (22:45) Separation Heterogeneous (Non-uniform)
- Tyndall Effect: Visible light path in
Colloids
- Fractional Distillation: BP difference
< 25°C
 SCIENCE NOTES BY D

Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts

Heading)
ATOMS AND MOLECULES Laws & Mole - Conservation of Mass (LAVOISIER)
(46:15) Concept - Constant Proportions (PROUST)
- 1 Mole = 6.022 x 10²³
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM Atomic Models - Rutherford: Nucleus discovery
(01:15:00) - Bohr: Fixed orbits (K, L, M, N)
- Isotopes: Same atomic no.,
different mass
CARBON AND ITS Allotropes & - Catenation: Self-linking
COMPOUNDS (01:45:00) Bonding - Graphite: Conductor, slippery
- Saturated: Single bond (Alkane)
- Micelle: Soap cleaning structure
ACID, BASES AND SALTS pH & Salts - pH scale: 0-14
(02:45:00) - Caustic Soda (NaOH), Baking Soda
(NaHCO3), washing Soda (Na2CO3)
- POP: CaSO4.1/2H2O
CHEMICAL REACTIONS Reaction Types - Combination, Decomposition,
(03:30:00) Displacement
- Redox: Oxidation + Reduction
- Corrosion: Rusting (Fe2O3.xH2O)

BIOLOGY
DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMS
Classification: The process of grouping living organisms based on variations and
similarities.
ARISTOTLE: The first biologist to classify organisms based on their habitat: LAND,
WATER, and AIR. This was a primitive classification.
ROBERT WHITTAKER: Proposed the FIVE KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION:
1. MONERA
2. PROTISTA
3. FUNGI
4. PLANTAE
5. ANIMALIA
CARL WOESE: Further divided MONERA into ARCHAEBACTERIA and EUBACTERIA.
Taxonomic Hierarchy:
KINGDOM (Highest level)
PHYLUM (for animals) / DIVISION (for plants)
CLASS
ORDER
FAMILY
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GENUS
SPECIES (Lowest level)
SPECIES: A group of organisms capable of breeding with each other to produce fertile
offspring.

Kingdom Monera
Characteristics:
PROKARYOTIC: No defined nucleus or membrane-bound organelles.
UNICELLULAR: Single-celled; capable of independent existence.
CELL WALL: Some have cell walls (e.g., BACTERIA made of PEPTIDOGLYCAN), while
some do not (e.g., MYCOPLASMA).
Nutrition: Either AUTOTROPHIC or HETEROTROPHIC.
Examples: BACTERIA, ANABAENA, BLUE GREEN ALGAE (also known as
CYANOBACTERIA), MYCOPLASMA.
Structure: May have PILUS (small hair-like) or FLAGELLUM (long tail-like) for movement.
The genetic material is located in a region called the NUCLEOID.

Kingdom Protista
Characteristics:
EUKARYOTIC: Defined nucleus with a membrane.
UNICELLULAR: Single-celled.
Movement: Use appendages like CILIA or FLAGELLA.
Nutrition: AUTOTROPHIC or HETEROTROPHIC.
Examples: AMOEBA, PARAMECIUM, EUGLENA, DIATOMS, CHLAMYDOMONAS.

Kingdom Fungi
Characteristics:
EUKARYOTIC and HETEROTROPHIC.
Nutrition: SAPROTROPHIC (feed on dead/decaying matter) or PARASITIC.
CELL WALL: Made of a complex sugar called CHITIN.
Multicellularity: Many have the capacity to become multicellular at certain life
stages.
Examples: YEAST (SACCHAROMYCES), MUSHROOM (AGARICUS), MOLDS
(PENICILLIUM).
Structure: Consists of thread-like HYPHAE; a network of hyphae is called MYCELIUM.
LICHENS: A symbiotic relationship between CYANOBACTERIA (Algae) and FUNGI. They
act as pollution indicators for SULFUR DIOXIDE.

Kingdom Plantae
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Characteristics: EUKARYOTIC, MULTICELLULAR, AUTOTROPHIC, with cell walls made of

CELLULOSE.
THALLOPHYTA: Plants with no well-differentiated body design; commonly called ALGAE.
Predominantly aquatic.
Examples: ULOTHRIX, CLADOPHORA, ULVA, CHARA, SPIROGYRA.
BRYOPHYTA: Called the AMPHIBIANS OF THE PLANT KINGDOM. No specialized
vascular tissue (XYLEM/PHLOEM). Have root-like structures called RHIZOIDS.
Examples: RICCIA, MARCHANTIA, FUNARIA (MOSS).
PTERIDOPHYTA: Body differentiated into roots, stem, and leaves. Have specialized
vascular tissue.
Examples: MARSILEA, FERNS, HORSE-TAILS.
CRYPTOGAMS: Plants with hidden reproductive organs; flowerless and seedless
(Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta).
PHANEROGAMS: Plants with well-differentiated reproductive parts that produce seeds.
GYMNOSPERMS: Naked seeds (no fruit cover). Perennial, evergreen, and woody.
Examples: PINUS, DEODAR, CYCAS.
ANGIOSPERMS: Covered seeds (seeds develop inside an ovary which becomes
fruit). Also called FLOWERING PLANTS.
MONOCOTS: Seeds with one COTYLEDON (seed leaf). Parallel venation, fibrous
roots.
DICOTS: Seeds with two COTYLEDONS. Reticulate venation, tap roots.

THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

Discovery of Cell:
ROBERT HOOKE (1665): Observed cork cells; named them CELL (little room). These
were dead cells.
ANTONIE VAN LEEUWENHOEK: First to observe FREE LIVING CELLS in pond water.
ROBERT BROWN: Discovered the NUCLEUS.
PURKINJE: Coined the term PROTOPLASM (Cytoplasm + Nucleoplasm).
CELL THEORY: Proposed by SCHLEIDEN and SCHWANN (all plants/animals are made of
cells). Expanded by VIRCHOW (all cells arise from pre-existing cells).
Plasma Membrane: The outer covering; flexible and made of LIPIDS and PROTEINS. It is
SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE.
Transport Mechanisms:
DIFFUSION: Spontaneous movement of substances (O2, CO2) from high to low
concentration.
OSMOSIS: Movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane.
HYPOTONIC: Cell swells.
ISOTONIC: No change.
HYPERTONIC: Cell shrinks.
 SCIENCE NOTES BY D

Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA).

CHROMATIN: Thread-like structure made of DNA and PROTEIN.
CHROMOSOMES: Condensed chromatin seen during cell division. Humans have 46
CHROMOSOMES (23 pairs).
GENE: Functional segment of DNA.
Organelles:
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER): RER (has ribosomes, makes protein); SER (makes
lipids, detoxifies liver).
GOLGI APPARATUS: Packaging and storage.
LYSOSOMES: SUICIDAL BAGS; contain digestive enzymes.
MITOCHONDRIA: POWERHOUSE OF THE CELL; generates energy in the form of
ATP.
VACUOLES: Storage sacs (large in plants, small in animals).

