AKUEB HSSC II Physics — Formula

Compendium
Topics 11–20 · Grade XII only · AKU-EB Syllabus 2022 · All SLO formulae extracted ·
Variables & notations as per syllabus · No formula sheet in exam — all must be memorised

KEY:

Frequently tested / directly asked in Paper I & II (based on 2025 & past
papers)

All other SLO

formulae

11. ELECTROSTATICS 12. CURRENT ELECTRICITY 13. ELECTROMAGNETISM

14. EM INDUCTION 15. ALTERNATING CURRENT 16. PHYSICS OF SOLIDS

17. ELECTRONICS 18. MODERN PHYSICS 19. ATOMIC SPECTRA

20. NUCLEAR PHYSICS CONSTANTS

 TOPIC 11 Electrostatics

C O U LO M B ' S L AW & E L E C T R I C F I E L D

F = kq₁q₂ / r² Coulomb's law. 11.2.1 k = 9×10⁹ N m² C⁻², q₁, q₂ =

charges (C), r = separation (m). In a medium of
relative permittivity ε_r: F = kq₁q₂ / (ε_r r²). Repulsive
for like charges, attractive for unlike.

k = 1 / (4πε₀) Relation between Coulomb's constant and permittivity

of free space. 11.2.2 ε₀ = 8.85×10⁻¹² C² N⁻¹ m⁻².

E = F / q₀ = kq / r² Electric field intensity (N C⁻¹ or V m⁻¹). 11.3.1–11.3.2

E points away from +q, toward −q. Graph E vs r:

hyperbola (E ∝ 1/r²) — steeply falling, not linear.

E = σ / ε₀ Uniform field between two opposite parallel plates

(Gauss's law). 11.5.2c σ = surface charge density (C
m⁻²).

E = σ / (2ε₀) Electric field near one side of a single infinite sheet of

charge. 11.5.2b Fields from two opposite sheets add
to σ/ε₀ between them.

E = 0 inside a hollow charged Gauss's law: no enclosed charge inside → zero field.
sphere 11.5.2a Faraday cage principle. All charge resides on
outer surface.

φ_E = Q_enc / ε₀ Gauss's law: total electric flux through any closed
surface = enclosed charge / ε₀. 11.5.1 φ_E = electric
flux (N m² C⁻¹).

p = qd Electric dipole moment (C m). 11.3.4 q = charge

magnitude, d = separation. Direction: from −q to +q.

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL & WORK

V = kq / r = W / q₀ Electric potential (V). 11.6.1, 11.6.4 Work done per

unit positive charge brought from ∞ to that point. If
two points are at the same potential, W = 0 J —
tested Paper I 2025 Q5.

W = q₀(V₁ − V₂) Work done moving charge q₀ between potentials V₁

and V₂. 11.6.1 W = 0 when V₁ = V₂ (equipotential
surface).

E = −ΔV / Δr Electric field = negative potential gradient. 11.6.3 E

points from high to low potential. Unit: V m⁻¹ = N C⁻¹.

1 eV = 1.6×10⁻¹⁹ J
 Electron volt. 11.6.5 Energy gained by one electron
through 1 V potential difference.

qE = mg (Millikan balance) At equilibrium in Millikan's oil-drop experiment:

electric force = weight. 11.6.6 Gives q = mg/E.

C A PA C I T O R S

C = Q / V Capacitance (F = C V⁻¹). 11.7.1 In series: charge Q is

the same on every capacitor — tested Paper I 2025
Q1.

C = ε₀A / d Parallel plate capacitor. 11.7.1 A = plate area (m²), d

= separation (m). With dielectric ε_r: C = ε_r ε₀A / d.

1/C_s = 1/C₁ + 1/C₂ + … Capacitors in SERIES. 11.7.2 Same Q on each;

voltage divides. Effective capacitance is always less
than smallest individual capacitance.

C_p = C₁ + C₂ + … Capacitors in PARALLEL. 11.7.2 Same V across each;

charge and capacitance add.

τ = RC Time constant of RC circuit (s). 11.7.4–11.7.5 RC has

the SI unit of seconds. After 1τ: ≈63% charged; after
5τ: ≈99.3% charged.

q = Q(1 − e^(−t/RC)) Instantaneous charge while charging. 11.7.3 Q = CV

= final charge. At t = 0: q = 0. At t → ∞: q → Q.

W = ½QV = ½CV² = Q²/(2C) Energy stored in a capacitor. 11.8.1 All three forms
equivalent; use whichever pair of quantities is known.

VARIABLES — TOPIC 11

k = Coulomb's constant · ε₀ = permittivity of free space · q, q₀ = charges (C) · r = distance (m) · E =

electric field (N C⁻¹) · V = potential (V) · σ = surface charge density (C m⁻²) · C = capacitance (F) · Q
= charge on capacitor (C) · W = energy stored (J) · τ = time constant (s) · p = dipole moment (C m)
⚡ M E M O RY T I P S — E L E C T R O S TAT I C S

→ Series C → same Q. "Series = Shares Q." Voltage divides inversely to capacitance.

→ Parallel C → same V. "Parallel = same Potential." Charge and capacitance add.

→ E vs r graph: Hyperbola (1/r²) — steeply falling. NOT linear, NOT a straight declining line.
Graph B in Paper I 2025 Q3.

→ Photocopier (selenium drum): Photoconductor — light → it conducts → loses charge.

Answer: "conducts electricity and loses its charge."

→ Inkjet printer: Electrostatic deflection of charged ink drops → electrostatics (not

electronics).

→ Same potential → W = 0. W = q₀(V₁ − V₂). If V₁ = V₂ → W = 0 J.

→ Inside hollow conductor: E = 0. No enclosed charge → flux = 0 → field = 0.

→ RC shortcut: 1τ = 63% charged. 2τ = 86%. 3τ = 95%. 5τ ≈ 99% (fully charged for

practical purposes).
 TOPIC 12 Current Electricity

D E F I N I T I O N S & O H M ' S L AW

I = ΔQ / Δt Electric current (A). 12.1.1 Conventional current: +

→ −. Electron flow: − → +. 1 A = 1 C s⁻¹.

