Association analysis
you want to know which items are frequently purchased together
buys(X, “computer”) ⇒ buys(X, “software”)
[support = 1%,confidence = 50%],
where X is a variable representing a customer. A confidence, or certainty, of
50% means that if a customer buys a computer, there is a 50% chance that
she will buy software as well.
A 1% support means that 1% of all the transactions under analysis show that
computer and software are purchased together
This association rule involves a single attribute or predicate (i.e., buys) that
repeats.
Association rules that contain a single predicate are referred to as single-
dimensional association rules.
Association analysis
A data mining system may find association rules like
age(X, “20..29”) ∧ income(X, “40K..49K”) ⇒ buys(X, “laptop”)
[support = 2%, confidence = 60%].
AllElectronics customers under study, 2% are 20 to 29 years old with an
income of $40,000 to $49,000 and have purchased a laptop (computer) at
AllElectronics.
There is a 60% probability that a customer in this age and income group will
purchase a laptop.
Note that this is an association involving more than one attribute or
predicate (i.e., age, income, and buys). (multidimensional association rule)
Association analysis
association rules are discarded as uninteresting if they do not satisfy
both a minimum support threshold and a minimum confidence
threshold.
Additional analysis can be performed to uncover interesting statistical
correlations between associated attribute–value pairs.
Classification and Regression for Predictive
Analysis
Classification is the process of finding a model (or function) that
describes and distinguishes data classes or concepts.
The model are derived based on the analysis of a set of training data
(i.e., data objects for which the class labels are known).
The model is used to predict the class label of objects for which the
the class label is unknown.
“How is the derived model presented?”
“How is the derived model presented?”
A decision tree
A neural network
naive Bayesian classification,
support vector machines,
and k-nearest-neighbor classification.
Classification and Regression
Classification predicts categorical (discrete, unordered) labels,
regression models continuous-valued functions.
Regression is used to predict missing or unavailable numerical data
values rather than (discrete) class labels.
The term prediction refers to both numeric prediction and class label
prediction.
Classification
Suppose as a sales manager of AllElectronics you want to classify a
large set of items in the store, based on three kinds of responses to a
sales campaign: good response, mild response and no response.
You want to derive a model for each of these three classes based on
the descriptive features of the items, such as price, brand, place made,
type, and category.
The resulting classification should maximally distinguish each class from
the others, presenting an organized picture of the data set.
Cluster Analysis
Unlike classification and regression, which analyze class-labeled (training) data
sets, clustering analyzes data objects without consulting class labels.
In many cases, class labeled data may simply not exist at the beginning.
Clustering can be used to generate class labels for a group of data.
The objects are clustered or grouped based on the principle of maximizing the
intraclass similarity and minimizing the interclass similarity.
That is, clusters of objects are formed so that objects within a cluster have high
similarity in comparison to one another, but are rather dissimilar to objects in
other clusters.
Each cluster so formed can be viewed as a class of objects, from which rules can be
derived.
Cluster Analysis
Cluster analysis can be
performed on AllElectronics
customer data to identify
homogeneous subpopulations
of customers.
These clusters may represent
individual target groups for
marketing.
Outlier Analysis
A data set may contain objects that do not comply with the general
behavior or model of the data.
These data objects are outliers.
Many data mining methods discard outliers as noise or exceptions.
However, in some applications (e.g., fraud detection) the rare events can
be more interesting than the more regularly occurring ones.
The analysis of outlier data is referred to as outlier analysis or anomaly
mining.
Outlier Analysis
Outliers may be detected using statistical tests that assume a
distribution or probability model for the data,
or using distance measures where objects that are remote from any
other cluster are considered outliers.
Density-based methods may identify outliers in a local region,
Outlier analysis may uncover fraudulent usage of credit cards by
detecting purchases of unusually large amounts for a given account
number in comparison to regular charges incurred by the same
account.
Outlier values may also be detected with respect to the locations and
types of purchase, or the purchase frequency.
Which Technologies Are Used?
Major Issues in Data Mining
• Mining Methodology
1) Mining various and new kinds of knowledge:
Data mining covers a wide spectrum of data analysis and knowledge
discovery tasks, from data characterization and discrimination to
association and correlation analysis, classification, regression, clustering,
outlier analysis, sequence analysis, and trend and evolution analysis.
These tasks may use the same database in different ways and require the
development of numerous data mining techniques.
Due to the diversity of applications, new mining tasks continue to emerge,
making data mining a dynamic and fast-growing field
Major Issues in Data Mining
Example :
Social network mining (Analyzing relationship and influence pattern)
Node – example Facebook users,
edges –relationship,
weight – strength of relationship
Web usage mining (understand user behavior online)
Sentiment analysis (mining opinion from text data),
Stream data mining (analyzing continuous data in real time)
Spatio-temporal mining – analyzing data with time and location
Privacy preserving data mining- extracting pattern without violating user privacy
Major Issues in Data Mining
• Mining Methodology
2) Mining knowledge in multidimensional space:
data can be aggregated or viewed as a multidimensional data cube.
Mining knowledge in cube space can substantially enhance the power
and flexibility of data mining.
When mining large datasets, we deal with multiple attributes
(dimensions) — like time, location, product, customer, etc.
Instead of analyzing just one attribute at a time, we explore
combinations of these dimensions to discover deeper and more
meaningful patterns.
Major Issues in Data Mining
• Mining Methodology
3) Data mining—an interdisciplinary effort:
integrating new method from multiple disciplines.