TISSUES (02:15:00)
Plant Tissues:
MERISTEMATIC: Dividing tissues.
APICAL: At tips of stems/roots; increases length.
INTERCALARY: At nodes; elongates internodes.
LATERAL (CAMBIUM): Increases girth.
PERMANENT: Non-dividing specialized tissues.
SIMPLE: PARENCHYMA (storage), COLLENCHYMA (flexibility),
SCLERENCHYMA (hardness/dead cells).
COMPLEX: XYLEM (transports water/minerals, one-way); PHLOEM (transports
food, two-way).
Animal Tissues:
EPITHELIAL: Protective covering. Types: SQUAMOUS (flat), CUBOIDAL (cube-
shaped), COLUMNAR (pillar-like).
CONNECTIVE: Connects body parts.
BLOOD: Fluid matrix (PLASMA), RBC, WBC, PLATELETS.
BONE: Hard matrix (Calcium/Phosphorus).
LIGAMENT: Connects BONE TO BONE.
TENDON: Connects BONE TO MUSCLE.
CARTILAGE: Smoothens bone surfaces (Nose, Ear).
AREOLAR: Fills space inside organs.
ADIPOSE: Fat-storing tissue.
MUSCULAR: For movement. Types: SKELETAL (voluntary), SMOOTH (involuntary),
CARDIAC (heart).
NERVOUS: Coordination. Basic unit is the NEURON.
 SCIENCE NOTES BY D

HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION

GREGOR MENDEL: Father of Genetics; worked on PEA PLANTS (PISUM SATIVUM).
Dominant vs. Recessive: TALLNESS (T) is dominant over SHORTNESS (t).
F2 Generation Ratio: 3:1 (Phenotypic ratio of Tall to Short).
Sex Determination: In humans, FATHER determines the sex of the child (XY). Mother
provides only X.
CHARLES DARWIN: Proposed the theory of EVOLUTION and NATURAL SELECTION.
Organs:
HOMOLOGOUS: Same design, different function (e.g., Human arm and Bird wing).
ANALOGOUS: Different design, same function (e.g., Bat wing and Bird wing).
FOSSILS: Preserved traces of living organisms.

DISEASES AND VITAMINS

Pathogens: Disease-causing organisms.
Bacterial Diseases: TYPHOID, TUBERCULOSIS, TETANUS, LEPROSY, CHOLERA. PEPTIC
ULCER is caused by HELICOBACTER PYLORI.
Viral Diseases: POLIO, MUMPS, RABIES, AIDS (HIV), SARS, COVD-19.
Protozoan Diseases: MALARIA, KALA-AZAR (LEISHMANIA), SLEEPING SICKNESS
(TRYPANOSOMA).
Vitamins:
FAT SOLUBLE: K, E, D, A.
WATER SOLUBLE: B, C.
VITAMIN A: RETINOL (Deficiency: Night Blindness).
VITAMIN C: ASCORBIC ACID (Deficiency: Scurvy).
VITAMIN D: CALCIFEROL (Deficiency: Rickets).
Vaccines: EDWARD JENNER discovered the first vaccine (SMALLPOX). BCG is for TB; DPT
is for Diphtheria, Pertussis, Tetanus.

Key Points
Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts
Heading)
DIVERSITY IN LIVING Five Kingdom - WHITTAKER: Monera, Protista,
ORGANISMS (00:00) Classification Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
- Hierarchy: Kingdom,
Phylum/Division, Class, Order, Family,
Genus, Species
DIVERSITY IN LIVING Plant Divisions - Thallophyta (Algae), Bryophyta
ORGANISMS (00:00) (Amphibians), Pteridophyta
- Gymnosperms (Naked seeds),
Angiosperms (Flowering)
 SCIENCE NOTES BY D

Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts

Heading)
THE FUNDAMENTAL Cell Discovery & - HOOKE (Cell), BROWN (Nucleus),
UNIT OF LIFE (01:25:00) Parts PURKINJE (Protoplasm)
- Mitochondria: Powerhouse (ATP)
- Lysosomes: Suicidal bags
THE FUNDAMENTAL DNA & RNA - DNA: Double helix, ATGC bases
UNIT OF LIFE (01:25:00) - RNA: Single strand, AUGC bases
- Transcription (DNA to mRNA),
Translation (mRNA to Protein)
TISSUES (02:15:00) Plant & Animal - Xylem (Water), Phloem (Food)
Tissues - Ligament (Bone-Bone), Tendon
(Bone-Muscle)
- Cardiac Muscle: Cylindrical,
Branched, Uninucleated (CBU)
HEREDITY AND Genetics - MENDEL: Pea plant, 3:1 ratio
EVOLUTION (03:10:00) - Sex determination: Father (XY)
- Homologous (Same design),
Analogous (Same function)
DISEASES AND VITAMINS Health & Nutrition - Bacteria: TB, Tetanus; Virus: Polio,
(03:50:00) AIDS
- Fat Soluble Vitamins: KEDA
- Minamata (Mercury), Itai-Itai
(Cadmium)

PHYSICS
LIGHT: REFLECTION AND REFRACTION
Vision: We see objects because they reflect light into our eyes.
LUMINOUS OBJECTS: Objects that emit their own light (e.g., SUN, STARS, BULB).
NON-LUMINOUS OBJECTS: Objects that do not emit light but reflect it (e.g., MOON,
PLANETS, SOFA).
Speed of Light: Approximately 3 × 10⁸ meters per second.
Nature of Light: Light exhibits DUAL NATURE, behaving as both a WAVE and a
PARTICLE.

Phenomenon WAVE NATURE PARTICLE NATURE

REFLECTION Yes Yes
REFRACTION Yes Yes
INTERFERENCE Yes No
DIFFRACTION Yes No
POLARIZATION Yes No
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Phenomenon WAVE NATURE PARTICLE NATURE

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT No Yes

DIFFRACTION: The bending of light around corners of an obstacle.

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT: The ejection of electrons from a metal surface when light
(photons) strikes it.

Mirrors
PLANE MIRROR:
Image size = Object size.
Image distance = Object distance.
VIRTUAL AND ERECT: Image cannot be formed on a screen.
LATERALLY INVERTED: Left appears right and vice-versa (e.g., AMBULANCE).
FOCAL LENGTH: Infinity.
Minimum Mirror Height: To see a full image of an object of height 'h', the mirror
must be at least 'h/2'.
Applications: PERISCOPE (mirrors parallel at 45° to surface), KALEIDOSCOPE.
SPHERICAL MIRRORS:
CONCAVE MIRROR: Inward curved reflecting surface; CONVERGING in nature.
CONVEX MIRROR: Outward curved reflecting surface; DIVERGING in nature.