V = IR Ohm's law. 12.2.3 V = voltage (V), I = current (A), R

= resistance (Ω). Ohmic: R is constant. Non-ohmic:
semiconductor diode (I exponential), filament lamp (R
increases with temperature).

R = ρL / A Resistance from resistivity. 12.3.4 ρ = resistivity (Ω

m), L = length (m), A = cross-sectional area (m²).

G = 1 / R Conductance G (siemens, S = Ω⁻¹). 12.2.1 Higher G

= easier current flow.

σ = 1/ρ → G = σA/L Electrical conductivity σ (S m⁻¹). 12.3.2–12.3.3 G=σ

× (A/L).

R = R₀(1 + αΔT) Temperature dependence of resistance. 12.3.5 R₀ =

resistance at reference T, α = temperature coefficient
(K⁻¹), ΔT = temperature change. Metals: α > 0 (R
increases). Semiconductors: α < 0 (R decreases with
T).

POWER & ENERGY

P = IV = I²R = V²/R Electric power (W). 12.4.4–12.4.5 Use I²R with known
current; use V²/R with known voltage. Paper I 2025
Q7: P = (10)²×10 = 1000 W.

W = Pt = VIt = I²Rt Electrical energy dissipated (J). 12.4.4

P_r = I²r Power dissipated by internal resistance. 12.4.6 r=

internal resistance. This power heats the battery
internally.

E M F & I N T E R N A L R E S I S TA N C E

ε = V + Ir EMF equation. 12.4.2 ε = electromotive force (V), V

= terminal PD (V), r = internal resistance (Ω). Open
circuit (I=0): V = ε. If V = ε then Ir = 0 → r = 0 or I =
0. Tested Paper I 2025 Q9.

V = ε − Ir Terminal PD under load. 12.4.3 V drops as I

increases due to voltage lost across internal
resistance.
 I = ε / (R + r) Circuit current with internal resistance. 12.4.2

Derived from ε = V + Ir = IR + Ir.

K I R C H H O F F ' S L AW S

ΣI_in = ΣI_out (at junction) KCL — 1st (Current) Law. 12.5.2 Conservation of
charge. Currents into a node = currents out. Tested
Paper I 2025 Q10.

ΣΕ = ΣIR (closed loop) KVL — 2nd (Voltage) Law. 12.5.3 Sum of EMFs
around a closed loop = sum of IR drops. Conservation
of energy.

POTENTIAL DIVIDER

V_out = V_in × R₂/(R₁+R₂) Potential divider output voltage. 12.6.1 R₂ = lower

resistor (across which output is taken). Output
fraction = resistance fraction of total.

W H E AT S T O N E B R I D G E & P O T E N T I O M E T E R

P / Q = R / S Balanced Wheatstone bridge. 12.7.2 Galvanometer

reads zero at balance. Unknown S = QR/P. Tested
Paper I 2025 Q11.

ε₁ / ε₂ = L₁ / L₂ Potentiometer — comparison of EMFs. 12.7.4 L₁, L₂ =

balance lengths for cells ε₁, ε₂. No current at balance
→ true EMF measured.

r = R(L₁ − L₂) / L₂ Potentiometer — internal resistance measurement.

12.7.4 L₁ = open-circuit balance length, L₂ = balance
length with external resistance R.

R E S I S T O R C O LO U R C O D E

BB ROY of GB VGW Colour code: Black=0, Brown=1, Red=2, Orange=3,

Yellow=4, Green=5, Blue=6, Violet=7, Grey=8,
White=9. 12.3.6 R = (1st digit×10 + 2nd digit) ×
10^(multiplier) ± tolerance%.

VARIABLES — TOPIC 12

I = current (A) · V = voltage/PD (V) · R = resistance (Ω) · ρ = resistivity (Ω m) · σ = conductivity (S

m⁻¹) · G = conductance (S) · ε = EMF (V) · r = internal resistance (Ω) · P = power (W) · α =
temperature coefficient (K⁻¹) · R₀ = resistance at reference temperature
⚡ M E M O RY T I P S — C U R R E N T E L E C T R I C I T Y

→ V = ε when: I = 0 (open circuit) OR r = 0 (ideal battery). "Terminal = EMF when nothing is

lost internally."

→ Diode I–V is exponential, NOT linear. Forward bias: current rises steeply. Reverse bias:
near-zero. Answer Q8 = C.

→ P shortcuts: Current known → I²R. Voltage known → V²/R. Both known → IV.

→ Wheatstone bridge: cross-multiply → P×S = Q×R. Galvanometer reads zero at balance.

→ Temperature vs resistance: Metal (positive α) → R increases. Semiconductor (negative α)

→ R decreases with heat.

→ Potentiometer advantage: Draws zero current at balance → measures true EMF, not
loaded terminal voltage.
 TOPIC 13 Electromagnetism

F O R C E O N C U R R E N T- C A R RY I N G C O N D U C T O R

F = BIL sinθ Force on conductor of length L in field B. 13.1.4 θ=

angle between I and B. Maximum at θ = 90°. For N-
turn coil: F = NBIL sinθ. Tested Paper I 2025 Q15 (N =
40 loops).

φ = BA cosθ Magnetic flux (Wb = T m²). 13.1.5 θ = angle

between B and area normal. Maximum when B is
perpendicular to the plane (θ = 0°).

A M P E R E ' S L AW & M A G N E T I C F I E L D S F R O M C U R R E N T S

∮ B · dl = μ₀ I_enc Ampere's circuital law. 13.1.7 Line integral of B

around a closed path = μ₀ × enclosed current. μ₀ =
4π×10⁻⁷ T m A⁻¹.

B = μ₀I / (2πr) Field at distance r from a long straight wire. 13.1.8a

B ∝ 1/r. Field circles the wire (right-hand rule for

direction).

B = μ₀nI Uniform field inside a long solenoid. 13.1.8b n=

turns per unit length (m⁻¹). Field is uniform inside; ≈
zero outside.

