An Overview of Evolution:
Evolution is the change in allele frequencies within a population
over successive generations
Key terms:
-Population: A group of organisms of the same species living in the same
area at the same time and capable of interbreeding
-Gene Pool: The total collection of all alleles present within a population
-Allele frequency: The proportion of a particular allele within a population
Genetic Variation can be defined as the differences in DNA
sequence and alleles between individuals within a population.
Genetic variation is linked to the heterozygosity of a population, as
a population is more genetically variant if it has more heterozygous
individuals
-Sources of genetic variation include mutations
(beneficial/harmful/neutral) and recombination (independent
assortment, crossing over + random fertilisation)
Natural Selection is the process by which individuals with
advantageous heritable traits survive and reproduce more
successfully than others
-As these individuals reproduce, the beneficial alleles become more
common in the population
Conditions required for natural selection:
1. Variation exists ~ individuals differ genetically
2. Selection pressure exists ~ environmental factors favour some
traits over others
3. Differential survival ~ individuals with advantageous traits survive
better
4. Differential reproduction ~ surviving individuals reproduce and
pass on beneficial alleles
5. Allele frequencies change ~ over generations, advantageous alleles
increase in frequency
*diff types of natural selection
Selection pressures are environmental factors (biotic
interactions/abiotic conditions) that influence the survival and
therefore reproduction of individuals with advantageous traits,
affecting the course of evolution
-Isolation mechanisms are specific biotic/abiotic selection pressures,
preventing populations from interbreeding and exchanging genes
-When populations become isolated, they can evolve independently. Over
time, the differences may become so great that they can no longer
produce fertile offspring, leading to the formation of a new species
(speciation)
Types of Isolation Mechanisms:
1. Geographic ~ a physical barrier separating populations (e.g. a
mountain or river)
2. Behavioural ~ different mating behaviours
3. Temporal ~ populations breed at different times
4. Mechanical ~ physical differences preventing mating
5. Gametic ~ Fertilisation cannot occur even if mating happens
Isolation matters because without it, gene flow would continue and
populations would remain genetically similar, decreasing chances
of speciation
Abiotic Isolation physically separate members within a population
(e.g., isolation due to climate change, natural disasters etc.). This
geographic isolation separates populations and prevents gene flow
between them
-Over time, different selection pressures acting on the isolated
populations and the lack of gene flow can lead to significant genetic
differences, leading to speciation
Biotic isolation mechanisms involve the ability of 2 individuals to
mate and produce fertile, viable offspring. These mechanisms can
include isolation due to changes in mating behaviour or
reproductive timing
Populations with large genetic diversity have a greater chance of
individuals overcoming selection pressures, surviving and
reproducing
-If this genetic diversity reduces, so too does the ability to overcome
selection pressures, leading to a reduction in survival and reproduction
-Allopatric and sympatric speciayion
Artificial Selection/Selective Breeding
Artificial Selection is the process by which humans deliberately
choose which organisms reproduce to increase the frequency of
desired traits in future generations
-Unlike natural selection where the environment is the selecting agent, in
artificial selection, humans are the selecting agent
The process:
1. A population contains genetic variation
2. Humans identify individuals with desirable traits
3. Those individuals are bred together
4. Their offspring inherit the desired alleles
5. The process is repeated over many generations
In terms of evolution, artificial selection is evidence that
populations can change over generations
-If certain alleles are passed on more frequently than others, the
characteristics of a population will change over time
Disadvantages of artificial selection
-Reduced genetic diversity: When breeders repeatedly select similar
individuals, populations can become more genetically similar. This often
leads to decreased heterozygosity and makes populations more
vulnerable to disease, environmental change and new selection
pressures.
-Inherited disorders: some desired traits are associated with harmful
alleles, because breeding focused heavily on specific physical
characteristics.