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1. What is a computer?
A computer is an information-processing machine. It may also be defined
as a device that works under the control of stored programs automatically
accepting, storing and processing data to produce information that is the
result of that processing.

The forms of information processed include:

 Data – e.g. invoices, sales ledger and purchase ledger, payroll, stock controls
etc.
 Text – widely available in many offices with microcomputers
 Graphics – e.g. business graphs, symbols
 Images – e.g. pictures
 Voice – e.g. telephone
Processing includes creating, manipulating, storing, accessing and transmitting.

2. Why use computers?

Use of computers has become a necessity in many fields. Computers have
revolutionized the way businesses are conducted. This is due to the
advantages that computer systems offer over manual systems.

The advantages include:

 Speed – Computers have higher processing speeds than other

means of processing, measured as number of instructions executed
per second.
 Accuracy – Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the
programs are correct, they will always give correct output. A
computer is designed in such a way that many of the inaccuracies,
which could arise due to the malfunctioning of the equipment, are
detected and their consequences avoided in a way, which is
completely transparent to the user.
 Consistency – Given the same data and the same instructions
computers will produce exactly the same answer every time that
particular process is repeated.
 Reliability – Computer systems are built with fault tolerance features,
meaning that failure of one of the components does not necessarily
lead to failure of the whole system.
 Memory capability – A computer has the ability to store and access
large volumes of data.
 Processing capability – A computer has the ability to execute
millions of instructions per second.

3. Computer application areas

Some of the areas that computers are used include:

 Communication – digital communication using computers is

popular and is being adopted worldwide as opposed to analogue
communication using the telephony system. Computers have also
enhanced communication through
 email communication, electronic data interchange, electronic funds
transfer, Internet etc. More specific examples include:

 Banking – the banking sector has incorporated computer systems in

such areas as credit analysis, fund transfers, customer relations,
automated teller machines, home banking, and online banking.

 Organizational management – the proliferation of management

information systems have aided greatly the processes of managerial
planning, controlling, directing as well as decision-making.
Computers are used in organization for transaction processing,
managerial control as well as decision-support. Other specific areas
where computer systems have been incorporated include sales and
marketing, accounting, customer service etc.

 Science, research and engineering – computers used

o as research tools, complex computations
o for simulation e.g. outer-space simulations, flight simulations
o as diagnostic and monitoring tools,
o computerized maps using global positioning satellite (GPS)
technology
o for modern mass production methods in the auto
industry using computer driven technology

 Education– computers incorporate databases of information that

are useful in organizing and disseminating educational resources.
Such E-learning and virtual or distributed classrooms have enabled
the teaching industry to have a global reach to the students.
Computers are also used for test scoring uniform tests done in
schools, school administration and computer aided instructions.

 Management of information materials- The Internet has massive

reference material on virtually every learning area. Computer
systems have enabled the efficient running of libraries for information
storage and retrieval.

 Manufacturing and production – computer aided design (CAD),

computer integrated manufacturing (CIM), process control systems
among other technologies are computer systems that have
revolutionized the production industry.

 Entertainment – use of computers in the entertainment industry

has increased tremendously over the years. Computers enable high-
quality storage of motion pictures and music files using high-speed
and efficient digital storage devices such as CDs, VCDs and DVDs.
The Internet is also a great source of entertainment resources.
Computer games have also become a major source of
entertainment.
 Retailing – computers are used in point of sale systems and credit
card payment systems as well as stock inventories.
 Home appliances – computers (especially embedded computers or
microprocessors) are included in household items for reasons of
economy and efficiency of such items. Major appliances such as
microwave ovens, clothes washers, refrigerators and sewing
machines are making regular use of microprocessors.
  Reservation systems – guest booking, accommodation and bills
accounting using computers in hotels have made the process to be
more efficient and faster. Airline computer reservation systems
have also enhanced and streamlined air travel across major airlines.
Major players in the industry have also adopted online reservation
systems.

