Title of the Subject/Subject Code: APPLIED GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING, B22ED0601,VI

Hours per week :04 Exam Hours: 03

Total Hours of Lectures: 52 Exam Marks:100
Name of the Faculty [Link] Name of the School: School of Civil Engineering

UNIT .4.a
FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT.
FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT: Importance and Concept of Settlement Analysis, immediate, consolidation
and secondary settlements (no derivations, but ,computation using relevant formula for Normally
Consolidated soils), Tolerance. BIS specifications for total and differential settlements of footings and
rafts.

4.1 Definitions
Settlement is the vertically downward movement of structure due to the compression of underlying soil because of
increased load.

4.2 Total Settlement

Total foundation settlement can be divided into three different components, namely Immediate or elastic settlement,
consolidation settlement and secondary or creep settlement as given below.

S = SI + SC + SS
Here, S = Total Settlement
SI =Se= Immediate / Elastic Settlement
SC = Consolidation Settlement
SS = Secondary Settlement/

4.21 Immediate / Elastic Settlement.

• Immediate settlement is also called elastic settlement.
• It is determined from elastic theory.
• It occurs in all types of soil due to elastic compression.
• It occurs immediately after the application of load
• It depends on the elastic properties of foundation soil, rigidity, size
and shape of foundation.
•Immediate settlement is calculated by the equation mentioned below.
Here,
(1−µ2 )
Si=qB 𝐼𝑊
ES
SI = Immediate settlement
µ = Poisson’s Ratio of foundation soil
E = Young’s modulus of Foundation Soil or Compression modulus.
q = Contact pressure at the base of foundation
B = Least lateral dimension of foundation
Iw = Influence Factor
Typical Range of Poisson’s Ratio for different soils.
Type of Soil Poisson’s Ratio
Saturated Clay 0.50
 Sandy Clay 0.30-0.40
Unsaturated Clay 0.35-0.40
Loess 0.44
Silt 0.30-0.35
Sand 0.15-0.30
Rock 0.10-0.40
Typical Range of Soil Modulus in untrained state Soil Type Soil Modulus (kPa)

I W – For different Shape of Footing Flexible Rigid Center Corner Mean

Shape of footing Flexible Rigid
Center Corner Mean
Circle 1.00 0.64 0.85 0.88
Square 1.12 0.56 0.95 0.82
Rectangular L/B=1.5 1.36 0.68 1.20 1.02
Rectangular L/B=1.5 2.10 1.05 1.83 1.70

DECEMBER 2010, Feb 2002

Determine the elastic settlement of a footing 3 m X 3 m resting on sandy soil given Es = 45000 kPa and
µ = 0.3. Footing carries a load of 2000 kN. Take Iw = 0.82.
Given:
B=3 m, L=3 m, SOIL= Sandy, Es=45000kN/m2, µ=0.3, Q=2000kN, Iw=0.82,
Soln
Si=qB(1-µ2)I/Es
q,=Q/A=2000/(3x3)=222.22kN/m2,

Si=(222.22X3)(1-(.3)2)X.82/45000

Si=0.011m, Si=11mm.

DECEMBER 2011
Estimate the immediate settlement of a concrete footing 1.0 m X 1.0 m in size, if it is founded at a depth of 1 m in
silty soil whose compression modulus is 10.0N/mm2. Footing is expected to transmit unit pressure of 200 kPa. Assume
Iw = 1.06, µ = 0.3
Given:
B=1 m, L=1 m, D= 1 m, SOIL= Silty soil, Es=10N/mm2 = 10X1000X1000/1000=10000kN/m2.
µ=0.3, q=200kN/m2, Iw=1.06,
Soln
Si=qB(1-µ2)I/Es
Si=(200X1)(1-(.3)2)/10000
Si=0.0193m, Si=19.3mm.
4.22 Consolidation Settlement.
Consolidation settlement( primary consolidation settelement)-Sc

𝑪 (𝒑𝟎 + 𝜟𝒑)
Sc= H(𝟏+𝒆𝑪 ) Log
𝟎 𝒑𝟎

H- Thickness of clay layer

𝒆𝟎 - Initial Void ration- The value may be given or
Obtained by - 𝒆𝟎 =Gwn , G-Specific gravity, wn –Natural saturated water content of clay.