F O R C E O N M O V I N G C H A R G E D PA R T I C L E

F = Bqv sinθ Lorentz magnetic force. 13.2.1 q = charge (C), v =

speed (m s⁻¹). At θ = 90°: circular motion. F always ⊥
v → speed unchanged. Tested Paper I 2025 Q12.

r = mv / (Bq) Radius of circular path. 13.2.1 From Bqv = mv²/r → r

= mv/(Bq). Larger m or v → larger circle.

e/m = v/(Br) = 2V/(B²r²) Charge-to-mass ratio of electron. 13.2.2 Second

form uses accelerating voltage V. e/m = 1.76×10¹¹ C
kg⁻¹.

TORQUE ON A CURRENT COIL

τ = NIAB sinθ Torque on rectangular coil in uniform B. 13.4.1 N=

turns, I = current, A = area, B = field, θ = angle
between normal and B. To double τ: double any ONE
of N, I, A, B (or adjust θ). Tested Paper I 2025 Q14.

C R O — C AT H O D E R AY O S C I L L O S C O P E
 CRO — component functions Cathode: emits electrons. 13.3.1 Grid: controls
number of electrons → brightness. (Tested Paper I
2025 Q13.) Anode: accelerates electrons. Y-plates:
vertical deflection. X-plates: horizontal (time base).
Screen: phosphorescent → emits light at beam
impact.

ELECTRICAL MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

Voltmeter measures PD Voltmeter: parallel connection, very high R, measures

potential difference. 13.5.1 Ammeter: series, very
low R, measures current. Tested Paper I 2025 Q16.

R_shunt = I_g G / (I − I_g) Shunt resistance to convert galvanometer (coil

resistance G, FSD current I_g) to ammeter for range I.
13.5.3

R_series = V/I_g − G Series resistance to convert galvanometer to

voltmeter reading up to V. 13.5.3

VARIABLES — TOPIC 13

B = magnetic flux density (T) · I = current (A) · L = active length (m) · F = force (N) · q = charge (C)
· v = velocity (m s⁻¹) · N = turns · A = coil area (m²) · τ = torque (N m) · θ = angle · μ₀ = 4π×10⁻⁷ T
m A⁻¹ · n = turns m⁻¹ · r = orbital radius or distance from wire · G = galvanometer resistance · I_g =
FSD current

⚡ M E M O RY T I P S — E L E C T R O M A G N E T I S M

→ Circular path in B-field: F ⊥ v → no work done → speed constant → circle. Use r = mv/
(Bq) for radius.

→ Torque doubling: To double τ = NIAB sinθ, double any one factor (e.g., double area A).
Quadrupling I would give 4× not 2×.

→ CRO grid = brightness control. More negative grid → fewer electrons → dimmer. Does
NOT deflect or accelerate.

→ Right-hand rule (wire): Thumb along I, fingers curl in direction of B field lines around
wire.

→ Ammeter (low R, series) vs Voltmeter (high R, parallel). "A is in line; V stands apart."

→ Solenoid field: B = μ₀nI is uniform inside. n = N/L (total turns ÷ total length).
 TOPIC 14 Electromagnetic Induction

FA R A D AY ' S & L E N Z ' S L A W S

ε = −NΔφ / Δt Faraday's law. 14.1.2 ε = induced EMF (V), N =

turns, Δφ = change in flux (Wb), Δt = time (s).
Magnitude = rate of change of flux linkage (Nφ).

Lenz's law: induced current Direction of induced EMF opposes the change causing
opposes change it. 14.1.3 Expressed by the negative sign in
Faraday's law. Determines direction in AC generator.
Tested Paper I 2025 Q17.

S E L F & M U T U A L I N D U C TA N C E

ε_L = −L (ΔI / Δt) Self-induced EMF (back-EMF). 14.2.2 L = self-

inductance (H). Opposes any change in the coil's own
current.

ε_s = −M (ΔI_p / Δt) Mutually induced EMF in secondary. 14.2.2 M=

mutual inductance (H), I_p = primary current. Basis of
transformer action.

E = ½LI² Energy stored in an inductor. 14.3.1 Stored in the

magnetic field. Analogous to ½mv² (KE) and ½CV²
(capacitor).

A C G E N E R AT O R

ε = NBAω sinωt = ε₀ sinωt Instantaneous EMF of AC generator. 14.4.1 ε₀ =

NBAω = peak EMF. Phenomenon = electromagnetic
induction. Tested Paper I 2025 Q18: Answer = D.

TRANSFORMER

Nₛ / Nₚ = Vₛ / Vₚ Turns ratio = voltage ratio (ideal transformer).

14.5.4 Step-down: Nₛ < Nₚ → Vₛ < Vₚ. Tested Paper I
2025 Q20: 220/110 = Nₚ/40 → Nₚ = 80.

VₛIₛ = VₚIₚ (ideal) Power conservation in ideal transformer. 14.5.4

Step-down → higher I_s. Iₛ/Iₚ = Nₚ/Nₛ.

η = (VₛIₛ)/(VₚIₚ) × 100% Transformer efficiency. 14.5.5 Losses: eddy currents

(reduce by laminating core), hysteresis (use soft iron).
Main components: iron core + primary coil +
secondary coil. Tested Paper I 2025 Q19.

VARIABLES — TOPIC 14
ε = induced EMF (V) · N = turns · φ = flux (Wb) · t = time (s) · L = self-inductance (H) · M = mutual
inductance (H) · I = current · E = energy (J) · ω = angular frequency (rad s⁻¹) · Nₛ, Nₚ = secondary/
primary turns · Vₛ, Vₚ = secondary/primary voltage · Iₛ, Iₚ = secondary/primary current

⚡ M E M O RY T I P S — E L E C T R O M A G N E T I C I N D U C T I O N

→ Faraday = magnitude; Lenz = direction. Together: ε = −NΔφ/Δt.

→ AC generator direction → Lenz's law. Phenomenon → electromagnetic induction. Q17 =

A, Q18 = D.

→ Inductor energy analogy: E = ½LI² ↔ KE = ½mv². L is "electromagnetic inertia" — resists

current changes.

→ Transformer: step-up voltage → step-down current. Power conserved. High V

transmission → low I → less I²R loss in cables.