Refraction
REFRACTION: The bending of light when it travels from one medium to another.
RARER TO DENSER: Bends TOWARDS THE NORMAL; speed slows down.
DENSER TO RARER: Bends AWAY FROM THE NORMAL; speed increases.
Parameters: During refraction, SPEED and WAVELENGTH change, but FREQUENCY
remains constant.
LATERAL DISPLACEMENT: The perpendicular distance between the original path of the
incident ray and the emergent ray.
Applications of Refraction:
Pencil appearing bent in water.
Swimming pool appearing shallower.
TWINKLING OF STARS: Due to ATMOSPHERIC REFRACTION.
ADVANCED SUNRISE AND DELAYED SUNSET: Sun is visible 2 minutes before actual
sunrise and 2 minutes after sunset.
SNELL'S LAW: The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is constant for a given pair of media (sin i/sin r = constant).
REFRACTIVE INDEX: Ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in the
medium (n = c/v). It has NO UNIT.
DIAMOND: Highest refractive index (~2.42).
 SCIENCE NOTES BY D

AIR: Lowest refractive index (~1.0003).

Lenses
CONVEX LENS: Thicker at the center; CONVERGING.
CONCAVE LENS: Thinner at the center; DIVERGING.
POWER OF LENS: Reciprocal of focal length in meters (P = 1/f ). Unit: DIOPTER (D).

Feature MIRROR FORMULA LENS FORMULA

Formula 1/v + 1/u = 1/f 1/v − 1/u = 1/f

Magnification (m) −v/u v/u

Human Eye
RETINA: The screen of the eye where images form (real and inverted).
RODS: Sensitive to dim light.
CONES: Sensitive to bright light and color.
IRIS AND PUPIL: IRIS controls the size of the PUPIL to regulate light entry.
CILIARY MUSCLES: Control the focal length of the lens (ACCOMMODATION).
Near Vision: Muscles contract, lens becomes thick, focal length decreases.
Distant Vision: Muscles relax, lens becomes thin, focal length increases.
Eye Defects:
MYOPIA (Near-sightedness): Can see near objects; corrected by CONCAVE LENS.
HYPERMETROPIA (Far-sightedness): Can see far objects; corrected by CONVEX
LENS.
PRESBYOPIA: Old age defect; corrected by BIFOCAL LENSES.
CATARACT: Cloudy lens; corrected by surgery.

Optical Phenomena
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (TIR): Light travels from denser to rarer medium and
angle of incidence > critical angle.
Applications: OPTICAL FIBER, ENDOSCOPY, MIRAGE, DIAMOND brilliance.
RAINBOW: Involves REFRACTION, DISPERSION, and TIR.
PRIMARY RAINBOW: One TIR (brighter).
SECONDARY RAINBOW: Two TIRs (fainter).
SCATTERING: Spreading of light by particles.
TYNDALL EFFECT: Path of light becomes visible in a colloid.
Blue Sky: Fine particles scatter blue light (shorter wavelength) more.
Red Sun at Sunset: Blue light is scattered away; only longer wavelength red reaches
the eye.
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SOUND
Nature: MECHANICAL, LONGITUDINAL, and ELASTIC wave.
Medium: Requires a medium (Solid, Liquid, or Gas); cannot travel in VACUUM.
Speed: Fastest in SOLIDS, slowest in GASES. Increases with temperature.
Characteristics:
PITCH: Depends on FREQUENCY.
LOUDNESS: Depends on AMPLITUDE.
TIMBRE (QUALITY): Distinguishes sounds of same pitch and loudness.
INTENSITY: Sound energy per unit area per second.
ECHO: Reflection of sound. Minimum distance for echo: 17.2 meters. Time interval: 0.1s.
REVERBERATION: Persistence of sound due to multiple reflections.
Hearing Range:
INFRASONIC: < 20 Hz (e.g., EARTHQUAKES, WHALES).
AUDIBLE: 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
ULTRASONIC: > 20,000 Hz (e.g., BATS, DOLPHINS).
SONAR: Sound Navigation and Ranging. Uses ULTRASONIC WAVES to measure
distance/direction under water.
DOPPLER EFFECT: Change in frequency due to relative motion between source and
observer.

ELECTRICITY
Current (I): Rate of flow of charge (I = Q/t ). Unit: AMPERE (A).
Charge (Q): Unit: COULOMB (C). 1 Coulomb ≈ 6 × 10¹⁸ electrons.
Potential Difference (V): Work done per unit charge (V = W /Q ). Unit: VOLT (V).
OHM'S LAW: V = IR (at constant temperature).
RESISTANCE (R): Opposes current. Unit: OHM (Ω).
R = ρL/A (depends on length, area, and material).
RESISTIVITY (ρ): Intrinsic material property. Unit: OHM-METER.
Combinations:
SERIES: R eq
= R1 + R2 + R3 . Current is same.
PARALLEL: 1/R eq = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 . Voltage is same. (Used in houses).
HEATING EFFECT: H = I Rt² (JOULE'S LAW OF HEATING).
Applications: ELECTRIC IRON, TOOSTER, FUSE (low melting point, series), BULB
(TUNGSTEN filament, ARGON/NITROGEN gas).
ELECTRIC POWER: P ²
= V I = I R = V /R² . Unit: WATT (W).
COMMERCIAL UNIT: 1 kiloWatt-hour (kWh) = 1 Unit = 3.6 × 10⁶ Joules.

MAGNETISM
 SCIENCE NOTES BY D

MAGNETIC FIELD: Region where magnetic force is felt.

FIELD LINES: Imaginary lines; North to South (outside), South to North (inside). NEVER
INTERSECT.
RIGHT HAND THUMB RULE: Thumb (Current), Fingers (Magnetic Field direction).
SOLENOID: Coil of wire acting as a magnet when current flows.
ELECTROMAGNET: Temporary magnet (Soft iron core in a solenoid).
FLEMING'S LEFT HAND RULE: Used for MOTORS. Thumb (Force), Index (Field), Middle
(Current).
ELECTRIC MOTOR: Converts ELECTRICAL to MECHANICAL energy. Uses SPLIT RINGS
(Commutator).
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION (EMI): Production of current by changing magnetic
field.
FLEMING'S RIGHT HAND RULE: Used for GENERATORS.
ELECTRIC GENERATOR: Converts MECHANICAL to ELECTRICAL energy. Uses SLIP RINGS.
TRANSFORMER: Changes voltage. STEP-UP (increases V), STEP-DOWN (decreases V).
Works on MUTUAL INDUCTION.