 Health care and medicine – computers have played an important

role in the growth and improvement of health care that the use of
computers in medicine has become a medical specialty in itself.
Computers are used in such areas as maintenance of patient
records, medical insurance systems, medical diagnosis, and patient
monitoring.

4. History of Computers

The first electronic computers were produced in the 1940s. Since then, a
series of breakthroughs in electronics have occurred leading to great
improvements in the capacity, processing speed and quality of computer
resources.

The evolution of computerization in business may be summarised as:

 1870s: Development of the typewriter allows speedier communication

and less copying.

 1920s: Invention of the telephone enables both Wide Area Networks

(WAN) and Local Area Networks (LAN) communication in real time. This
marks the beginning of telecommunication.

 1930s: Use of scientific management is made available to analyse and

rationalise.

 1940s: Mathematical techniques developed in World War II (operations

research) are applied to the decision making process.

 1950s: Introduction of copying facilitates cheap and faster document

production, and the (limited) introduction of Electronic Data Processing
(EDP) speeds up large scale transaction processing.

 1960s: Emergence of Management Information Systems (MIS) provides

background within which office automation can develop.

 1970s: Setting up of telecommunication networks to allow for distant

communication between computer systems. There is widespread use of
word processors in text editing and formatting, advancement in
personal computing- emergence of PCs. Use of spreadsheets.

 1980s: Development of office automation technologies that combine

data, text, graphics and voice. Development of DSS, EIS and
widespread use of personal productivity software.
 1990s: Advanced groupware; integrated packages, combining most of
the office work- clerical, operational as well as management.

 2000s: Wide spread use of Internet and related technology in many

spheres of organisations including electronic commerce (e-commerce),
e-learning, e-health

Landmark Inventions
 ~500 B.C. - counting table with beads
 ~1150 in China - ABACUS - beads on wires
 1642 Adding machine - Pascal
 1822 Difference machine/Analytic Engine - design by Babbage
 1890 Holerith punched card machine - for U.S. census
 1944 Mark I (Harvard) - first stored program computer
 1947 ENIAC (Penn)- first electronic stored program computer
 1951 UNIVAC - first commercial computer; 1954 first installation
 1964 IBM - first all-purpose computer (business + scientific)
 1973 HP-65, hand-held, programmable ‗calculator‘
 ~1975 Altair, Intel - first Micro-computer; CPU on a ―chip‖

5. Computer Generations
The view of computers into generations is based on the fundamental
technology employed. Each new generation is characterized by greater
speed, larger memory capacity and smaller overall size than the previous
one.

i. First Generation Computers (1946 – 1957)

 Used vacuum tubes to construct computers.
 These computers were large in size and writing programs on
them was difficult.
 The following are major drawbacks of First generation computers.
o The operating speed was quite slow.
o Power consumption was very high.
o It required large space for installation.
o The programming capability was quite low.
o Cumbersome to operate – switching between
programs, input and output

ii. Second Generation Computers (1958 - 1964)

 Replaced vacuum tubes with transistors.
 The transistor is smaller, cheaper and dissipates less heat than
a vacuum tube.
 The second generation also saw the introduction of more
complex arithmetic and logic units, the use of high – level
programming languages and the provision of system software
with the computer.
 Transistors are smaller than electric tubes and have higher
operating speed. They have no filament and require no
heating. Manufacturing cost was also lower. Thus the size of
the computer got reduced considerably.
  It is in the second generation that the concept of Central
Processing Unit (CPU), memory, programming language and
input and output units were developed. The programming
languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN were developed during
this period.

iii. Third Generation Computers (1965 - 1971)

 Had an integrated circuit.
 Although the transistor technology was a major improvement
over vacuum tubes, problems remained. The transistors
were individually mounted in separate packages and
interconnected on printed circuit boards by separate wires.
This was a complex, time consuming and error-prone process.
 The early integrated circuits are referred to as small-scale
integration (SSI). Computers of this generation were smaller
in size, lower cost, larger memory and processing speed was
much higher.

iv. Fourth Generation Computers (1972 - Present)

 Employ Large Scale Integrated (LSI) and Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuit technology to construct computers.
Over 1,000 components can be placed on a single integrated-
circuit chip.

v. Fifth Generation Computers

 These are computers of 1990s
 Use Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuit technology to
build computers. Over 10,000 components can be
incorporated on a single integrated chip.
 The speed is extremely high in fifth generation computer.
Apart from this it can perform parallel processing. The concept
of Artificial intelligence has been introduced to allow the
computer to take its own decision.