→ Transformer components = iron core + coils. Slip rings + carbon brushes belong to AC
generator, not transformer.
 TOPIC 15 Alternating Current

A C F U N D A M E N TA L S & R M S VA L U E S

v = V₀ sinωt, i = I₀ sinωt Instantaneous sinusoidal AC. 15.1.1–15.1.3 V₀, I₀ =

peak values. ω = 2πf (rad s⁻¹), f = frequency (Hz), T =
1/f (s).

ω = 2πf = 2π/T Angular frequency. 15.1.3 Connects frequency f (Hz),

angular frequency ω (rad s⁻¹), and period T (s).

V_rms = V₀/√2 ≈ 0.707 V₀ RMS voltage. 15.1.4 DC equivalent for power. Paper I
2025 Q23: 120/√2 = 84.8 V.

I_rms = I₀/√2 ≈ 0.707 I₀ RMS current. 15.1.4 Inverse: V₀ = √2 × V_rms ≈

1.414 V_rms.

P_avg = V_rms I_rms cosφ = Average power in AC circuit. 15.1.4 For pure resistor:
I_rms² R cosφ = 1. For pure L or C: cosφ = 0 (no power
dissipated).

R E A C TA N C E

X_L = ωL = 2πfL Inductive reactance (Ω). 15.2.1 X_L ∝ f. Inductor

blocks high frequencies. Voltage leads current by 90°
in pure inductor.

X_C = 1/(ωC) = 1/(2πfC) Capacitive reactance (Ω). 15.2.1 X_C ∝ 1/f. Capacitor
blocks DC (f=0 → X_C = ∞). Current leads voltage by
90° in pure capacitor.

IMPEDANCE & PHASE ANGLE

Z = √(R² + X_L²) [R-L] Impedance of R-L series circuit (Ω). 15.3.1 Z = √(R²
+ X_C²) for R-C. Z is the phasor sum of R and X.

Z = √(R² + (X_L − X_C)²) [R- Impedance of series R-L-C circuit. 15.3.1 At

L-C] resonance: X_L = X_C → Z = R (minimum), current is
maximum.

tan φ = X_L / R [R-L] Phase angle in R-L circuit. 15.3.1 φ = tan⁻¹(X_L/R).

Voltage leads current by φ. Tested Paper I 2025 Q22:
Answer = B.

tan φ = X_C / R [R-C] Phase angle in R-C circuit. 15.3.1 Current leads
voltage by φ.

cosφ = R / Z Power factor. 15.3.1 P_avg = V_rms I_rms cosφ. For

pure R: cosφ = 1. For pure L/C: cosφ = 0.
T H R E E - P H A S E A C & E M W AV E S

Three-phase: 120° between Three coils spaced 120° apart in generator. 15.4.1

each coil pair Each produces sinusoidal EMF displaced 120° from
next. Tested Paper I 2025 Q24.

c = fλ = 3×10⁸ m s⁻¹ Speed of all EM waves in vacuum. 15.5.1 EM

spectrum order (low to high f): radio → microwave →
IR → visible → UV → X-ray → γ-ray.

VARIABLES — TOPIC 15

V₀, I₀ = peak values · V_rms, I_rms = RMS values · ω = angular frequency (rad s⁻¹) · f = frequency
(Hz) · T = period (s) · X_L = inductive reactance (Ω) · X_C = capacitive reactance (Ω) · Z =
impedance (Ω) · φ = phase angle · R = resistance (Ω) · L = inductance (H) · C = capacitance (F)

⚡ M E M O RY T I P S — A LT E R N AT I N G C U R R E N T

→ CIVIL: In a Capacitor, I leads V. In an L (inductor), V leads I. C-I-V-I-L

→ RMS = peak/√2. √2 ≈ 1.414 → 1/√2 ≈ 0.707. Fixed: 120 V peak → 84.8 V rms.

→ Impedance triangle: Z = hypotenuse, R = base, X = perpendicular. tanφ = X/R. cosφ = R/

Z.

→ X_L ↑ with f; X_C ↓ with f. Inductor blocks high f. Capacitor blocks low f and DC.

→ Three-phase: 3 coils × 120° = 360°. Constant total power — ideal for motors and
industrial loads.

→ Phase lead/lag from graph: Wave that peaks first is leading. If Y peaks later than X → Y
lags X → X leads Y.
 TOPIC 16 Physics of Solids

C L A S S I F I C AT I O N O F S O L I D S

Amorphous solids No long-range order — "frozen disordered liquid

structure." 16.1.2 Examples: glass, rubber, plastics.
Some polymeric solids are also amorphous. Tested
Paper I 2025 Q25: Answer = B (III only, amorphous).

Crystalline: lattice + unit Regular repeating pattern defined by unit cell.

cell 16.1.1 Sharp melting point. Examples: NaCl,
diamond, metals, silicon.

Polymeric solids Long-chain molecules. 16.1.2 Can be partly

crystalline (aligned chains) or amorphous. Examples:
polyethylene, PVC.

S T R E SS , S T R A I N & E L A S T I C M O D U L I

Tensile stress = F / A Stress (Pa = N m⁻²). 16.2.2 F = applied force (N), A

= cross-sectional area (m²).

Tensile strain = ΔL / L Strain (dimensionless). 16.2.3 ΔL = extension, L =

original length.

Y = (F/A) / (ΔL/L) Young's modulus = tensile stress / tensile strain (Pa).

16.2.3–16.2.4 Measures resistance to stretching/
compression. Tested Paper I 2025 Q26.

G = (F/A) / (x/L) Shear modulus (modulus of rigidity, Pa). 16.2.3–16.2.4

F/A = shear stress, x/L = shear strain (x = lateral

displacement). Measures resistance to shear.

B = −ΔP / (ΔV/V) Bulk modulus (Pa). 16.2.3–16.2.4 ΔP = pressure

change, ΔV/V = volumetric strain. Negative sign:
pressure increase → volume decreases. Measures
resistance to uniform compression.

E_strain = ½ × F × ΔL = area Strain energy stored. 16.2.6 Valid within elastic limit.
under F-x graph Per unit volume: ½ × stress × strain.

E L E C T R I C A L P R O P E RT I E S — E N E R GY B A N D S

Conductor: overlapping bands. Energy band model. 16.3.2–16.3.3 Semiconductor gap

Semiconductor: small gap. ≈ 1 eV — electrons thermally excited across →
Insulator: large gap (>5 eV) conduction. Intrinsic: n_e = n_h. Extrinsic: doped with
donors (n-type) or acceptors (p-type).

