Hydrosphere, Cryosphere,

and Atmosphere
Lecture 3
Radiative Transfer
Greenhouse Effect
Atmosphere Feedbacks
Radiative Transfer
• Radiative transfer is the theory describing how electromagnetic
radiation is transmitted through a medium such as a planetary
atmosphere or a stellar photosphere
• The medium can emit, absorb, and scatter radiation
― A behavior that may vary strongly with wavelength according to the different
species composing the medium and their physical state
• An important tool to simulate changes in the solar radiation due to
atmospheric scattering and absorption processes are radiative
transfer models (Forward models)
• Satellites/probes can only sense radiation, which needs to be
converted to meaningful data (Inverse or retrieval models)
 More Details in
Atmospheric Scattering Part 2

𝛼 = 𝜋𝐷𝑝 /𝜆
where, πDp is the circumference of a particle and λ is the wavelength of
incident radiation in the medium; α is dimensionless.
• Rayleigh Scattering
• Small particle compared to wavelength of light (α << 1)
• Mie Scattering
• Particle about the same size as wavelength of light, valid only for spheres (α ≈1)
• Non-Selective or Geometric Scattering
• Particle much larger than wavelength of light (α >> 1)
Beer Lambert’s Law
𝐼(𝑧) = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝜇𝑧
where, I(z) is intensity at distance z, I0 is the initial intensity, μ is the
coefficient of absorption/attenuation
• Relates the attenuation of light to the properties of the material
through which the light is travelling
• Commonly applied to chemical analysis measurements and used in
understanding attenuation in physical optics, for photons, neutrons,
or rarefied gases
• Good applicability to the atmosphere absorption
Blackbody
• A blackbody is an object that absorbs all EM radiation that hits it
• It does not reflect, thus, it is “black”
• Emits all EM radiation frequencies
• The way a blackbody emits radiation is dependent only on the
blackbody’s temperature
• Stefan Boltzmann Law:
𝐼 = 𝜎𝑇 4
𝜎 = 5.673 × 10−8 Wm−2 K −4
• Perfect blackbody does not exist in reality (hypothetical)
• For Gray body: 𝐼 = 𝜀𝜎𝑇 4 , ε is the emissivity
Bare Earth’s Temperature (from Last lecture)
• We can find the temperature of the Earth by balancing the sunlight
and earthlight

4 1−𝛼
𝑇𝑒 = 𝑆0
4𝜎
4 (1−0.30)
= 1370
4 5.67 × 10−8
4
= 4.321 × 109 = 255K = (255−273)°C = −18°C
 Let’s add an atmosphere
• We’ll hang an atmosphere like a window pane over the Earth surface
• A window pane has two surfaces: top & bottom
• The atmosphere is transparent to sunlight
• We can see the sun with our eyes
• When it’s cloudy, that situation is covered by the albedo
• The atmosphere is opaque to Earth’s radiation
• All Earth’s radiation is absorbed
• Absorptance (or Emittance) + Reflectance + Transmittance = 1
 Temperature of Earth with Atmosphere
• One Layer Energy Balance Model
• We can now express the condition of
energy balance at each level in our
simplified model of the Earth:
• The top of the atmosphere (TOA)
• The atmospheric layer
• The surface
• ‘A’ is albedo (α), Te is effective radiating
temperature

[Link]
Slab Atmosphere Model
𝑆0 (1 − 𝛼)
= 𝜎𝜀𝑇𝑒4 + (1 − 𝜀)𝜎𝑇𝑠4
4
𝜎𝑇𝑠4 = 2𝜎𝜀𝑇𝑒4

𝑆0 (1 − 𝛼)
+ 𝜎𝜀𝑇𝑒4 = 𝜎𝑇𝑠4
4
• After solving the set of above three equations:

4 𝑆0 (1 − 𝛼)
𝑇𝑠 =
4𝜎 1 − 𝜀/2
• If 𝜀 = 0, 𝑇𝑠 = −18 ℃ (i.e., No atmosphere) is bit too cold
• If 𝜀 = 1, 𝑇𝑠 = +30 ℃ (perfectly IR absorbing atmosphere) is bit too hot
• If 𝜀 = 0.77, 𝑇𝑠 = +15 ℃ is just about right!
Few Comments
• +15 °C is about the Earth’s average surface temperature.
• Atmosphere is neither perfectly absorbing nor perfectly transmitting.
Also, not a single layer.
• Just a simplification. Actual atmosphere is much more complicated
• It only takes into account short wave and long wave radiation
• We haven't accounted for important processes involved in the energy
budget of the actual atmosphere and surface, which includes
convection, latent heating, feedbacks, and the effect of large-scale
motion
Wein’s Displacement Law
• Relationship between the temperature of a blackbody and the
wavelength at which the radiation will peak
• Wavelength is inversely proportional to the temperature
2898
𝜆𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 𝜇𝑚
𝑇
𝜈𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 = 5.879 × 1010 ∙ 𝑇
• Planck’s law:
2ℎ𝑐 2
𝐵𝜆 = 5 ℎ𝑐/𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝜆 𝑒 −1
2ℎ𝜈 3
𝐵𝜈 = 2 ℎ𝜈/𝑘𝑇
𝑐 𝑒 −1
Blackbody Radiation
 MODTRAN
• The MODTRAN model simulates
the emission and absorption of
infrared radiation in the
atmosphere
• The smooth curves are theoretical
emission spectra of blackbodies at
different temperatures.
• The jagged lines are spectra of
infrared light at the top of the
atmosphere looking down
• Demonstrates the effect of
wavelength-selective greenhouse
gases on Earth's outgoing IR
energy flux
[Link]
 Atmospheric Windows
• Only a fraction of longwave
radiation escapes
• Some key greenhouse
gases:
―N2O: Nitrous oxide
―CH4: Methane
―O3: Ozone
―H2O: Water vapor
―CO2: Carbon dioxide