𝑪𝑪 - Compression index- The value may be given or

Obtained by - 𝑪𝒄 =0.009(wL-10), wL –Liquid limit of clay.
(𝒆𝟏 −𝒆𝟐 )
- 𝑪𝒄 = 𝒑 - Slope of e-log p plot.
𝑳𝒐𝒈 [ 𝟐 ]
𝒑𝟏
𝒑𝟎 -Iniatial overburden pressure at the middle of clay layer-The value may be given or
Obtained by 𝒑𝟎 =∑ ϒZ, ϒ-Effective unit wt of soil.

𝜟𝒑-Increase in pressure due to the construction at the middle of clay layer

-The value may be given or Obtained by
𝑸
𝜟𝒑= , Q is Load and A1- Area at the middle of clay layer(trapizotal variation1H:2V).
𝑨𝟏

GATE-2009.
Given
Q=200kN, H=1m, wn=22.22, G=2.7, CC=0.4

SOLN:
𝑪 (𝒑𝟎 + 𝜟𝒑)
Sc= H(𝟏+𝒆𝑪 ) Log
𝟎 𝒑𝟎

H=1m,
Cc=0.4,
eo=2.7X.2222=0.6,
ϒ𝐜𝐥𝐚𝐲 =(G+𝒆𝟎 ) ϒ𝐰/(1+𝒆𝟎 )=(2.7+.6)10/(1+.6)=20.625kN/m2
Q59-(b).
𝒑𝟎 =∑ ϒZ =((18-10)X2)+((20.625-10)X0.5)= 21.3125kN/m2

Δp=200/(3.5X3.5)=16.33kN/m2

𝟎.𝟒 (𝟐𝟏.𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟓+ 𝟏𝟔.𝟑𝟑)

Sc= 1X(𝟏+𝟎.𝟔) Log =0.06175m=61.75mm
𝟐𝟏.𝟑𝟏𝟐𝟓
Q60-(c).

AUG 2002
The total time taken for 50 % consolidation of clay layer is 4 years. What will be the time taken
for 90 % consolidation ? (Aug 2001)
Soln:

Assignment.
4.23 Secondary Compression/Creep settlement.

1. This settlement starts after the primary consolidation is completely over.

2. During this settlement, excess pore water pressure is zero.
3. The reasons for secondary settlement are not clear.
4. This is creep settlement occurring due to the readjustment of particles to
a stable equilibrium under sustained loading over a long time.
5. This settlement is common in very sensitive clay, organic soils and loose sand with clay binders.
𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑐 −𝑡𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚
Ss = Cα H Log10[ 𝑡𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑚
]

Cα = Coefficient of secondary compression

H = Thickness of clay layer
tsec = Time taken for secondary compression (usually life span of structure)
tprim = Time taken for primary consolidation to complete (Effective pore water pressure become zero)

Problem : Determine the creep settlement in a sensitive clay of thickness 6 m given C α= 0.01 when the
laboratory sample 20 mm thick with double drainage experienced complete consolidation in 10 minutes.
The life span of structure is 100 years.
Given
Cα = 0.01
H = 6m
tsec = 100years (usually life span of structure)
t prim lab= 10min,
TV1 d12 TV2 d22
=
Cv1 t1 Cv2 t 2
t prim = 6.85 years
𝒕𝒔𝒆𝒄 −𝒕𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎
S s = Cα H Log10[ ]
𝒕𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎
S s = 0.068m.

4.3 BIS specifications for total and differential settlements of footings and rafts.
IS 1904-1986 presents Table 1 which gives details about the permissible settlement in steel structures,
reinforced concrete structures, multi-storeyed buildings and water towers and silos in two different types
of soils, namely
(1) Sand and hard clay and (2) Plastic clay.
Maximum Settlement : It is the absolute maximum downward movement of any part of building element.
Maximum Settlement = Smax

Differential Settlement : It is the maximum difference between two points in a building element.
Differential Settlement = Smax - Smin

Angular Distortion : It is another method of expressing differential settlement.