For example,
to mine data with natural language text, it makes sense to fuse data mining
methods with methods of information retrieval and natural language
processing.
Example mining of software bugs in large programs.
This form of mining, known as bug mining, benefits from the incorporation of
software engineering knowledge into the data mining process.
Major Issues in Data Mining
4) Boosting the power of discovery in a networked environment:
Most data objects reside in a linked or interconnected environment,
whether it be the Web, database relations, files, or documents.
They do not exist in isolation.
They are linked through various kinds of relationship.
Example :
Web pages linked via hyperlinks
Database tables linked through foreign keys
File linked via references or shared metadata
Documents linked through citation or cross reference
These connections create a network environment, where individual object (like web pages,
record, or document) linked through relationships.
Semantic links across multiple data objects can be used to advantage in data mining.
Major Issues in Data Mining
Data mining advantage:
By analyzing not only the content of data objects but also link between them,
We can discover hidden relationship
Improve prediction accuracy
Example :
Web mining : analyzing hyperlink structure to improve search result (pageRank)
A page is important if an important page is linked to it.
Social network analysis: discovering influencer nodes based on connection
strength
Citation analysis: Finding important research papers.
Major Issues in Data Mining
• Mining Methodology
5) Handling uncertainty, noise, or incompleteness of data:
Data often contains noise, errors, exceptions, or uncertainty, or are
incomplete.
Errors and noise may confuse the data mining process, leading to the
derivation of erroneous patterns.
Data cleaning, data preprocessing, outlier detection and removal, and
uncertainty reasoning are examples of techniques that need to be integrated
with the data mining process.
Major Issues in Data Mining
• Mining Methodology
6) Pattern evaluation and pattern- or constraint-guided mining
Not all the patterns generated by data mining processes are interesting.
What makes a pattern interesting may vary from user to user.
Therefore, techniques are needed to assess the interestingness of discovered
patterns based on subjective measure
For example support and confidence in association rules
Lift for measuring strength of relationships
Information gain , Gini index or entropy in classification
User defined threshold
Major Issues in Data Mining
• User Interaction
The user plays an important role in the data mining process.
Interesting areas of research include how to interact with a data mining system,
how to incorporate a user’s background knowledge in mining,
and how to visualize and comprehend data mining results.
1) Interactive mining:
A user may like to first sample a set of data, explore general characteristics of the data, and estimate
potential mining results.
Example: view 10% of sales records before full mining
Interactive mining should allow users to dynamically change the focus of a search, to refine mining
requests based on returned results, and to drill, dice, and pivot through the data and knowledge
Example : change the mining target or query conditions,
for ex focus only on Q1 sales in southern region
Major Issues in Data Mining
• User Interaction
2) Incorporation of background knowledge:
Such knowledge can be used for pattern evaluation as well as to guide the
search toward interesting pattern.
Filter out meaningless pattern
Ignore pattern with very low sale for example <50 units/month
More relevant and useful results
Seasonal trend : Umbrella sells more in monsoon month
Major Issues in Data Mining
• User Interaction
3) Ad hoc data mining and data mining query languages:
Instead of running fixed, preprogrammed mining tasks, the user can formulate new,
custom (ad hoc) mining requests based on immediate needs.
Avoids waiting for developers to hard-code every mining task.
Find all association rules where customers who buy baby products also buy
premium skincare products in the last quarter
Similarly, high-level data mining query languages or other high-level flexible user
interfaces will give users the freedom to define ad hoc data mining tasks
(classification, clustering, association rules).
Finding hidden pattern in facts.
Major Issues in Data Mining
• User Interaction
Search for association rules
In Sales data
For Asia region
Grouped by product category
Only return rules with ≥3% support and ≥40% confidence.
Major Issues in Data Mining
• User Interaction
4) Presentation and visualization of data mining results:
How can a data mining system present data mining results so that the
discovered knowledge can be easily understood and directly usable by
humans?
Major Issues in Data Mining
• Efficiency and Scalability
• Data mining algorithms must be efficient and scalable in order to effectively
extract information from huge amounts of data in many data repositories or
in dynamic data streams
Major Issues in Data Mining
• Diversity of Database Types
The wide diversity of database types brings about challenges to data mining.
1. Handling complex types of data:
structured data such as relational and data warehouse data to semi-structured
and unstructured data;
from stable data repositories to dynamic data streams;
from simple data objects to temporal data,
biological sequences,
sensor data, spatial data, hypertext data, multimedia data, software program
code, Web data, and social network data.
Major Issues in Data Mining
• Diversity of Database Types
• 2) Mining dynamic, networked, and global data repositories:
Multiple sources of data are connected by the Internet and various kinds of
networks, forming gigantic, distributed, and heterogeneous global information
systems and networks.
The discovery of knowledge from different sources of structured, semi-
structured, or unstructured yet interconnected data with diverse data
semantics poses great challenges to data mining
Major Issues in Data Mining
• Data Mining and Society
• 1) Social impacts of data mining:
With data mining penetrating our everyday lives, it is important to study the
impact of data mining on society.
How can we use data mining technology to benefit society?
How can we guard against its misuse?
The improper disclosure or use of data and the potential violation of individual
privacy and data protection rights are areas of concern that need to be
addressed
Major Issues in Data Mining
• Data Mining and Society
• Privacy-preserving data mining:
• Data mining will help scientific discovery, business management, economy
recovery, and security protection
• (e.g., the real-time discovery of intruders and cyberattacks).
• However, it poses the risk of disclosing an individual’s personal information.
Studies on privacy-preserving data publishing and data mining are ongoing.