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

WORK: W . Unit: JOULE.
= F d cosθ

Zero work if force and displacement are at 90° (e.g., coolie carrying load).
ENERGY: Capacity to do work.
KINETIC ENERGY: 1/2 mv².
POTENTIAL ENERGY: mgh.
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY: Total energy remains constant.
POWER: Rate of doing work (P = W /t ). Unit: WATT.
1 HORSEPOWER (HP) = 746 Watts.
CONSERVATIVE FORCES: Path independent (e.g., GRAVITY, ELECTROSTATIC).
NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES: Path dependent (e.g., FRICTION).

MOTION
DISTANCE: Actual path length (Scalar).
DISPLACEMENT: Shortest distance between start and end (Vector).
ACCELERATION (a): Rate of change of velocity (a = (v − u)/t).
RETARDATION: Negative acceleration.
UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION: Constant speed, but CHANGING VELOCITY (due to
direction change). ACCELERATION is towards the center (CENTRIPETAL).
NEWTON'S LAWS:
1st LAW (INERTIA): Object resists change in state.
2nd LAW: F = ma (Force = rate of change of momentum).
 SCIENCE NOTES BY D

3rd LAW: Action = Reaction (Act on different bodies).

MOMENTUM (p): p = mv.
IMPULSE: Large force for short time (F × Δt ).

GRAVITATION
UNIVERSAL LAW: F = GM m/r².
G (GRAVITATIONAL CONSTANT): 6.67 × 10 −11
²
N m /kg ².
g (ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY): 9.8 m/s².
Decreases with HEIGHT and DEPTH.
Maximum at POLES, minimum at EQUATOR.
KEPLER'S LAWS:
1. Orbits: Elliptical with Sun at one focus.
2. Areas: Equal areas in equal time (Planets move faster near Sun).
3. Periods: T ² ∝ r³.
MASS: Amount of matter (Constant).
WEIGHT: Force of gravity (W = mg ). Varies with location.
Weight on Moon: 1/6th of weight on Earth.
ESCAPE VELOCITY: Minimum speed to leave Earth's pull (~11.2 km/s). Independent of
object's mass.

Key Points
Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts
Heading)
LIGHT (00:05) Refraction & - Plane Mirror: Virtual, erect, lateral
Mirrors inversion
- Concave: Converging; Convex:
Diverging
- Refractive Index: No unit; Diamond
highest
LIGHT (00:05) Eye & Defects - Myopia: Concave lens; Hypermetropia:
Convex lens
- Accommodation: Ciliary muscles
- Retina: Rods (dim), Cones (bright)
SOUND (01:10:00) Wave Nature - Longitudinal, mechanical; needs
medium
- Pitch (Frequency), Loudness
(Amplitude)
- Echo: 17.2m; Sonar: Ultrasonic waves
ELECTRICITY (02:05:00) Ohm's Law & - V=IR; Series (Req=sum), Parallel
Power (1/Req=sum)
- Power: P=VI; 1 kWh = 3.6 x 10⁶ J
- Fuse: Low melting point, series
 SCIENCE NOTES BY D

Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts

Heading)
MAGNETISM (02:55:00) EMI & Rules - Motor: Left hand rule; Generator:
Right hand rule
- EMI: Changing field induces current
- Transformer: Mutual induction
WORK & ENERGY Work & Power - Work: Fd cosθ; Power: W/t
(03:40:00) - 1 HP = 746 W
- Energy: Kinetic (1/2mv²), Potential
(mgh)
MOTION (04:15:00) Newton's Laws - 1st: Inertia; 2nd: F=ma; 3rd:
Action=Reaction
- Momentum: p=mv; Impulse: F x t
GRAVITATION (04:50:00) Gravity & Kepler - g=9.8; decreases with height/depth
- Weight on Moon = 1/6 Earth
- Escape velocity: 11.2 km/s
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SCIENCE CAPF PYQ BY D

CHEMISTRY
MATTER IN OUR SURROUNDINGS
LATENT HEAT
LATENT HEAT: The energy given to a substance that does not raise its temperature but
changes its state.
The word LATENT means hidden.
It corresponds to the change in heat at CONSTANT TEMPERATURE only. ⭐️ [Note: The
transcript emphasizes "only" while acknowledging it as a pattern disaster in UPSC.]
MECHANISM: The heat energy is used to break the INTERMOLECULAR FORCES or
internal bonds of the substance.
TYPES OF LATENT HEAT:
1. LATENT HEAT OF FUSION: The hidden heat used to change a solid into a liquid at
constant temperature.
2. LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION: The hidden heat used to change a liquid into a
gas at constant temperature.

APPLICATIONS OF LATENT HEAT

STEAM VS. WATER: STEAM at 100°C is more effective in heating than WATER at the
same temperature.
This is because STEAM has additional energy known as LATENT HEAT OF
VAPORIZATION.
ICE VS. WATER: WATER at 273 K (0°C) is less effective for cooling than ICE at the same
temperature.
ICE absorbs LATENT HEAT from the surroundings to melt, thereby causing a
decrement in heat (cooling).

BOILING POINT AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

BOILING POINT: The temperature at which a liquid changes into a gas at ATMOSPHERIC
PRESSURE.
RELATIONSHIP: ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE is directly proportional to the BOILING
POINT.
ON MOUNTAINS: ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE decreases, leading to a lower BOILING
POINT (e.g., water boils at 70-80°C). This results in SLOWER COOKING.
IN PRESSURE COOKERS: Internal pressure increases, raising the BOILING POINT
 SCIENCE CAPF PYQ BY D

(e.g., 120°C). This results in FASTER COOKING.

VAPOR PRESSURE: The pressure exerted by vapors near the surface of a liquid in the
upward direction.
VAPOR PRESSURE is inversely proportional to the BOILING POINT.

CONVERSION OF STATES
SUBLIMATION: The direct change of a solid into a gas without passing through the liquid
state.
Examples: CAMPHOR, NAPHTHALENE balls, DRY ICE, IODINE.
DEPOSITION: The direct change of a gas into a solid.
Example: FROST formation on grass during winter.

Process Initial State Final State

SUBLIMATION Solid Gas
DEPOSITION Gas Solid
VAPORIZATION Liquid Gas
CONDENSATION Gas Liquid
FUSION/MELTING Solid Liquid
FREEZING Liquid Solid

EVAPORATION
DEFINITION: The process of a liquid changing into vapor at any temperature BELOW ITS
BOILING POINT.
It is a SURFACE PHENOMENON.
FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF EVAPORATION:
1. TEMPERATURE: Increasing temperature increases the rate.
2. SURFACE AREA: Increasing surface area increases the rate (e.g., spreading clothes to
dry).
3. HUMIDITY: Increasing HUMIDITY (amount of water vapor in air) decreases the rate.
4. WIND SPEED: Increasing wind speed increases the rate.
EVAPORATION CAUSES COOLING: High kinetic energy particles leave the surface, taking
heat from the remaining liquid or surroundings.
Examples: ACETONE or PERFUME on palm, water in an earthen pot (MATKA),
wearing COTTON CLOTHES in summer.