Angular Distortion = Differential Settlement/Length of element
= (Smax - Smin)/L

4.4 Factors Influencing Settlement

Many factors influence the settlement of foundation soil when a structure is built on it. The following are
a few important factors to be considered in the evaluation of settlement.
1. Elastic properties of soil,
2. Shape of footing,
3. Rigidity of footing,
4. Contact pressure,
5. Width of footing,
6. Compressibility characteristics of soil,
7. Initial conditions of soil (Density, void ratio etc.)
8. Degree of saturation,
9. Over Consolidation Ratio,
10. Time available for settlement,
11. Thickness of soil layer.
Applied Geotechnical Engineering
B22ED0601

School of Civil Engineering

 Unit-4
Foundation Settlement, Proportioning Shallow and Pile
Foundations: Importance and Concept of Settlement Analysis,
Immediate, Consolidation and Secondary settlements (no
derivations) Tolerance. BIS specifications for total and differential
settlements of footings and rafts. Allowable Bearing Pressure,
Factors influencing the selection of depth of foundation, Allowable
Bearing Pressure, choice of foundation, proportioning isolated,
combined, strip and mat foundations, Classification of pile
foundation, Pile load capacity, Proportioning pile foundation.
Introduction to Geosynthetics: Definition, types of geo-synthetics,
properties of geo-synthetics and various foundation/poor soil/civil
engineering applications.
By the end of this unit, students will be able to:

[Link] the importance of settlement analysis in foundation design.

[Link] between immediate, consolidation, and secondary settlements.
[Link] BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) specifications for allowable settlement.
[Link] bearing capacity and determine foundation depth.
[Link] shallow foundations (isolated, combined, strip, mat).
[Link] pile foundations and estimate their load capacity.
[Link] the role of geosynthetics in foundation engineering.

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Why Study Settlement?

•Structural Integrity: Excessive settlement can lead to cracks, tilting, or collapse.

•Differential Settlement: Uneven sinking causes more damage than uniform settlement.
•Economic Impact: Proper analysis prevents costly repairs.

Key Terms

•Total Settlement = Sum of immediate, consolidation, and secondary settlement.

•Differential Settlement = Difference in settlement between foundation points.
•Permissible Limits (BIS Standards):
• Isolated Footings: 40–65 mm
• Raft Foundations: 65–100 mm

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Types of Settlement

1. Immediate Settlement (Elastic Settlement, Si​ or Se)

•Occurs instantly in granular soils (sand, gravel).

•Formula:

• q = Applied pressure (kN/m²)

• B = Foundation width (m)
• μ = Poisson’s ratio (~0.3 for sand)
• E = Modulus of elasticity (kN/m²)
• Iw = Influence factor (depends on foundation shape)

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Consolidation Settlement (Sc​)

•Occurs in clayey soils due to water expulsion.

•Primary Consolidation: Water drains, soil compresses.
•Secondary Consolidation: Long-term creep deformation.
•Formula (Normally Consolidated Clay):

• Cc = Compression index (lab test)

• H = Thickness of clay layer (m)
• e0 = Initial void ratio
• σ0′ = Initial effective stress (kN/m²)
• Δσ = Stress increase due to foundation

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Secondary Settlement (Ss)

•Creep deformation after primary consolidation.

•Formula:

• Cα = Secondary compression index

• t = Time after construction
• tp = Time for primary consolidation

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BIS Specifications for Settlement

Factors Affecting Settlement

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Allowable Bearing Pressure

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Proportioning Shallow Foundations

1. Isolated Footing (Square/Rectangular)

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2. Combined Footing (Two Columns)

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3. Strip Footing (Wall Foundation)

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4. Mat (Raft) Foundation

Step 4: Reinforcement Design

•Two-way slab analysis with column loads as point loads.

•Shear Check: Critical at column perimeters.

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1. Introduction to Pile Foundations

Pile foundations are deep structural elements used when:

•Surface soils are weak/compressible

•High structural loads (bridges, skyscrapers)
•Uplift or lateral forces are present
•Expansive soils or high water tables exist

Key Advantages:

•Bypasses poor surface soils

•Resists settlement better than shallow foundations
•Handles tension (uplift) and lateral loads

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2. Classification of Piles
By Material
Type Characteristics Applications
Precast or cast-in-situ, 250-
Concrete High-rise buildings, bridges
600mm diameter
H-piles (200-400mm) or pipe Offshore structures, heavy
Steel
piles industries
150-350mm diameter, limited Temporary structures, low-cost
Timber
to 20m length projects
Steel-concrete or timber- Special load/durability
Composite
concrete combinations requirements
Material Details
Concrete piles Precast or cast-in-situ (bored); common and strong.
Steel piles H-piles or pipe piles; used in deep or marine works.
Timber piles Economical for temporary/light loads in soft soils.