6. Classification of computers
Computers can be classified in different ways as shown below:

Classification by processing
This is by how the computer represents and processes the data.

a) Digital computers are computers which process data that is

represented in the form of discrete values by operating on it in steps.
Digital computers process data represented in the form of discrete
values like 0, 1, 2. They are used for both business data processing
and scientific purposes since digital computation results in greater
accuracy.

b) Analog computers are used for scientific, engineering, and

process-controlled purposes. Outputs are represented in the form of
graphs. Analogue computers process data represented by physical
variables and output physical magnitudes in the form of smooth
graphs.
 c) Hybrid computers are computers that have the combined features of
digital and analog computers. They offer an efficient and economical
method of working out special problems in science and various areas
of engineering.

Classification by purpose
This is a classification by the use to which the computer is put.

a) Special purpose computers are used for a certain specific function

e.g. in medicine, engineering, manufacturing.

b) General-purpose computers can be used for a wide variety of tasks

e.g. accounting, word processing

Classification by generation
This is a time-based classification coinciding with technological
advances. The computers are categorized as First generation
through to Fifth generation.

a) First generation. Computers of the early 1940s. Used a circuitry of

wires and vacuum tubes. Produced a lot of heat, took a lot of space,
were very slow and expensive. Examples are LEO 1 and UNIVAC 1.

b) Second generation. Computers of the early 1950s. Made use of

transistors and thus were smaller and faster. (200KHz). Examples
include the IBM system 1000.

c) Third generation. Computers of the 1960s. Made use of Integrated

Circuits. Speeds of up to 1MHz. Examples include the IBM system 360.

d) Fourth generation. Computers of the 1970s and 1980s. Used Large

Scale Integration (LSI) technology. Speeds of up to 10MHz. Examples
include the IBM 4000 series.

e) Fifth generation. Computers of the 1990s. Use Very Large Scale

Integration (VLSI) technology and have speeds up to 400MHz and
above.

Classification by power and size/ configuration

a) Supercomputers. the largest and most powerful. Used to process large

amounts of data very quickly. Useful for meteorological or
astronomical applications. Examples include Cray and Fujitsu.

b) Mainframe computers. Large computers in terms of price, power

and size. Require a carefully controlled environment and specialist
staff to operate them used for centralized processing
for large commercial organizations. Manufacturers
include International Business Machine (IBM).

c) Minicomputers. Their size, speed and capabilities lie somewhere

between mainframes and microcomputers. Used as departmental
computers in large organizations or as the main computer in medium-
sized organizations. Manufacturers of minicomputers include IBM and
International Computer Limited (ICL).
 d) Microcomputers. These are the personal computers commonly used
for office and leisure activities. Examples include Hewlett Packard
(HP), Compaq and Dell. They include desktops, laptops and palmtops.

7. Data representation in computers

Data exists as electrical voltages in a computer. Since electricity can exist in
2 states, on or off, binary digits are used to represent data. Binary digits, or
bits, can be ―0‖ or ―1‖. The bit is the basic unit of representing data in a
digital computer.
A bit is either a 1 or a 0. These correspond to two electronic/magnetic
states of ON (1) and OFF (0) in digital circuits which are the basic building
blocks of computers. All data operated by a computer and the instructions
that manipulate that data must be represented in these units. Other units
are a combination of these basic units. Such units include:

 1 byte (B) = 23 bits = 8 bits – usually used to represent one character

e.g. ‗A‘
 1 kilobyte (KB) – 210 bytes = 1024 bytes (usually considered as 1000
bytes)
 1 megabyte (MB)– 220 bytes = 1048576 bytes (usually considered
as 1000000 bytes/1000 KB)
 1 gigabyte (GB)– 230 bytes = 1073741824 bytes (usually
considered as 1,000,000,000 bytes/1000 MB)
 1 terabyte (TB) – 240 bytes = 1099511627776 bytes (usually
considered as one trillion bytes/1000 GB)
8. Functional/Logical parts of a digital computer
The system unit houses the processing components of the computer system.
All other computer system devices are called peripherals, and are
connected directly or indirectly into the system unit.

Computer system Communication Devices

CPU

System Unit

Contr Arithmeti
ol c&
Input Devices Output Devices
Unit Logic
Registers (storage
area)

Main
Memory
(Primary
storage)
Secondar
y Storage
Devices

 Input devices – Enters program and data into computer system.

 Central Processing Unit (CPU) – This is the part of the computer
that processes data. Consists of main memory, the control unit and
the arithmetic and logic unit.
 Main Memory – Temporary storage to hold programs and
data during execution/ processing.
 Control Unit – Controls execution of programs.
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs actual processing of
data using program instructions.
 Output devices – Displays information processed by the computer
system.
 Storage devices – Permanent storage of data and programs before
and after it is processed by the computer system.
 Communication devices – Enable communication with other
computers.
8.1 Hardware
Refers to the physical, tangible computer equipment and devices, which
provide support for major functions such as input, processing (internal
storage, computation and control), output, secondary storage (for data and
programs), and communication.

Hardware categories
A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output,
process, and store data and information. Computer systems are currently
built around at least one digital processing device. There are five main
hardware components in a computer system: the central processing unit
(CPU); primary storage (main memory); secondary storage; and input and
output devices.
Basic elements of hardware
The basic elements that make up a computer system are as follows:

a) Input
Most computers cannot accept data in forms customary to human
communication such as speech or hand-written documents. It is necessary,
therefore, to present data to the computer in a way that provides easy
conversion into its own electronic pulse-based forms. This is commonly
achieved by typing data using the keyboard or using an electronic
mouse or any other input device.

 Keyboard can be connected to a computer system through a

terminal. A terminal is a form of input and output device. A
terminal can be connected to a mainframe or other types of
computers called a host computer or server. There are four types
of terminals namely dumb, intelligent, network and Internet.
 Pen input devices e.g. Lightpen - Pen input devices are used
to select or input items by touching the screen with the pen. Light
pens accomplish this by using a white cell at the tip of the pen.
When the light pen is placed against the monitor, it closes a
photoelectric circuit. The photoelectric circuit identifies the spot
for entering or modifying data. Engineers who design
microprocessor chips or airplane parts use light pens.
 Touch sensitive screen inputs-Touch sensitive screens, or
touch screens, allow the user to execute programs or select
menu items by touching a portion of a special screen. Behind
the plastic layer of the touch screen are crisscrossed invisible
beams of infrared light. Touching the screen with a finger can
activate actions or commands. Touch screens are often used in
ATMs, information centres, restaurants, and or stores. They are
popularly used at gas stations for customers to select the grade
of gas or request a receipt at the pump (in developed
countries), as well as in fast-food restaurants to allow clerks to
easily enter orders.
ii. Scanning Devices
Scanning devices, or scanners, can be used to input images and
character data directly into a computer. The scanner digitises the
data into machine- readable form. The scanning devices used
in direct-entry include the following:
 Image Scanner – converts images on a page to electronic
signals.
  Fax Machine – converts light and dark areas of an image
into format that can be sent over telephone lines.
 Bar-Code Readers – photoelectric scanner that reads
vertical striped marks printed on items.
 Character and Mark Recognition Devices – scanning
devices used to read marks on documents.

 There are three kinds of character and mark recognition devices:

- Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR)
Magnetic ink character recognition, or MICR, readers are used to
read the numbers printed at the bottom of checks in special
magnetic ink.
These numbers are an example of data that is both
machine readable and human readable. The
use of MICR readers increases the speed and accuracy of
processing checks.