Feature BOILING EVAPORATION

Phenomenon Type Bulk Phenomenon Surface Phenomenon
Temperature Fixed (at Boiling Point) Any temperature below Boiling Point
Cooling Effect Does not cause cooling Causes cooling
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CHARACTERISTICS OF GASES
PROPERTIES:
Lack of fixed shape or volume.
HIGHLY COMPRESSIBLE: Due to large spaces between particles.
LOW DENSITY: Low mass per unit volume compared to solids/liquids.
DIFFUSION: Gases diffuse very fast due to high kinetic energy.
NITROGEN GAS: Used to flush CHIPS bags because it is an INERT GAS (due to TRIPLE
BONDS) and prevents RANCIDITY (oxidation of fats/oils).
HYDROGEN GAS: The lightest gas; has the highest CALORIFIC VALUE (3x more energy
than petrol).

ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS (01:10)

IONIC COMPOUNDS
Formed by the transfer of electrons between atoms, resulting in IONS (charged particles).
CATION: A positively charged ion (e.g., Na+).
ANION: A negatively charged ion (e.g., Cl-).
Characteristics: High melting/boiling points, hard but brittle.

WATER AS A UNIVERSAL SOLVENT

WATER is a POLAR MOLECULE due to the high ELECTRONEGATIVITY of OXYGEN
compared to HYDROGEN.
It has a high DIPOLE MOMENT, allowing it to pull apart ionic compounds like NaCl.

ENDOTHERMIC AND EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS

ENDOTHERMIC: Reactions that require/absorb energy.
Examples: PHOTOSYNTHESIS, DECOMPOSITION OF CALCIUM CARBONATE.
EXOTHERMIC: Reactions that release energy/heat.
Examples: COMBUSTION, RESPIRATION, mixing ACID with ALKALI.

REDOX REACTIONS
A reaction involving both OXIDATION and REDUCTION.
OXIDATION: Loss of electrons, gain of oxygen, loss of hydrogen, or increase in
OXIDATION STATE.
REDUCTION: Gain of electrons, loss of oxygen, gain of hydrogen, or decrease in
OXIDATION STATE.
OXIDIZING AGENT (OXIDANT): Substance that oxidizes others and reduces itself.
REDUCING AGENT (REDUCTANT): Substance that reduces others and oxidizes itself.
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TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

1. COMBINATION: Two or more reactants form a single product. (e.g., QUICK LIME +
WATER → SLAKED LIME).
2. DECOMPOSITION: A single reactant breaks down into multiple products.
3. DISPLACEMENT: A more reactive metal displaces a less reactive metal from its salt
solution (based on the REACTIVITY SERIES).
4. DOUBLE DISPLACEMENT: Exchange of ions between two compounds (e.g., SILVER
NITRATE + SODIUM CHLORIDE).

ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS

PROPERTIES
ACIDS: Sour taste, turn BLUE LITMUS RED, release H+ or HYDRONIUM IONS (H3O+).
BASES: Bitter taste, soapy feel, turn RED LITMUS BLUE, release OH- ions.
ALKALI: Bases that are soluble in water (e.g., NaOH, KOH).

IMPORTANT CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS (SALTS)

COMMON SALT (NaCl): Used as a preservative in pickles and meat.
CAUSTIC SODA (NaOH): Produced via the CHLOR-ALKALI PROCESS. Used for
DEGREASING or DEGUMMING raw materials.
BLEACHING POWDER (CaOCl2): CALCIUM OXYCHLORIDE.
Formed by DRY SLAKED LIME + CHLORINE.
Acts as a strong OXIDIZING AGENT and DISINFECTANT.
BEKING SODA (NaHCO3): SODIUM HYDROGEN CARBONATE.
Used in SODA-ACID FIRE EXTINGUISHERS to produce CO2.
BEKING POWDER: A mixture of BEKING SODA and a mild edible acid (like TARTARIC
ACID). Produces CO2 to make bread/cakes fluffy.
WASHING SODA (Na2CO3.10H2O): Used to remove PERMANENT HARDNESS of water
and in manufacturing BORAX.
PLASTER OF PARIS (CaSO4.1/2H2O): CALCIUM SULPHATE HEMIHYDRATE. Used for
setting fractured bones and making toys.

PH IN EVERYDAY LIFE
ACID RAIN: Occurs when rain water pH is less than 5.6.
TOOTH DECAY: Starts when mouth pH is lower than 5.5. TOOTH ENAMEL is made of
CALCIUM HYDROXYAPATITE.
ANTACIDS: Mild bases like MILK OF MAGNESIA [Mg(OH)2] used to neutralize excess
stomach acid.
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METALS AND NON-METALS

REACTIVITY SERIES (TRICK: PSC MAZIL)
POTASSIUM (K), SODIUM (Na): React violently with COLD WATER, catch fire.
CALCIUM (Ca): Reacts with COLD WATER, does not catch fire; floats due to H2 bubbles.
MAGNESIUM (Mg): Reacts only with HOT WATER.
ALUMINIUM (Al), ZINC (Zn), IRON (Fe): React only with STEAM.
LEAD (Pb), COPPER (Cu), SILVER (Ag), GOLD (Au): Do not react with water at all.

ALLOYS
ALLOY: A homogeneous mixture of a metal with other metals or non-metals.
BRASS: COPPER + ZINC.
BRONZE: COPPER + TIN (Sn).
SOLDER: LEAD + TIN.
STAINLESS STEEL: IRON + NICKEL + CHROMIUM + CARBON.

KEY POINTS
Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts
Heading)
MATTER IN OUR LATENT HEAT - Hidden heat for state change
SURROUNDINGS (00:00) - Constant temperature
- FUSION (Solid to Liquid)
- VAPORIZATION (Liquid to Gas)
MATTER IN OUR EVAPORATION - Surface phenomenon
SURROUNDINGS (00:00) - Below boiling point
- Causes cooling
- Increased by Temp, Surface Area,
Wind; Decreased by Humidity
MATTER IN OUR GAS PROPERTIES - High compressibility
SURROUNDINGS (00:00) - NITROGEN: Inert, prevents
rancidity
- HYDROGEN: Lightest, high
calorific value
ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND REDOX REACTIONS - OXIDATION: Loss of e-, gain of O
CHEMICAL REACTIONS - REDUCTION: Gain of e-, loss of O
(01:10) - OXIDANT: Reduces itself
ATOMS, MOLECULES, AND CHEMICAL - Derived via valency cross-
CHEMICAL REACTIONS FORMULA multiplication
(01:10) - Al2X3 example for Al (valency 3)
and X (valency 2)
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Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts

Heading)
ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS PH SCALE - 0 to 14
(01:45) - 7 is Neutral
- Acid Rain < 5.6
- Tooth Decay < 5.5
ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS IMPORTANT SALTS - BLEACHING POWDER: CaOCl2
(01:45) (Oxidant)
- BAKING SODA: NaHCO3
- WASHING SODA: Na2CO3
(Removes permanent hardness)
- POP: CaSO4.1/2H2O
ACIDS, BASES, AND SALTS ACID THEORIES - ARRHENIUS: H+ in water
(01:45) - BRONSTED-LOWRY: H+ donor
- LEWIS: Electron pair acceptor
METALS AND NON-METALS WATER REACTION - K/Na: Cold water (violent)
(02:30) - Mg: Hot water
- Al/Zn/Fe: Steam
- Au/Ag: No reaction
METALS AND NON-METALS ALLOYS - BRASS: Cu + Zn
(02:30) - BRONZE: Cu + Sn
- AMALGAM: Contains Mercury
- WHITE GOLD: Au + Ni/Pd
STRUCTURE OF ATOMS ISOTOPES - Same Atomic No., Different Mass
(03:15) No.
- U-235: Nuclear fuel
- Co-60: Cancer treatment
- I-131: Goiter
STRUCTURE OF ATOMS RADIOACTIVITY - Spontaneous decay of unstable
(03:15) nuclei
- ALPHA DECAY: Emits Helium
nucleus (2p, 2n); Mass No. drops by
4, Atomic No. by 2

BIOLOGY
FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE
PROKARYOTIC VS. EUKARYOTIC CELLS
PROKARYOTIC CELLS: Cells where the nuclear region is not separate or specified.
They lack a NUCLEAR ENVELOPE (membrane).
Genetic material (DNA) lies open in a region called the NUCLEOID.
CELL ORGANELLES: They lack membrane-bound organelles.
Example: BACTERIA.
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EUKARYOTIC CELLS: Cells with a properly specified nuclear compartment.

They possess a NUCLEAR ENVELOPE (a double membrane with an outer and inner
layer).
CELL ORGANELLES: Possess membrane-bound organelles (e.g., MITOCHONDRIA,
GOLGI APPARATUS).
Examples: ANIMAL CELLS, PLANT CELLS.

CELL STRUCTURES AND ORGANELLES

CELL WALL:
Found in PLANT CELLS (made of CELLULOSE) to provide protection and rigidity
since plants are non-mobile.
NOT FOUND in ANIMAL CELLS.
PLASMA MEMBRANE: Also known as the CELL MEMBRANE. It is found in both plant and
animal cells.
ANIMAL CELL MEMBRANE: Essentially composed of a LIPID BY-LAYER (specifically
a PHOSPHOLIPID BY-LAYER).
It contains HYDROPHILIC (water-loving) heads and HYDROPHOBIC (water-fearing)
tails.
RIBOSOMES: The site of PROTEIN manufacturing in the cell.
MITOCHONDRIA: Known as the POWERHOUSE OF THE CELL.
Generates energy in the form of ATP (ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE).
Contains its own DNA and RIBOSOMES due to ENDOSIMBIOTIC THEORY.
CHLOROPLASTS/PLASTIDS: Found only in PLANT CELLS.
Responsible for PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
Contain their own DNA.
LYSOSOMES: Known as SUICIDE BAGS OF A CELL.
Contain DIGESTIVE ENZYMES made by the ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
(RER).
GOLGI APPARATUS plays a role in their formation.
VACUOLES:
Provide TURGIDITY and RIGIDITY in PLANT CELLS, occupying 50-90% of the space.
Present in ANIMAL CELLS but are much smaller and less prominent.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER):
ROUGH ER (RER): Appears rough under a microscope due to attached RIBOSOMES;
site of protein synthesis.
SMOOTH ER (SER): Lacks ribosomes; plays a crucial role in DETOXIFYING poisons
and drugs in the LIVER.

DNA AND GENETIC MATERIAL

DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID): A double-stranded helix structure.
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GENE: A specific functional segment or "chunk" of DNA that codes for a protein.
CHROMATIN: Thread-like structure of DNA and PROTEIN (specifically HISTONE) found in
the nucleus.
CHROMOSOMES: Highly coiled and condensed form of CHROMATIN visible only during
CELL DIVISION.
Humans have 46 CHROMOSOMES (23 pairs).
NUCLEOSOMES: A unit of DNA wrapped around HISTONE proteins (like a spool).
NUCLEOTIDE: The sub-unit of DNA, consisting of:
1. PHOSPHATE GROUP
2. SUGAR GROUP
3. NITROGENOUS BASE (Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, or Thymine).

LIFE PROCESSES
NUTRITION TYPES
AUTOTROPHS: Organisms capable of performing PHOTOSYNTHESIS to make their own
food (e.g., PLANTS, BLUE GREEN ALGAE, EUGLENA).
HETEROTROPHS: Organisms dependent on others for nutrition (e.g., HUMANS,
ANIMALS).
SAPROTROPHS: Organisms that feed on dead and decaying matter (e.g., FUNGI,
MUSHROOMS, YEAST).

ENERGY STORAGE
GLYCOGEN: The form in which excess GLUCOSE is stored in the HUMAN BODY (Animal
cells).
STARCH: The form in which excess GLUCOSE is stored in PLANTS.

RESPIRATION PATHWAYS
GLUCOSE (6-carbon molecule) is first converted to PYRUVATE (3-carbon molecule) in the
CYTOPLASM.

Condition Organism/Location Products

ABSENCE OF OXYGEN YEAST (Fermentation) ETHANOL + CO2 + Energy
LACK OF OXYGEN MUSCLE CELLS LACTIC ACID + Energy (causes cramps)
PRESENCE OF OXYGEN MITOCHONDRIA CO2 + WATER + Energy (ATP)

DIGESTION AND ENZYMES

ENZYMES: Act as BIOCATALYSTS to speed up reactions without being consumed.
STOMACH: Releases PEPSIN (acts on protein) and HYDROCHLORIC ACID (HCL).
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LIVER: Secretes BILE (stored in GALL BLADDER) which acts on FATS. It also breaks down
fats to produce CHOLESTEROL.
PANCREAS: Secretes TRYPSIN (proteins), PANCREATIC AMYLASE (starch), and LIPASE
(fats).
UREA: The main nitrogenous waste in humans, formed from the breakdown of AMINO
ACIDS.