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Based on Function (Purpose)

Type Description
Transfer load directly to strong soil/rock at the tip (like
End-bearing piles
a column resting on firm ground).
Transfer load through skin friction between the pile
Friction piles
surface and surrounding soil.
Used to densify loose granular soils; not load-bearing
Compaction piles
themselves.
Resist uplift forces (e.g., in towers, tanks, or offshore
Tension or uplift piles
structures).
Anchor piles Used to anchor retaining walls or sheet piles.

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C. By Installation Method Verification Methods
•Driven piles (hammered into ground)
A. Static Load Test
•Bored piles (hole drilled then concreted)
•Most reliable method
•Screw piles (rotated into ground)
•Load applied incrementally up to 200% of design load
•Micro piles (small diameter, <300mm)
•Measures settlement vs load curve

B. Dynamic Methods

•PDA (Pile Driving Analyzer)

•CAPWAP analysis (Case Pile Wave Analysis Program)
•Suitable for driven piles

C. Correlation Methods

•SPT-N values
•CPT cone resistance
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Based on Installation Method
Method Description
Driven piles Precast piles driven into the ground using hammers.
Bored piles (cast-in-situ) Hole drilled and concrete cast in place.
Screw piles Helical blades screwed into the ground.
Jack piles Pressed into ground using hydraulic jacks (low noise).

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Pile Load Capacity

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22
Factors Affecting Selection of Foundation and Its Depth

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Introduction to Geosynthetics: Definition, Types, Properties, and Applications

1. Definition of Geosynthetics

Geosynthetics are synthetic polymer-based materials used in geotechnical, environmental, and civil
engineering applications to:

❖ Improve soil stability

❖ Enhance drainage
❖ Provide reinforcement
❖ Control erosion
❖ Separate soil layers

Key Advantages:
Cost-effective compared to traditional methods
Lightweight and easy to install
Durable (resistant to chemicals, UV, and biological degradation)
Versatile (multiple functions in one material)

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 Geomembrane

Geogrid

Geocell Geonets

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2. Types of Geosynthetics
Type Primary Function Key Characteristics Image Example

Separation, Filtration, Woven/non-woven

Geotextiles
Drainage fabrics, permeable

Open grid structure, high

Geogrids Reinforcement
tensile strength

Impermeable sheets
Geomembranes Barrier (Waterproofing)
(HDPE, PVC)

Confinement, Erosion 3D honeycomb structure,

Geocells
Control infilled with soil

Parallel ribs for high flow

Geonets Drainage
capacity

Combines ≥2
Geocomposites Multifunctional geosynthetics (e.g.,
geotextile + geogrid)

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Definition
Geosynthetics are synthetic (man-made) products used in geotechnical and civil engineering projects to
improve soil behavior, provide reinforcement, filtration, separation, drainage, or containment.
They are made from polymer materials such as polypropylene, polyester, polyethylene, and polyvinyl
chloride.

Think of geosynthetics as materials that are “added to the soil” to make it stronger, more stable, and
durable.

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Applications in Foundation and Civil Engineering
Geosynthetics are widely used in soft soil improvement, embankments, foundations, and other civil works:
i. Reinforcement
•Soft soil subgrades: Geotextiles and geogrids reinforce weak soils under roads, railways.
•Retaining walls and embankments: Geogrids provide tensile strength.
ii. Separation
•Prevents intermixing of materials like subgrade soil and aggregates.
•Common in road base construction.
iii. Filtration
•Allows water to pass while retaining soil particles.
•Used behind retaining walls and in drainage trenches.
iv. Drainage
•Geonets, geocomposites, and geopipes allow water to drain away from structures.
•Critical for slope stability and pavement longevity.
v. Containment and Barrier
•Geomembranes are used in landfills, canal linings, and wastewater treatment ponds to prevent leakage.
vi. Erosion Control
•Geotextiles and geocells stabilize soil on slopes and embankments.
•Prevent surface erosion due to water or wind.

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Advantages of Geosynthetics

•Cost-effective soil improvement.

•Easy to install and transport.
•Versatile applications across construction, environment, and agriculture.
•Long-term durability.

Disadvantages of Geosynthetics:

•Prone to UV degradation if exposed to sunlight.

•Susceptible to chemical and biological attack in harsh environments.
•Risk of damage during installation (tearing, puncture).
•Clogging issues in drainage/filter applications.
•Low compressive strength without soil support.
•Higher initial cost for certain types.
•Environmental concerns (non-biodegradable).
•Requires skilled labor for proper installation.

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Thank You