Heat breaks covalent bond → free electron + hole

simultaneously. 16.3.3 Tested Paper I 2025 Q27:
 Thermal excitation → Answer = D (electron-hole pair, not just electron or
electron-hole pair just hole).

M A G N E T I C P R O P E RT I E S

Ferro- & paramagnetic: atoms Ferromagnetic (Fe, Ni, Co) and paramagnetic
have magnetic dipoles substances: atoms have permanent magnetic dipoles
(unpaired electrons). 16.5.2 Diamagnetic: all
electrons paired → no net dipole → weakly repelled.
Tested Paper I 2025 Q28: Answer = C (I and II).

Curie point: temperature– Above Curie temperature, ferromagnetic →

magnetism link paramagnetic. 16.5.4a Thermal agitation destroys
magnetic domain alignment. Curie point shows
relationship between temperature and magnetism.
Tested Paper I 2025 Q29.

Soft magnetic: low Soft iron: easily magnetised/demagnetised →

coercivity; Hard: high transformer cores. 16.5.4b Hard steel: retains
coercivity magnetism → permanent magnets.

⚡ M E M O RY T I P S — P H Y S I C S O F S O L I D S

→ Three moduli: Young's = stretch/compress along length. Shear = sideways slip. Bulk =
squeeze from all sides. All = stress ÷ strain.

→ Stress has units (Pa); strain is dimensionless → modulus unit = Pa.

→ Amorphous = frozen disorder. No sharp melting point. Glass is amorphous — flows

extremely slowly.

→ Thermal excitation always gives a PAIR. Breaking one bond → one electron + one hole.
n_e = n_h in intrinsic semiconductor.

→ Curie point = heat destroys domain order. Above it: ferromagnetic material loses
permanent magnetism.

→ Diamagnetic: no magnetic dipole in atoms → no attraction. Actually slightly repelled

from B field.
 TOPIC 17 Electronics

S E M I C O N D U C T O R D I O D E & R E C T I F I C AT I O N

Diode: unidirectional current p-n junction allows current in forward bias only.
17.2.4–17.2.6 Forward bias (p→+, n→−): exponential
I–V, low R. Reverse bias: high R, negligible current.
Tested Paper I 2025 Q30.

Half-wave rectifier: 1 diode Passes only positive (or negative) half-cycle. 17.2.8

Output: pulsating DC. Average V_out = V₀/π ≈ 0.318

V₀.

Full-wave bridge rectifier: 4 Both half-cycles converted to DC. 17.2.8 Average

diodes V_out = 2V₀/π ≈ 0.636 V₀. Less ripple, more efficient
than half-wave.

TRANSISTORS

PNP: emitter arrow INTO base; Transistor symbol identification. 17.2.11 Arrow =
NPN: arrow OUT direction of conventional current. Tested Paper I 2025
Q31.

I_E = I_B + I_C KCL at transistor. 17.2.12 I_B is very small; I_C ≈ I_E.
Small base current controls large collector current.

β = I_C / I_B DC current gain, common emitter. 17.2.12 β typically

50–500. Amplification: small I_B → large I_C.

α = I_C / I_E Common-base current gain. 17.2.12 α < 1. Relations:

β = α/(1−α); α = β/(1+β).

O P E R AT I O N A L A M P L I F I E R

A_v = −R_f / R_in [inverting] Gain of inverting amplifier. 17.3.2 Signal at inverting
(−) terminal. R_f from output to inverting terminal.
Negative: 180° phase inversion.

A_v = 1 + R_f / R_in [non- Gain of non-inverting amplifier. 17.3.2 Signal at non-
inverting] inverting (+) terminal. R_f from output to inverting
(−) terminal. No phase inversion. Tested Paper I 2025
Q32: Answer = B.

Transistor as switch: cut- Cut-off (I_B ≈ 0): transistor OFF, I_C ≈ 0. Saturation:
off / saturation transistor fully ON, maximum I_C. 17.3.3 Used in
digital logic circuits.

L O G I C G AT E S — T R U T H TA B L E S
AND: Y = A · B Output = 1 ONLY when both inputs = 1. 17.4.1 Truth:
00→0, 01→0, 10→0, 11→1.

OR: Y = A + B Output = 1 when at least one input = 1. 17.4.1

Truth: 00→0, 01→1, 10→1, 11→1.

NOT: Y = Ā (inverter) Inverts single input. 17.4.1 0→1, 1→0. Only gate with
one input. Tested Paper I 2025 Q34.

NAND: Y = NOT(A · B) Output = 0 ONLY when both inputs = 1; otherwise =

1. 17.4.2 Truth: 00→1, 01→1, 10→1, 11→0. Universal
gate. Tested Paper I 2025 Q33.

NOR: Y = NOT(A + B) Output = 1 ONLY when both inputs = 0. 17.4.2 Truth:

00→1, 01→0, 10→0, 11→0. Universal gate — any
function can be built from NOR gates alone.

VARIABLES — TOPIC 17

I_B = base current · I_C = collector current · I_E = emitter current · β = common-emitter current
gain · α = common-base current gain · A_v = voltage gain · R_f = feedback resistance · R_in = input
resistance · Y = logic output · A, B = logic inputs

⚡ M E M O RY T I P S — E L E C T R O N I C S

→ PNP vs NPN: "NPN: Never Points iN" — arrow out. PNP — arrow in (toward base).

→ NAND = NOT AND. AND gives 1 for (1,1). NAND gives 0 for (1,1) only. Everything else = 1.

→ NOT gate = inverter, ONE input only. The simplest gate.

→ Non-inverting amp: R_f → output to inverting (−) terminal. Signal enters at non-inverting
(+) terminal. Q32 = B.

→ Universal gates: NAND and NOR can each build ANY other gate (AND, OR, NOT) → any
circuit.