TISSUES
PLANT TISSUES
MERISTEMATIC TISSUE: Dividing tissues responsible for growth.
APICAL MERISTEM: Located at tips of roots and stems; increases LENGTH.
LATERAL MERISTEM (CAMBIUM): Increases the GIRTH (thickness).
INTERCALARY MERISTEM: Located at the base of leaves or nodes; helps in
elongation of internodes.
PERMANENT TISSUES:
PARENCHYMA: Stores food.
ARENCHYMA: Contains large air spaces; helps aquatic plants float.
CHLORENCHYMA: Contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
COLLENCHYMA: Provides FLEXIBILITY and allows easy bending (e.g., tendrils).
SCLERENCHYMA: Made of dead cells; provides HARDNESS and STIFFNESS (e.g.,
husk of coconut).
VASCULAR TISSUES:
XYLEM: Transports WATER and MINERALS (One-way flow).
PHLOEM: Transports FOOD (Two-way flow).

ANIMAL TISSUES
CONNECTIVE TISSUE: Includes BLOOD, BONE, CARTILAGE, LIGAMENT, and TENDON.
LIGAMENT: Connects BONE TO BONE (Trick: BULB).
TENDON: Connects MUSCLE TO BONE (Trick: MBT).
NERVOUS TISSUE: Composed of NEURONS.
SYNAPSE: The gap between two nerve cells where electrical signals convert to
CHEMICALS for transmission.

DIVERSITY IN LIVING ORGANISMS

TAXONOMIC HIERARCHY
KINGDOM → PHYLUM (Animals) / DIVISION (Plants) → CLASS → ORDER → FAMILY →
GENUS → SPECIES.
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TRICK: "Class mein Order maintain nahi kiya toh Family nayi Jeans (Genus) nahi
dilwayegi."

ANIMALIA KINGDOM EXAMPLES

PORIFERA: Have pores; examples include SYCON, SPONGILLA, EUPLECTELLA.
PLATYHELMINTHES: Flat bodies, no cavity; examples include PLANARIA, LIVER FLUKE,
TAPE WORM.
ANNELIDA: Ringed/segmented bodies; examples include EARTHWORM, LEECH, NEREIS.
ECHINODERMATA: Spiny-skinned; examples include ANTEDON, ASTERIAS (Starfish),
HOLOTHURIA (Sea cucumber), ECHINUS (Sea urchin).
CHORDATA: Possess a NOTOCHORD.
PROTOCHORDATA: Primitive chordates (e.g., HERDMANIA, BALANOGLOSSUS,
AMPHIOXUS).
VERTEBRATA: Have a vertebral column. Includes PISCES, AMPHIBIA, REPTILIA,
AVES, MAMMALIA.
REPTILIA: Usually 3-chambered heart, but CROCODILE is an exception with a 4-
CHAMBERED HEART.

KEY POINTS
Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts
Heading)
FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF PROKARYOTES - No Nuclear Envelope
LIFE (00:00) - Nucleoid region
- No membrane-bound organelles
FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF CELL ORGANELLES - MITOCHONDRIA: ATP, own DNA,
LIFE (00:00) Powerhouse
- LYSOSOMES: Suicide bags, Digestive
enzymes
- VACUOLES: Turgidity in plants
FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF DNA SUB-UNIT - NUCLEOTIDE: Phosphate + Sugar +
LIFE (00:00) Nitrogenous Base
LIFE PROCESSES (15:30) RESPIRATION - Cytoplasm: Glucose to Pyruvate
- Muscle: Lactic acid (Lack of O2)
- Yeast: Ethanol + CO2 (Absence of O2)
LIFE PROCESSES (15:30) BLOOD - PLASMA: 55% volume, fluid
COMPONENTS - RBC: Erythrocytes, transport O2
- WBC: Leukocytes, fight infection
- PLATELETS: Thrombocytes, blood
clotting
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Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts

Heading)
LIFE PROCESSES (15:30) FLUORIDE IN - Deficiency: Tooth decay/cavities
WATER - Excess (>3-4 PPM): Mottling of
teeth, skeletal fluorosis
TISSUES (35:45) PLANT TISSUES - APICAL: Length
- LATERAL: Girth
- COLLENCHYMA: Flexibility
- SCLERENCHYMA: Stiffness (Coconut
husk)
TISSUES (35:45) CONNECTIVE - LIGAMENT: Bone to Bone
TISSUE - TENDON: Muscle to Bone
- BLOOD: Fluid connective tissue
CONTROL AND PLANT - PHOTOTROPISM: Light
COORDINATION MOVEMENTS - GEOTROPISM: Gravity (Roots +ve,
(01:05:00) Shoot -ve)
- CHEMOTROPISM: Chemical (Pollen
tube)
- NASTIC: Non-directional (Touch-me-
not)
CONTROL AND HORMONES - ADRENALINE: Fight/Flight, Heart rate
COORDINATION - INSULIN: Blood sugar (Pancreas)
(01:05:00) - THYROXINE: Metabolism (Thyroid,
needs Iodine)
- MELATONIN: Sleep cycle (Pineal)
DIVERSITY IN LIVING CLASSIFICATION - MONERA: Bacteria, Anabaena
ORGANISMS (55:20) - PROTISTA: Amoeba, Euglena
- THALLOPHYTA: Spirogyra, Ulothrix
DIVERSITY IN LIVING COELOM/CAVITY - PLATYHELMINTHES: No cavity
ORGANISMS (55:20) - NEMATODA: Pseudo-coelom
- ANNELIDA: True coelom
MISCELLANEOUS BIOTECHNOLOGY - RED: Medical/Pharmaceutical
- CLONING: Asexual, identical to
single parent (e.g., DOLLY the sheep)

PHYSICS
UNIT AND DIMENSION
PRESSURE: Defined as FORCE / AREA.
S.I. Unit: PASCAL (Pa) or NEWTON PER METRE SQUARED (N /m ). 2

Other Units: BAR, ATM (Atmosphere), MM HG (used in medicine/blood pressure).

Relationship: 1 ATM is slightly larger than 1 BAR.
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Non-unit of Pressure: JOULE / METRE SQUARED (J /m ) is NOT a unit of pressure.

2

⭐️ [Note: Joule is a unit of energy/work, not force.]

SYSTEM OF UNITS:
CGS: Centimetre, Gram, Second.
FPS: Foot, Pound, Second.
MKS: Metre, Kilogram, Second.
SI (INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS): Consists of 7 Fundamental Units and 2
Supplementary Units (RADIAN for plane angles and STERADIAN for solid angles).
FUNDAMENTAL VS. DERIVED UNITS:
FUNDAMENTAL UNITS: Basic units like Metre (Length), Kilogram (Mass), and
Second (Time).
DERIVED UNITS: Units obtained by combining fundamental units (e.g., Force =
kg ⋅ m/s , also known as NEWTON).
2

MOTION AND LAWS OF MOTION

NEWTON'S FIRST LAW OF MOTION (LAW OF INERTIA): An object remains at rest or in
constant velocity unless acted upon by an external unbalanced force.
Example: A passenger is thrown back with a jerk when a stationary bus starts
moving because the body resists the change in state.
NEWTON'S SECOND LAW OF MOTION: The rate of change of momentum is directly
proportional to the applied force (F = ma ).
NEWTON'S THIRD LAW OF MOTION: For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction.
Key Property: Action and reaction forces act on DIFFERENT OBJECTS, never on the
same object.
Example: Recoil of a gun when a bullet is fired.
CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM: A consequence of NEWTON'S THIRD LAW. In
an isolated system with no external unbalanced force, the total linear momentum
remains constant.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION:
1. v = u + at
2. s = ut + 1
2
at
2

3. 2as = v2
− u
2

Requirements: Valid for STRAIGHT LINE MOTION with UNIFORM ACCELERATION.