- Optical-mark recognition (OMR)

Reads marks on tests – also called mark sensing. Optical mark
recognition readers are often used for test scoring since they
can read the location of marks on what is sometimes called a
mark sense document. This is how, for instance, standardized
tests, such as the KCPE, SAT or GMAT are scored.

iv. Voice–input devices

Voice-Input Devices can also be used for direct input into a computer.
Speech recognition can be used for data input when it is necessary to
keep your hands free. For example, a doctor may use voice recognition
software to dictate medical notes while examining a patient. Voice
recognition can also be used for security purposes to allow only
authorized people into certain areas or to use certain devices.

 Voice-input devices convert speech into a digital code.

 The most widely used voice-input device is the microphone.
 A microphone, sound card, and software form a voice recognition
system.

Processing devices
(i) The CPU (Central Processing Unit)
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) controls the processing of instructions.
The CPU produces electronic pulses at a predetermined and constant
rate. This is called the clock speed. Clock speed is generally measured in
megahertz, that is, millions of cycles per second.
It consists of:
o Control Unit (CU) – The electronic circuitry of the control unit
accesses program instructions, decodes them and coordinates
instruction execution in the CPU.
o Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs mathematical
calculations and logical comparisons.
o Registers – These are high-speed storage circuitry that holds
the instruction and the data while the processor is executing
the instruction.
o Bus – This is a highway connecting internal components to each
other.
 b) Output
Results are taken from main storage and fed to an output device. This may
be a printer, in which case the information is automatically converted to a
printed form called hard copy or to a monitor screen for a soft copy of data
or information.

Output devices
Output is human-readable information. Input (data) is processed inside the
computer‘s CPU into meaningful output (information). Output devices
translate the machine- readable information into human-readable
information.
 Punched cards: characters are coded onto an 80-column card in
columns by combining punches in different locations; a special card
reader reads the cards and translates them into transactions for
the computer. These are now used only for older applications.

 Paper tape punch

Printers
– Outputs printout on paper often referred to as hard-copy output.

Plotters
Plotters are typically used for design output. They are special-purpose
output devices used to produce charts, maps, architectural drawings and
three-dimensional representations. They can produce high-quality multi-
colour documents or larger size documents. Plotters produce documents
such as blueprints or schematics.

Monitors
– Output device for soft-copy output (temporal screen display of output which
lasts as long as the monitor‘s power is on). They are the most frequently
used output devices. Some are used on the desktop; others are portable.
Two important characteristics of the monitor are size and clarity.

Voice-output devices
 Voice-output devices make sounds that resemble human speech.
 Voice-output devices use prerecorded vocalized sounds to produce
output.
 The computer ―speaks‖ synthesized words.
 Voice output is not as difficult to create as voice input.
 Most widely used voice-output devices are stereo speakers and
headphones.
 Devices are connected to a sound card in the system unit.
 Sound card is used to capture sound as well as play it back.

Examples of voice output uses:

 Soft-drink machines, the telephone, and in cars.
 Voice output can be used as a tool for learning.
 Can help students study a foreign language.
 Used in supermarkets at the checkout counter to confirm purchases.
 Most powerful capability is to assist the physically challenged.

Storage devices

i. Main Memory
Primary storage, also called main memory, although not a part of the CPU, is
closely
related to the CPU. Main memory holds program instructions and data
before and after execution by the CPU. All instructions and data pass
through main memory locations. Memory is located physically close to the
CPU to decrease access time, that is, the time it takes the CPU to retrieve
data from memory. Although the overall trend has been increased memory
access time, memory has not advanced as quickly as processors. Memory
access time is often measured in milliseconds, or one thousandths of a
second.