[Link]
[Link]
Atmospheric Gases Absorption

Absorption bands of atmospheric gases in visible and near-IR region Patadia et al., 2018
 Solar Spectrum
• Received Solar Irradiance
at the Earth’s Sea Level
– Most gets through
– Some UV and IR absorbed
– Some reflected by snow,
ice, clouds, sand
 Greenhouse Effect
• The greenhouse effect is a process that
occurs when gases in Earth's
atmosphere trap the radiation (or heat)
• This process makes Earth much warmer
than it would be without an
atmosphere. The greenhouse effect is
one of the things that makes Earth a
comfortable place to live.
• The problem we now face is that
human activities are increasing the
concentrations of greenhouse gases
Different Cycles – Earth Radiation Budget
• The main cycles of ecosystem are
―Water Cycle
―Carbon Cycle (Photosynthesis and Respiration)
―Nitrogen Cycle (Not a greenhouse gas)
―Energy Cycle
• Water & Energy Cycle:
―Improvement in hurricane prediction
―Quantification of tropical rainfall
―Balancing water budget at global and regional scales
• Carbon Cycle
―For tracking CO2 emissions
Carbon Cycle
Net uptake of carbon by
photosynthetic organisms
• The carbon cycle is nature's way of recycling carbon atoms — are shown for land and
oceans
• Carbon is the foundation for all life on Earth Units: PgC yr-1
 [Link]

Carbon Cycle Fast carbon cycle showing the movement of carbon between land,
atmosphere, and oceans in billions of tons (gigatons) per year

• There is a fast and a slow

carbon cycle. The fast
cycle operates in the
biosphere and the slow
cycle operates in rocks
• Yellow numbers are
natural fluxes, red are
human contributions,
white are stored carbon
• The effects of the slow
carbon cycle, such as
volcanic and tectonic
activity are not included
 The Keeling Curve is a graph that shows how the

Keeling curve concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the

Earth's atmosphere has changed over time

• Charles Keeling started

measurements in the
pristine air of Mauna Loa
• Confirmed that fossil fuel
CO2 builds up
• What’s the oscillation?
• Plants in the northern
hemisphere spring/summer
take in carbon

21
[Link]
 Long term trends IPCC, AR5

Antarctic Ice Core Data

390

370
Mauna Loa Data
CO2 Concentration, ppm

350

330

310

290

270

250
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Year

• Keeling data lines up very well with ice core data

Carbon Cycle Summary

• Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere are rising

• Keeling curve is longest record of direct measurements
• There are other measurements (2nd longest is South Pole)
• Matches well with Antarctic ice core data for earlier times
• Production records from the energy industry match quite well with
measured atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations:
• 55% of industrial CO2 stays in the atmosphere
• Much of the rest dissolves in the ocean
23
Water Cycle
 Water vapor is the
strongest greenhouse
Water Cycle component

• Water is essential to life on Earth. In its three phases (solid, liquid, and gas),
water ties together the major parts of the Earth’s climate system — air, clouds,
the ocean, lakes, vegetation, snowpack, and glaciers
• Water, in its different forms, cycles continuously through the lithosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere
• Water evaporates into the atmosphere from the land and the sea
• Plants and animals use water and release water vapor into the air
• Once in the air, water vapor circulates and can condense to form clouds and
precipitation, which fall back to earth
• At one time or another, all of the water molecules on earth have been in an
ocean, a river, a plant, an animal, a cloud, a raindrop, a snowflake, or a glacier!
Definitions
• Climate sensitivity (general): The magnitude of climate change relative to a
measure of forcing that initiates the change
• Climate sensitivity (within certain climate modeling communities): The
equilibrium change in global, annual-mean surface air temperature in
response to a doubling of CO2
• Radiative forcing or climate forcing (basic): The instantaneous change in
(Top of the Atmosphere) TOA net energy flux (RTOA) caused by an “external”
action or event
• Equilibrium climate: A climate state where the TOA net energy flux is zero,
or within some small range of zero
• Positive feedback mechanism: One which increases the magnitude of
equilibrium climate response to forcing
• Negative feedback mechanism: One which decreases the magnitude of
equilibrium climate response to forcing
Significance
• Emissions of greenhouse gases are broken down by factors:

Climate =
Emissions [CO2]
= carbon intensity [CO2/kwh]
Physics,
x energy intensity [kwh/$]
Economics,x per capita GDP [$/person]
Culture x population [persons]
 Let’s go back to
MODTRAN
Radiative Forcing
• Case-1: Positive Radiative Forcing
• Consider that the CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere is doubled. Higher CO2
absorbs more longwave radiation. This leads to less radiation going out to space.
• Outgoing TOA radiation reduced from 298 Wm-2 to 295 Wm-2
• Case-2: Negative Radiative Forcing
• Due to a major volcano eruption, sulfur dioxide (SO2) and volcanic ash blocks the
incoming Sun radiation by sulfate aerosols. This may leads to less incoming
energy and more outgoing energy. This leads to cooling of Earth’s surface.
• Pinatubo’s (eruption: June 15, 1991) negative radiative forcing exceeded for two
years the positive forcings due to anthropogenic greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4,
CFCs and N2O)
• 1991: -1.35 Wm-2; 1992: -3.03 Wm-2; 1993: -1.23 Wm-2
[Link]
Anthropogenic Forcings

IPCC, AR5
Radiative Forcing Components
• Which atmospheric gas
has both warming and
cooling effects on Earth?
• Check the graph
 Forcing is one way
Feedback Assumptions Feedback is a “loop”

• The individual feedback mechanism:

― Are independent
― Can be added linearly
Climate Feedbacks
• Water Vapor feedback
• Likely the strongest positive feedback in present-day climate (1.48 to 2.14 Wm-2K-1)
• Ice/Snow Albedo feedback
• One of the most strongest positive feedback (0.07 to 0.34 Wm-2K-1)
• Clouds feedback
• Constitutes by far the largest source of uncertainty in the climate response
• By reflecting solar radiation back to space and by trapping infrared radiation
emitted by the surface and the lower troposphere, clouds exert two competing
effects on the Earth’s radiation budget (0.18 to 1.18 Wm-2K-1)
• Generally, low-altitude clouds → Negative Feedback; High-altitude clouds →
Positive feedback
• Planck’s feedback
• The higher the temperature of a radiating body, the more energy it radiates. Strong
negative feedback (-3.2 Wm-2K-1)
 Greenhouse Gases and their contribution
• The major constituents of Earth's atmosphere, nitrogen (N2)(78%), oxygen
(O2)(21%), and argon (Ar)(0.9%), are not greenhouse gases because molecules
containing two atoms of the same element such as N2 and O2 have no net
change in the distribution of their electrical charges when they vibrate, and
monatomic gases such as Ar do not have vibrational modes
• Strong vibrational absorption band of CO2 (wavelength 15 µm, or wavenumber
667 cm−1) is close to peak of thermal emission from Earth Surface
Compound Formula Concentration in atmosphere (ppm) Contribution (%)
Water vapor and clouds H2O 10–50,000(A) 36–72%
Carbon dioxide CO2 ~400 9–26%
Methane CH4 ~1.8 4–9%
Ozone O3 2–8(B) 3–7%

(A) Water vapor strongly varies locally

(B) The concentration in stratosphere. About 90% of the ozone in Earth's atmosphere is contained in the stratosphere.
 Global Warming
Since 1750 onwards (the beginning of Industrial
• Global warming refers to climate revolution), atmospheric CO2 concentration has
change, the mainly human- increased from 280 ppm to 406 ppm (2017) due
caused rise of the average to human activities
temperature of the Earth’s
climate system
• Leads to extreme weather
• In the period from 1880 to 2012,
the global average (land and
ocean) surface temperature has
increased by 0.85 °C
• Should not go beyond 2 °C. Why?

[Link]
 Sea – Level Rise
• What if the entire Antarctic ice cap melts?
• Average thickness of ice cap is h = 3 km
• Antarctic area A = 14,000,000 km2
• Antarctic volume of ice cap V = 14,000,000 x 3 = 42,000,000 km3
• Converting ice into water equivalent = 42,000,000*The density of ice (i.e. 0.9167
g/cm3) = 38.5x106 km3
• Distribute this volume of water over entire Ocean.
• Entire world Ocean surface area = 361x106 km2 (entire globe area = 510x106 km2)
• Sea level rise = 38.5x106/(361x106) = 0.1066 km = 106.6 meters
• Elevation of Mumbai ~ 14m
 Deforestation
• Forests get cut down to make room for
farms
• Trees burned or left to rot: release CO2 →
warming
• Fields are less dark than trees: reflect
sunlight → cooling
• Fields transpire less than trees: less water
vapor → fewer low clouds → warming
• These last two are albedo changes due to
“land use change”
 Next time …

CO2
Importance of Ozone
Ozone Chemistry

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