→ Full-wave better than half-wave: Uses both half-cycles → double average output
voltage, less ripple.
 TOPIC 18 Dawn of Modern Physics

S P E C I A L T H E O RY O F R E L AT I V I T Y

E₀ = m₀c² (rest mass energy) Mass-energy equivalence. 18.1.4 m₀ = rest mass

(kg), c = 3×10⁸ m s⁻¹. Mass is a form of energy.
Tested Paper I 2025 Q37: Answer = D (energy).

m = m₀ / √(1 − v²/c²) = γm₀ Relativistic mass increase. 18.1.5a γ = Lorentz factor

= 1/√(1−v²/c²). As v → c: m → ∞.

t = t₀γ = t₀/√(1 − v²/c²) Time dilation. 18.1.5b t₀ = proper time (rest frame).
Moving clocks run slower: t > t₀.

L = L₀/γ = L₀√(1 − v²/c²) Length contraction. 18.1.5c L₀ = proper length (rest

frame). Objects appear shorter along motion: L < L₀.

B L A C K B O DY R A D I AT I O N & Q U A N T U M T H E O RY

E = hf = hc/λ Photon energy. 18.2.3–18.2.5 h = 6.63×10⁻³⁴ J s

(Planck's constant), f = frequency, λ = wavelength.
Radiation is quantised — emitted/absorbed in discrete
packets (photons).

Wien's law: λ_max T = b = As temperature T increases, peak wavelength λ_max

2.9×10⁻³ m K shifts to shorter values. 18.2.2 Tested Paper I 2025
Q35: Answer = D (shorter wavelength).

P/A = σT⁴ (Stefan-Boltzmann) Power radiated per unit area by blackbody. 18.2.2 σ
= 5.67×10⁻⁸ W m⁻² K⁻⁴. Total power ∝ T⁴.

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

KE_max = hf − φ = hf − hf₀ Einstein's photoelectric equation. 18.3.3 φ = hf₀ =

work function (J or eV). KE_max depends on
frequency, NOT intensity. Tested Paper I 2025 Q38.

eV_s = hf − φ → V_s depends Stopping potential V_s. 18.3.2–18.3.3 Reverse voltage

on f that stops the fastest electrons. Depends only on
frequency of light, not intensity. Tested Paper I 2025
Q36: Answer = B.

φ = hf₀ Work function = energy of threshold photon. 18.3.3

Below f₀: no emission regardless of intensity.

C O M P T O N E F F E C T & PA I R P R O D U C T I O N / A N N I H I L AT I O N

Δλ = (h/m_e c)(1 − cosθ) Compton wavelength shift. 18.4.1 X-ray photon

collides with electron → photon wavelength increases
(loses energy), electron recoils. Confirms particle
 (momentum) nature of photons. h/m_e c =
2.43×10⁻¹² m.

γ → e⁻ + e⁺ (pair production) High-energy photon converts to electron-positron pair

near nucleus. 18.4.2 Minimum energy: 2m_e c² =
1.02 MeV. Energy → matter.

e⁻ + e⁺ → 2γ (pair Electron and positron annihilate to two gamma

annihilation) photons. 18.4.2 Matter → energy. Each photon: E =
m_e c² = 0.511 MeV.

D E B R O G L I E & U N C E R TA I N T Y P R I N C I P L E

λ = h/p = h/(mv) de Broglie wavelength. 18.5.3–18.5.4 Every particle

has wave nature with wavelength λ = h/p. Large mass
→ tiny λ → wave nature unobservable.

Δx · Δp ≥ h/(4π) Heisenberg uncertainty principle (position–

momentum). 18.5.6 Fundamental — NOT a
measurement limitation. Cause: wave-particle duality.
Tested Paper I 2025 Q39: Answer = B (duality of
matter).

ΔE · Δt ≥ h/(4π) Heisenberg uncertainty principle (energy–time).

18.5.6 Uncertainty in energy ∝ 1/(lifetime of state).

VARIABLES — TOPIC 18

h = 6.63×10⁻³⁴ J s · c = 3×10⁸ m s⁻¹ · f = frequency · λ = wavelength · φ = work function · f₀ =

threshold frequency · V_s = stopping potential · m₀ = rest mass · γ = Lorentz factor · t₀ = proper
time · L₀ = proper length · p = momentum · Δx = position uncertainty · Δp = momentum
uncertainty

⚡ M E M O RY T I P S — M O D E R N P H Y S I C S

→ Frequency controls KE; intensity controls number. More intensity → more electrons
but same max KE. More frequency → larger max KE.

→ Stopping potential: V_s depends only on f. V_s = (hf − φ)/e. Completely independent
of light intensity.

→ Uncertainty ≠ instrument error. It is a fundamental wave property. A wave with precise

λ (momentum) spreads everywhere (uncertain position).

→ Wien's law: hotter → bluer. Sun ≈ 5800 K → yellow. Hotter star → blue-white. Cooler star
→ red.

→ Lorentz factor γ ≥ 1 always. At v = 0: γ = 1. As v → c: γ → ∞. Time dilates ×γ; length

contracts ÷γ.

→ Compton effect confirms photon has momentum p = h/λ. Electron recoils like a
billiard ball collision.

→ Pair production minimum: 1.02 MeV = 2 × rest-mass energy of electron.

 TOPIC 19 Atomic Spectra

B O H R ' S M O D E L O F H Y D R O G E N AT O M

r_n = n² a₀ (a₀ = 0.529 Å) Bohr orbit radius. 19.1.3, 19.1.5 a₀ = 0.529×10⁻¹⁰ m.

r_n ∝ n². r₁:r₂:r₃:r₄ = 1:4:9:16. Tested Paper I 2025
Q41: r₃ = 9r₁ → Answer = C (9 times).

E_n = −13.6/n² eV Energy of nth orbit in hydrogen. 19.1.4 Negative =

bound state. n=1: −13.6 eV, n=2: −3.4 eV, n=3:
−1.51 eV, n=∞: 0 (ionised).

E_photon = E_n₂ − E_n₁ = hf Energy of photon emitted when electron drops from n₂
to n₁. 19.1.4, 19.2.1 Tested Paper I 2025 Q42: spectral
lines ← electron jumps from higher to lower level
(Answer = D) and Q43: total energy = KE + PE
(Answer = A).

