Module II

Dielectrics: dielectric polarization under static fields –

electronic, ionic and dipolar polarizations – behavior of
dielectrics in alternating fields – mechanism of
breakdown in gases, liquids and solids - factors
influencing dielectric strength – capacitor materials-
Insulating materials – complex dielectric constant –
dipolar relaxation -dielectric loss -insulator materials used
– inorganic materials (mica, glass, porcelain, asbestos) –
organic materials (paper, rubber, cotton silk, fibre, wood,
plastics, bakelite)- resins and varnishes – liquid insulators
(transformer oil) – gaseous insulators (air, SF6, and
hydrogen ) – ageing of insulators.
 DIELECTRICS
•Dielectrics or insulators as distinct from conductors have no
free electrons.
•It is called dielectrics when we use it for storage applications.
•When it is used for insulation purposes, it is called insulators.
•Dielectrics are non metallic materials having high resistivity
and negative temperature coefficient of resistance.
•When an emf is applied across dielectric, no current flows.
•Since no dielectric is perfect, it contains small amount of free
electrons and very small current flows through it when an
electric field is applied.
 TYPES OF DIELECTRICS
•A molecule is assumed to be neutral where the algebraic sum
of all the charges is zero.
•Any material can have a large number of molecules and each
molecule consists of nucleus and electrons.
•Depending on the separation between the centre of gravity of
positive and negative charges, the material can be classified
as Polar or Non-Polar dielectric material.
 NON-POLAR DIELECTRICS
•A molecule in which the centre of gravity of positive and
negative charges coincide is called Non-polar molecule.

•Such molecule doesnot have any permanent dipole moment.

Eg: Oxygen (O2), Nitrogen (N2) and Hydrogen (H2).

•Dielectrics having non-polar molecules are known as

Non-polar dielectrics.
 POLAR DIELECTRICS
•A polar molecule is the one in which the centre of gravity of
positive charges is separated by finite distance from that of
negative charges.
•Unbalanced electric charges results in dipole moment and
orientation.
•These molecules possess permanent electric dipole moment.
Eg: N2O, H2O and HCl.
•Dielectrics having polar molecules are known as Polar
Dielectrics.
 DIELECTRIC POLARISATION UNDER
STATIC FIELD
• Polarization can be defined as the definite orientation of electrostatic
dipoles in a dielectric material due to an applied electric field.
• When a dielectric is placed in an electric field, electric charges donot
flow through the material as they do in an electrical conductor.
• Electric field applied to an atom causes movement of the electrons
opposite to that of the field.
• This movement is opposed by the attractive force between nuclei &
electrons.
• The resultant effect is to separate the +ve & -ve charges in each
molecule. This effect is called Polarization.
 TYPES OF POLARISATION

•All matter consists of positively and negatively charged

particles whose charge balance each other in the absence of
electric field.

•Once the electric field is applied, the balance of charges are

disturbed by the following basic polarisation mechanisms.
 ELECTRONIC POLARISATION
•The displacement of the centre of the –vely charged electron
cloud relative to the +ve nucleus of an atom by the electric
field results Electronic Polarization.

•This shifting of electron cloud results in a dipole moment.

• Dipole moment is define as the product of the charge and the

shift distance
P = qd
•Also polarization P is proportional to the field strength E,
Pe = α e E
where αe is the proportionality constant & is defined as the
Electronic Polarizability.
•Electronic Polarizability is independent of temperature
•Mono atomic gas exhibits this type of polarization.
 IONIC POLARISATION
•In an ionic molecule (NaCl) , displacement of cations &
anions in opposite direction under the action of external
electric field causes polarization called Ionic Polarization.
• Ionic polarization, P is proportional to the field strength E is
expressed as,
Pi = α i E
where αi is the proportionality constant & is defined as the
Ionic Polarizability and is independent of temperature.
 DIPOLAR/ORIENTAL POLARISATION
•Polarization due to the rotation (orientation) of the molecule of a
polar dielectric having constant dipole moment in the direction of an
electric field is called Dipolar Polarization.
•In the absence of an external electric field, the permanent dipoles
are oriented themselves such that they cancel the effects of each
other.
•When an electric field is applied on a permanent dipole moment
molecule, then the dipole tends to align themselves in the direction
of applied field induces orientation polarization, which is given by;
Po= αoE
 where αo = m²/3kBT .
•αo is the proportionality constant & is defined as the
Dipolar/Oriental Polarizability
•Orientation polarization is inversely proportional to
temperature & proportional to square of the permanent dipole
moment.
 DIELECTRIC POLARISATION UNDER
ALTERNATING FIELD
• When an alternating field is applied to dielectric material, the position of
atoms or molecules are disturbed.
• Also electrical energy is absorbed by the dielectric material and is dissipated
in the form of heat (called dielectric loss).
• When ac voltage is applied to a dielectric, an angle δ = 90-θ (called loss
angle) develops and it is helpful in the analysis of power dissipation.
 BEHAVIOUR OF DIELECTRICS IN
ALTERNATING FIELDS
• Electronic polarization is the fastest and typically persists at
frequencies between 1013 – 1015 Hz.