ii. Auxiliary/Secondary
Storage devices
Secondary storage devices store a larger amount of data or instructions than
does main memory, on a more permanent basis. On a per megabyte
basis, secondary storage is also cheaper than primary storage. Secondary
storage is also infinitely extendable, unlike main memory, which is finite.
Secondary storage is not volatile. Secondary storage is also more portable
than primary storage – that is, it is possible to remove it from a computer
and use the device and its contents in another.
 Types of
Memory
Non Volatile
Volatile
Memory types

RAM ROM

DRAM SDRAM EDO PROM EPROM

 1. RAM (Random Access Memory) /RWM (Read Write Memory) – Also
referred to as main memory, primary storage or internal memory.
Its content can be read and can be changed and is the working area
for the user. It is used to hold programs and data during processing.
RAM chips are volatile, that is, they loose their contents if power is
disrupted. Typical sizes of RAM include 32MB, 64MB, 128MB, 256MB
and 512MB.
a. EDO – Extended Data Out
b. DRAM – Dynamic RAM
c. SDRAM – Synchronous

2. ROM (Read Only Memory) – Its contents can only be read and
cannot be changed. ROM chips is non-volatile, so the contents aren‘t
lost if the power is disrupted. ROM provides permanent storage for
unchanging data & instructions, such as data from the computer
maker. It is used to hold instructions for starting the computer called
the bootstrap program.

ROM: chips, the contents, or combination of electrical circuit states,

are set by the manufacturer and cannot be changed. States are
permanently manufactured into the chip.

PROM: the settings must be programmed into the chip. After they are
programmed, PROM behaves like ROM – the circuit states can‘t be
changed. PROM is used when instructions will be permanent, but
they aren‘t produced in large enough quantities to make custom
chip production (as in ROM) cost effective. PROM chips are, for
example, used to store video game instructions.

Instructions are also programmed into erasable programmable

read-only memory. However, the contents of the chip can be erased
and the chip can be reprogrammed. EPROM chips are used where
data and instructions don‘t change often, but non-volatility and
quickness are needed. The controller for a robot arm on an assembly
line is an example of EPROM use.

a. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) – It is written onto

only once using special devices. Used mostly in electronic
devices such as alarm systems.
b. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) –Can be
written onto more than once.

3. Cache Memory - Cache memory is high-speed memory that a processor

can access more quickly than RAM. Frequently used instructions are stored
in cache since they can be retrieved more quickly, improving the overall
performance of the computer. Level 1 (L1) cache is located on the
processor; Level 2 (L2) cache is located between the processor and RAM.
8.2 Software
Software is detailed step-by-step sequence of instructions known as program which
guide computer hardware. A computer program is a sequence of instructions that
tell the computer hardware what to do. Programs are written in programming
languages, which consists of a set of symbols combined according to a given syntax.
A program must be in main memory (RAM) to be executed. These invisible,
intangible components of a computer that direct and control the operations of the
hardware when processing data are referred to as software.

Software is classified into two major types: system and application software.

System software
Systems software consists of programs that coordinates the activities of hardware
and other programs. System software is designed for a specific CPU and hardware
class. The combination of a particular hardware configuration and operating
system is called a computer platform. These programs manage the "behind the
scenes" operation of the computer.

Examples
 Operating systems
 Utility Programs - Utility programs often come installed on computer
systems or packaged with operating systems. Utilities can also be purchased
individually. Utility programs perform useful tasks, such as virus detection,
tracking computer jobs, and compressing data.
 Language processors – Compilers and interpreters
Operating systems
The functions of an operating system includes:
 Perform common hardware functions
- Accept input and store data on disks and send data to output devices
 Provide a user interface
 Provide hardware independence
 Manage system memory
 Manage processing
 Control access to system resources
- Protection against unauthorized access
- Logins and passwords
 Manage files
- Physical storage location
- File permissions
- File access

Examples of operating systems include:

 DOS – Disk operating systemWindows 3.1, 95, 98, NT, 2000, ME,
XPLinux, Unix, MAC OS, System/7

Application software
Applications software includes programs designed to help end users solve
particular problems using the computer or to perform specific tasks.
 Sources of software
Application
Software

Proprietary Off-the-shelf

In - house Contract Standard

developed Customized
package Package

In – Contract
house customization
customized

Advantages of proprietary software

 You can get exactly what you need in terms of reports, features etc.
 Being involved in development offers a further level in control over
results.
 There is more flexibility in making modifications that may be required
to counteract a new initiative by a competitor or to meet new supplier
or customer requirements. A merger with another firm or an
acquisition will also necessitate software changes to meet new
business needs.