KE_n = +13.6/n² eV Kinetic energy in nth orbit. 19.1.3 PE_n = −27.2/n²

eV. Total E_n = KE_n + PE_n = −13.6/n² eV. Total
energy = KE + PE.

RY D B E R G F O R M U L A & S P E C T R A L S E R I E S

1/λ = R_H(1/p² − 1/n²) Rydberg formula. 19.1.6 R_H = 1.097×10⁷ m⁻¹, p =

lower level, n = upper level (n>p). Series: Lyman p=1
(UV), Balmer p=2 (visible), Paschen p=3 (IR), Brackett
p=4, Pfund p=5.

E X C I TAT I O N & I O N I S AT I O N

E_excitation = E_upper − Energy to move electron from lower to higher level.

E_lower 19.3.1–19.3.2 First excitation energy of H: E₂ − E₁ =
−3.4 − (−13.6) = 10.2 eV.

E_ionisation = 0 − E_ground = Energy to completely remove electron from ground

13.6 eV (H) state (n=1 to n=∞). 19.3.1 Ionisation potential =
13.6 V for hydrogen.

X- R AY S — P R O D U C T I O N & P R O P E R T I E S

X-rays not deflected by E or X-rays are neutral EM photons → no deflection by

B fields electric or magnetic fields. 19.4.3 Properties: travel
at c, diffract off crystals, penetrate flesh/wood, ionise
gas, affect photographic film. Tested Paper I 2025
Q44: EXCEPT = C (deflection by E and B is NOT a
property of X-rays).

H atom does NOT emit X-rays

 Hydrogen energy levels differ by only a few eV; X-rays
require keV transitions (inner-shell of heavy atoms).
19.4.1–19.4.2 Tested Paper I 2025 Q40: Answer = D
(energy levels too small apart).

2d sinθ = mλ (Bragg's law) X-ray diffraction by crystal planes. 19.4.2 d=

interplanar spacing, θ = glancing angle, m =
diffraction order, λ = wavelength. Used to find crystal
structure.

L A S E R S ( S LO 1 9 . 5 )

Stimulated emission → Incoming photon triggers emission of identical photon

coherent photons (same f, phase, direction). 19.5.1 Requires:
population inversion (more atoms excited than
ground), meta-stable state (long lifetime), optical
cavity (mirrors). He-Ne laser uses collisions between
He (excited by discharge) and Ne (lased medium).

VARIABLES — TOPIC 19

r_n = orbit radius · a₀ = Bohr radius · n = principal quantum number · E_n = energy of nth orbit (eV)
· R_H = Rydberg constant (1.097×10⁷ m⁻¹) · p = lower quantum number · λ = wavelength · d =
crystal plane spacing (m) · θ = glancing angle · m = diffraction order

⚡ M E M O RY T I P S — AT O M I C S P E C T R A

→ Radii ∝ n². Energies ∝ 1/n². r₁:r₂:r₃ = 1:4:9. E₁:E₂:E₃ = −13.6:−3.4:−1.51 eV.

→ 1st excitation energy = 10.2 eV. Ionisation energy = 13.6 eV (for H).

→ X-rays are neutral → no deflection. Charged radiations (α, β) are deflected. X-rays and
γ-rays are NOT.

→ X-rays from inner-shell transitions only. Need keV energy gaps (heavy atoms).
Hydrogen has only eV gaps → no X-rays.

→ Spectral emission = downward jump; absorption = upward jump. Lyman (to n=1) =
UV. Balmer (to n=2) = visible. Paschen (to n=3) = IR.

→ Stimulated ≠ spontaneous. Stimulated emission: triggered, same direction, same phase

→ laser. Spontaneous: random direction, random phase → normal light.
 TOPIC 20 Nuclear Physics

N U C L E A R N O TAT I O N & M A S S D E F E C T

ᴬ_Z X notation A = mass number (protons + neutrons), Z = atomic

number (protons), N = A − Z (neutrons).
20.2.1–20.2.2 Isotopes: same Z, different A. Isobars:
same A, different Z.

Δm = Zm_p + (A−Z)m_n − Mass defect. 20.4.1 Bound nucleus is lighter than its
m_nucleus free constituents. 1 u = 1.66×10⁻²⁷ kg = 931.5 MeV/
c².

E_B = Δm · c² Binding energy. 20.4.1 Greater E_B/nucleon → more

stable nucleus. Maximum ≈ 8.8 MeV/nucleon at iron
(Fe-56). Commonly calculated in Paper II.

R A D I O A C T I V E D E C AY E Q U AT I O N S

α: ᴬ_Z X → ᴬ⁻⁴_{Z−2}Y + ⁴₂He Alpha decay. 20.6.2 A−4, Z−2. Least penetrating
(stopped by paper); highly ionising.

β⁻: ᴬ_Z X → ᴬ_{Z+1}Y + ⁰_{−1} Beta-minus decay. 20.6.2 Neutron → proton +

e + ν̄
_e electron + antineutrino. A unchanged, Z+1. Stopped
by few mm aluminium.

β⁺: ᴬ_Z X → ᴬ_{Z−1}Y + ⁰_{+1} Beta-plus (positron) decay. 20.6.2 Proton → neutron
e + ν_e + positron + neutrino. A unchanged, Z−1.

γ: ᴬ_Z X* → ᴬ_Z X + γ Gamma decay. 20.6.2 Excited nucleus emits high-

energy photon. A, Z unchanged. Most penetrating.

Conserve A and Z in every Total A and total Z each conserved separately in

equation nuclear equations. 20.6.2 Tested Paper I 2025 Q46:
²H₁ + ²H₁ → ³He₂ + X → A: 4=3+1, Z: 2=2+0 → X =
¹₀n (neutron). Answer = C.

R A D I O A C T I V E D E C AY L A W & H A L F - L I F E

N = N₀ (½)^(t/t½) Nuclei remaining after time t. 20.6.3–20.6.4 After n

half-lives: N = N₀/2ⁿ. Commonly used in Paper II
numerical questions.

N = N₀ e^(−λt) Exponential decay law. 20.6.1, 20.6.4 λ = decay

constant (s⁻¹). Equivalent to the half-life form:
e^(−λt) = (½)^(t/t½).

t½ = ln2/λ = 0.693/λ Relation between half-life and decay constant.