• Ionic polarization occurs at frequencies between 109 – 1013 Hz.

• Dipolar polarization involves movement of molecules happens below

109 Hz.
• Electronic polarisation occurs at all frequencies.
• Ionic polarization does not occur at optical frequencies.
• Orientation polarization occurs at electrical frequencies.
• Dielectric constant depends on polarisability of the material.
• Thus there is a variation in permittivity and hence relative
permittivity or dielectric constant , in turn, polarisability of a
dielectric material with frequency of applied electric field.
• The fall in permittivity of a material with increased frequency of
applied electric field is called Anamolous dispersion.
• The change arising during the transition from full dipolar
polarisation at low frequencies to negligible dipolar polarisation
at high radiowave frequencies is referred to as Dipolar relaxation.
• The change arising during transition from full ionic polarisation at
radiowave frequencies to negligible ionic polarisation at infrared
frequencies is referred to as Resonance absorption.
 DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
• Dielectric constant or Relative permittivity (εr) is defined as the ratio of
the electric permittivity of the material, ε to the electric permittivity of
free space (i.e,vacuum), εo.
• Dielectric constant is a measure of how a material is electrically
polarized by an externally applied electric field.
• It indicates the extend to which electric flux permitted through
medium.
• Greater the dielectric constant, greater the concentration of flux in the
medium.
• It is dimensionless.
• For vacuum, εr = 1.
 COMPLEX DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OR
COMPLEX RELATIVE PERMITTIVITY