FREE FALL AND GRAVITY:
ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY (g): Approximately 9.8m/s or 10m/s .
2 2

Upward Motion: Acceleration is negative (-g) because it acts against gravity.

Downward Motion: Acceleration is positive (+g).
At the highest point of an upward throw, FINAL VELOCITY (v) is momentarily zero,
while acceleration remains constant.
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WEIGHT: A force (W = mg ). Unlike MASS (which is constant), WEIGHT changes

based on gravity.
WEIGHT AT THE CENTER OF THE EARTH: Becomes zero because gravity pulls
equally from all directions, canceling out.
Location Gravity (g) Reason
POLES Maximum Radius of Earth is smaller at poles.
EQUATOR Minimum Radius of Earth is larger at equator.
ALTITUDE (UP) Decreases Distance from center increases.
DEPTH (DOWN) Decreases Effective mass of Earth decreases.

SOUND
NATURE OF SOUND: A LONGITUDINAL MECHANICAL WAVE that requires a medium to
travel. It cannot travel through a VACUUM.
SPEED OF SOUND:
Depends on the medium: SOLIDS > LIQUIDS > GASES.
Highest in ALUMINIUM (among solids).
Increases with TEMPERATURE.
Higher in SEA WATER than DISTILLED WATER due to minerals.
AUDIBLE RANGE: 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz (or 20 kHz).
INFRASONIC: Below 20 Hz (e.g., Earthquakes, Elephants, Whales).
ULTRASONIC: Above 20,000 Hz (e.g., Bats, Rats, Mosquitoes).
ECHO: Reflection of sound.
Minimum distance for echo: 17.2 METRES.
Persistence of hearing: 0.1 SECONDS.
REVERBERATION: Prolonged echo caused by multiple reflections in large halls.
DOPPLER EFFECT: The change in frequency of sound due to relative motion between the
source and the observer. Used in RADAR GUNS to check overspeeding cars.

ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

OHM'S LAW: V = IR (Voltage = Current × Resistance).
ELECTRICAL DEVICES:
AMMETER: Measures Current; connected in SERIES; has LOW RESISTANCE.
VOLTMETER: Measures Potential Difference; connected in PARALLEL; has HIGH
RESISTANCE.
GALVANOMETER: Detects presence and direction of current.
GENERATOR: Converts MECHANICAL ENERGY to ELECTRICAL ENERGY; works on
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION.
MOTOR: Converts ELECTRICAL ENERGY to MECHANICAL ENERGY.
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TRANSFORMER: Changes AC voltage levels (Step-up or Step-down). Does NOT

work on DIRECT CURRENT (DC).
Feature TRANSFORMER TYPE VOLTAGE CURRENT
Step-up Increases Voltage Decreases Current
Step-down Decreases Voltage Increases Current

DOMESTIC CIRCUITS:
LIVE WIRE: Red insulation (220V).
NEUTRAL WIRE: Black insulation (0V).
EARTH WIRE: Green insulation; provides safety against electric shock.
SHORT CIRCUIT: Occurs when Live and Neutral wires come in direct contact; current
INCREASES SHARPLY.
MAGNETIC FIELD LINES:
Form CLOSED LOOPS (North to South outside, South to North inside).
NEVER INTERSECT.
Crowded lines indicate a STRONGER MAGNETIC FIELD.

LIGHT AND OPTICS

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION (TIR): Occurs when light travels from DENSE to RARE
medium and the angle of incidence exceeds the CRITICAL ANGLE.
Applications: OPTICAL FIBERS, MIRAGE, BRILLIANCE OF DIAMOND, ENDOSCOPY.
SCATTERING:
TYNDALL EFFECT: Scattering of light by colloidal particles.
BLUE SKY: Small particles scatter shorter wavelengths (Blue) more effectively.
RED SUNSET: Red light has a longer wavelength and scatters the least, traveling
longer distances.
HUMAN EYE DEFECTS:
MYOPIA (SHORT-SIGHTEDNESS): Can see near objects; corrected by CONCAVE
LENS.
HYPERMETROPIA (LONG-SIGHTEDNESS): Can see far objects; corrected by
CONVEX LENS.
PRESBYOPIA: Old-age defect where ciliary muscles weaken; corrected by CONVEX
LENS.

KEY POINTS
Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts
Heading)
UNIT AND DIMENSION PRESSURE UNITS - SI: Pascal, N /m
2

(00:00) - Others: Bar, ATM, mm Hg

- 1 ATM > 1 Bar
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Main Topic (from H2 Subtopic/Concept Key Details, Keywords & Facts

Heading)
MOTION AND LAWS OF NEWTON'S LAWS - 1st: Inertia (resisting change)
MOTION (05:32) - 2nd: F = ma
- 3rd: Action/Reaction (different
objects)
MOTION AND LAWS OF CONSERVATION - MOMENTUM: Isolated system, no
MOTION (05:32) LAWS external force
- ENERGY: Cannot be
created/destroyed, only transformed
SOUND (25:15) WAVE PROPERTIES - Longitudinal, requires medium
- Speed: Solid > Liquid > Gas
- Audible: 20Hz - 20kHz
SOUND (25:15) ECHO & - Echo: 17.2m min distance
REVERBERATION - Reverberation: Multiple reflections
ELECTRICITY AND MEASURING TOOLS - AMMETER: Series, Low Resistance
MAGNETISM (45:50) - VOLTMETER: Parallel, High
Resistance
ELECTRICITY AND TRANSFORMERS - AC only
MAGNETISM (45:50) - Minimizes power loss in
transmission via high voltage/low
current
LIGHT AND OPTICS TIR APPLICATIONS - Optical Fiber, Mirage, Diamond
(01:05:20) brilliance
LIGHT AND OPTICS SCATTERING - Blue sky (short wavelength scatters
(01:05:20) more)
- Red danger signals (long
wavelength scatters less)
LIGHT AND OPTICS EYE DEFECTS - MYOPIA: Concave lens
(01:05:20) - HYPERMETROPIA: Convex lens
- PRESBYOPIA: Convex lens
MISCELLANEOUS PHOTOELECTRIC - ALBERT EINSTEIN
EFFECT - Light as particles (Photons)
- Threshold frequency required