20.6.3–20.6.4 Larger λ → shorter t½ → more
radioactive.
 A = λN = A₀ e^(−λt) Activity A (Bq = decays per second). 20.6.1 Activity
also halves every t½. 1 Bq = 1 decay s⁻¹.

R A D I AT I O N P R O P E R T I E S & D E T E C T I O N

γ-rays travel at c (maximum Gamma rays are EM photons → travel at c = 3×10⁸ m

velocity) s⁻¹. 20.5.2 β: up to ~0.99c. α: ~0.05c. Tested Paper I
2025 Q47: Answer = B (III only, γ-rays).

Geiger-Müller counter: high Radiation ionises gas → electric field causes

voltage (~400–1000 V) avalanche → pulse detected. 20.7.2 Solid-state
detector also uses high reverse bias. Wilson cloud
chamber does NOT use high voltage. Tested Paper I
2025 Q48: Answer = A (Geiger counter only).

F I SS I O N , F U S I O N & N U C L E A R R E A C T O R

Fission: heavy nucleus + n → E.g. ²³⁵U + n → fission fragments + neutrons.

products + 2–3 n + energy 20.8.1, 20.9.1 Chain reaction: controlled (reactor) or
uncontrolled (bomb). Energy released because
products are closer to Fe (max E_B/nucleon).

Fusion: light nuclei combine E.g. ²H + ²H → ³He + n + energy. 20.8.1 Requires

→ heavier nucleus + energy ~10⁷ K. Powers the sun and stars. Higher energy yield
per nucleon than fission.

F U N D A M E N TA L F O R C E S & B U I L D I N G B L O C K S O F M AT T E R

Strong nuclear force: Binds protons and neutrons in nucleus. 20.12.1

confines nucleus Range ≈ 1 fm = 10⁻¹⁵ m. Strongest of all four forces.

Overcomes Coulomb repulsion between protons.
Tested Paper I 2025 Q49: Answer = C.

Four forces (strong → Strong nuclear > Electromagnetic > Weak nuclear >
gravitational in strength) Gravitational. 20.12.1 Strong: confines nucleons. EM:
holds atoms. Weak: causes β decay. Gravity: infinite
range, weakest.

Quarks experience all 4 Quarks (building blocks of hadrons: protons, neutrons)

fundamental forces feel strong, EM, weak, and gravitational. 20.13.1

Leptons (e.g. electron, neutrino): feel all except strong

force. Tested Paper I 2025 Q50: Answer = A.

Positron: mass = m_e = Positron = antielectron. Same mass as electron;

9.11×10⁻³¹ kg, charge = +e charge = +1.6×10⁻¹⁹ C (same magnitude as proton).
18.4.2 Tested Paper I 2025 Q45: Answer = B (mass
= electron, charge = proton's magnitude).

VARIABLES — TOPIC 20
A = mass number · Z = atomic number · N = neutron number (A − Z) · Δm = mass defect · E_B =
binding energy · λ = decay constant (s⁻¹) · t½ = half-life · N₀ = initial nuclei · N = remaining nuclei ·
Activity A (Bq) · 1 u = 931.5 MeV/c²

⚡ M E M O RY T I P S — N U C L E A R P H Y S I C S

→ Solve decay equations like simultaneous equations. Write separate equations for A
(top) and Z (bottom). Solve algebraically.

→ Penetration: α < β < γ. Alpha stopped by paper. Beta by ~5 mm Al. Gamma needs thick
lead/concrete.

→ Velocity: γ = c > β > α. Gamma fastest. Alpha heaviest, slowest.

→ Half-life fractions: After n half-lives → (1/2)ⁿ remains. After 1: 50%. After 2: 25%. After 3:
12.5%. After 10: 0.097%.

→ Fission = split heavy (U, Pu). Fusion = join light (H, He). Both release energy by
moving toward iron (maximum E_B/nucleon).

→ Quarks feel strong force; leptons do not. Proton = 3 quarks. Electron = lepton. So
protons are held in nucleus by strong force; electrons are not.
 CONSTANTS Physical Constants & Key Numerical Values

k = 9×10⁹ N m² C⁻² Coulomb's constant

ε₀ = 8.85×10⁻¹² C² N⁻¹ m⁻² Permittivity of free space

μ₀ = 4π×10⁻⁷ T m A⁻¹ Permeability of free space

e = 1.6×10⁻¹⁹ C Elementary charge magnitude

m_e = 9.11×10⁻³¹ kg Electron rest mass (also positron mass)

m_p = 1.673×10⁻²⁷ kg Proton rest mass

m_n = 1.675×10⁻²⁷ kg Neutron rest mass

h = 6.63×10⁻³⁴ J s Planck's constant

c = 3×10⁸ m s⁻¹ Speed of light in vacuum

R_H = 1.097×10⁷ m⁻¹ Rydberg constant

a₀ = 0.529×10⁻¹⁰ m Bohr radius

1 eV = 1.6×10⁻¹⁹ J Electron volt in joules

1 u = 1.66×10⁻²⁷ kg = 931.5 Atomic mass unit

MeV/c²

σ = 5.67×10⁻⁸ W m⁻² K⁻⁴ Stefan-Boltzmann constant

b = 2.9×10⁻³ m K Wien's displacement constant

E₁ (H) = −13.6 eV Ground state energy of hydrogen

E₂ (H) = −3.4 eV, E₃ = −1.51 Higher orbit energies of hydrogen

eV, E₄ = −0.85 eV

Ionisation energy of H = 13.6 Energy to remove electron from ground state

eV

1st excitation energy of H = E₂ − E₁ = −3.4 − (−13.6)

10.2 eV

V_rms = 84.8 V when V₀ = 120 Q23 Paper I 2025

V

r₃ = 9r₁ in hydrogen (Bohr Q41 Paper I 2025

model)
 Nₚ = 80 (for Nₛ=40, 220 V→110 Transformer calculation Q20 Paper I 2025
V)

AKUEB HSSC II Physics Formula Compendium · Topics 11–20 Grade XII · AKU-EB Syllabus 2022

■ Green = frequently tested in Paper I & II □ Plain = all other SLO formulae — no formula sheet in exam, all must be
memorised