Disadvantages of proprietary software

 It can take a long time and significant resources to develop required
features.
 In house system development staff may become hard pressed to
provide the required level of ongoing support and maintenance
because of pressure to get on to other new projects.
 There is more risk concerning the features and performance of the
software that has yet to be developed.

Advantages of off-the-shelf software

 The initial cost is lower since the software firm is able to
spread the development costs over a large number of customers.
 There is lower risk that the software will fail to meet the basic business
needs
– you can analyse existing features and performance of the
package
 Package is likely to be of high quality since many customer firms
have tested the software and helped identify many of its bugs.

Disadvantages of off-the-shelf software

 An organization may have to pay for features that are not required
and never used.
  The software may lack important features, thus requiring future
modifications or customisation. This can be very expensive because
users must adopt future releases of the software.
 Software may not match current work processes and data standards.

Application software is further classified into general-purpose

software and applications.

General-purpose software
Examples include
 Word processing – Create, edit and print text documents. E.g. MS
Word, Word Perfect.
 Spreadsheets – Provide a wide range of built-in functions for
statistical, logical, financial, database, graphics, data and time
calculations. E.g. Lotus 1-2-3, Excel, Quattro Pro.
 Database management systems (DBMS) – Store, manipulate and
retrieve data.
E.g. Access, FoxPro, dBase.
 Online Information Services – Obtain a broad range of information
from commercial services. E.g. America Online, CompuServe
 Communications- Ms Outlook for email
 Browsers e.g Internet Explorer, Eudora
 Graphics – Develop graphs, illustrations and drawings. E.g.
PaintShop, FreeHand, Corel
 Project Management – Plan, schedule, allocate and control people and
resources needed to complete a project according to schedule. E.g.
Project for Windows, Time Line.
 Financial Management – Provide income and expense tracking and
reporting to monitor and plan budgets. E.g. Quicken
 Desktop publishing -used to create high-quality printed output
including text and graphics; various styles of pages can be laid out;
art and text from other programs can also be integrated into
published pages. E.g. PageMaker, Publisher.
 Presentation packages like MS Powerpoint

Note: A software suite, such as Microsoft Office, offers a collection of

powerful programs including word processing, spreadsheet, database,
graphics and other programs. The programs in a software suite are
designed to be used together. In addition, the commands, the icons and
procedures are the same for all programs in the suite.
 Factors to consider when choosing software

(i) User requirements: the selected software or package

should fit user requirement as closely as possible
(ii) Processing time: these involves the response time e.g. if the
response time is slow the user might consider the software or
package as unsuccessful
(iii) Documentation: the software should be accompanied by manual,
which is easy to understand by non-technical person. The manual
should not contain technical jargon.
(iv) User friendliness: the package should be easier to use with clear
on screen prompts, menu driven and extensive on screen help
facility
(v) Controls: the software should have in-built controls which may
include password options, validation checks, audit trails or trace
facilities etc
(vi) Up-to-date: the software should be up-to-date e.g. should have
changes or corrections in line with business procedures
(vii) Modification: one should consider whether the user could freely
change the software without violating copyright.
(viii) Success in the market: one should consider how many users are
using the software and how long it has been in the market
(ix) Compatibility of the software: how the software integrates with
other software particularly the operating system and the user
programs
(x) Portability: one should consider how the software runs on the user
computer and whether there will be need for the user to upgrade
his hardware
(xi) Cost: the user company should consider its financial position to
establish whether it can afford the software required for efficient
operations rather than the least cost package software available.