•In ac fields permittivity becomes complex quantity and has real and imaginary
parts.
•The dielectric constant is a function of frequency.
•As frequency increases, the value decreases due to polarization mechanisms
no longer being able to follow the rapidly changing field.
•Imaginary part is always positive and represents loss factor or energy
absorbed.
• When we apply an ac voltage across a dielectric, the molecular
dipoles changes its direction many times depending on frequency
of applied source .
• During this rapid changing, some heat is generated and lost. This is
called Dielectric loss.
• Dielectric loss is the heat dissipated from the dielectric material or
it is the electrical energy that is absorbed by the dielectric
(insulating) material when subjected to an alternating electric field.
• Dielectric loss per unit volume is given by the ratio of Power loss
by volume
• Dielectric losses depend on frequency and the dielectric material.
• The imaginary part (εr”) is associated with dielectric losses.
• The imaginary part or the complex dielectric constant εr” is found from
the measurement of tan δ, which is the loss factor or Dissipation factor
of the dielectric.
• Dissipation factor represents how lossy the material is for AC signals.
• The real part (εr’) is an indication of the degree of polarization or is the
permittivity component quantifying the stored energy (part proportional
to amplitude of electric field).
• The greater the degree of polarization, the greater the value of εr’.
• The measurement of the real part of relative permittivity, εr’ is generally
done by measuring the charge in capacitance of a capacitor by the
introduction of the dielectric between its electrodes.
 FACTORS AFFECTING DIELECTRIC
STRENGTH
• Maximum voltage that a pure material can withstand under ideal
conditions without breaking down is called Dielectric strength.
• When a dielectric losses its insulation resistance and permits large
current to flow throw it is called Dielectric breakdown.
• The minimum EF that results in breakdown is called Breakdown
Voltage.
• Common factors on which dielectric strength of a material depends are:
(a) Temperature – With the change of temperature, the movement of
electrons in a material changes and hence it affects breakdown
voltage of material. Resistance of an insulator falls as the temperature
increases.
(b) Humidity – Water is a good conductor of electricity. Thus deposition
of water on the surface of material creates some short circuit path on
material ultimately reducing its breakdown voltage.
(c) Frequency of Applied voltage – Frequency has a direct relation with
breakdown voltage or dielectric strength. The breakdown voltage at
higher frequencies is much lower than breakdown voltage at 50Hz.
(d) Thickness of material – If thickness of material is increased,
breakdown voltage also increases.
(e) Ageing – Breakdown voltage increases with ageing.
 AGEING OF INSULATORS
• It is the long time effect of heat, chemicals and voltage application to
them which decide the natural life of an insulation and an apparatus.
• Good insulators should be least affected by passage of time.
• If a dielectric is subjected to prolonged application of temperature or
voltages, it will adversely affect its mechanical and electrical
properties.
• Insulation resistance of an insulator decreases with ageing.
• The operating temperature affects the life of the insulation.
• The life of insulation is halved for each 8 to 10⁰C rise above the
reccommended operating temperature for a given apparatus.
 MECHANISM OF BREAKDOWN
(A) GASES
• Most commonly used gaseous dielectric is air.
• Under the influence of various ionising natural factors for eg:- Cosmic rays,
UV rays, some ionisation takes place in air.
• Natural ionisation leads to equal no of free electrons and positive charges.
• Natural ionising factors are unable to ionise all the molecules because
ionisation of new molecules is counter balanced by recombination of
previously formed ion with free electrons.
• Unless subjected to an electric field, there will be no directed motion of free
charges and hence there will be no flow of current through the dielectric.
• Under the influence of an electric field, the free charges get a directed
motion and gives rise to an electric current known as leakage current.
• Free electrons will move towards the positive plate whereas the
positive ions will be attracted towards the negative plate.
• The conductivity of a gaseous dielectric is due to both electronic and
ionic polarisation.
• If the applied electric field is very low, the leakage current will be
negligible.
• If electric field is further increased, all the free charges will be directed
towards the two plates before they can be recombined.
• Leakage current at this stage will be independent of electric field
strength.
• If the voltage applied is increased further, free charges will acquire
sufficient energy to knock out electrons from other neutral atoms by
collission.
• Each newly freed electron gets accelerated to a very high speed due to
applied electric field and thus inturn knocks out electron from other
gas atoms and ionise them.
• This process is known as Ionisation by Collission.
• Due to ionisation by collission, leakage current increases rapidly.
• The voltage at which sudden increase in leakage current takes place in
a gaseous dielectric is called Breakdown Voltage.
 (B) LIQUIDS
• Breakdown mechanism depends on the purity of dielectrics.
• Phenomenon of breakdown in liquid dielectrics are classified as
(a) Contaminated dielectric containing emulsified water and solid
mechanical particles.
(b) Technically pure dielectrics practically free from emulsified water
and solid mechanical impurities.
(c) Highly purified dielectrics which are free from moisture and
mechanical particles under well degassed.
• In the contaminated dielectrics, the breakdown occurs due to
formation of conducting bridges between the electrodes by droplets
of emulsified water and suspended particles especially fibrous
particles.
• Time taken to form the bridges depends on the extend of
contamination, the shape of electrodes and gap between them.
• When breakdown takes place, temperature will rise and the conductive
bridges are broken due to thermal convention flow in the liquid.
• After some time, a second set of bridges will be formed and so on.
• Thus making the breakdown process a rather indeterminate quantity in
a highly contaminated liquid.
• For a short duration voltage for eg:-impulse voltage applied, no
continous bridge will be able to form.
• In technically pure dielectrics, breakdown is initiated by the ionisation
of a gas contained in a liquid.
• All liquid dissolve a certain quantity of gas especially air.
• The gas will act as a conducting medium eventually leading to a final
breakdown.
• Pressure, temperature, frequency of applied field and to some extend
chemical composition of the liquid are factors which influence the
dielectric strength of technically pure dielectrics.
• In degassed high purity dielectrics, breakdown is due to collission
ionisation initiated by secondary electrons due to strong electric field.

(C) SOLIDS
• Three kinds of breakdown are possible in solid dielectrics-
Electrothermal , Purely electrical and Electrochemical.
• In practice, electrothermal and purely electrical are of major
importance.
• Electrothermal breakdown is due to the heating produced by the
dielectric loss which is proportional to the intensity of electrostatic
field and the frequency.
• The heat generated due to the dielectric loss varies exponentially with
temperature whereas the heat dissipated to the cooler surrounding
medium will be directly proportional to the temperature difference and
coefficient of heat transmission to the surrounding medium.
• If rate of generation of heat in electrons are greater than the heat
dissipated in the surroundings and voltage is applied for a long period,
temperature of dielectric increases eventually, results in an
electrothermal breakdown of the dielectric.
• Purely electrical or Intrinsic breakdown are of two types
1. Electronic breakdown
2. Avalanche or Streamer Breakdown
• Electronic Breakdown:-
• When an electric field is applied to an atom, electrons gains energy
from electric field and crosses forbidden energy gap from valance band
to conduction band.
• When this process is repeated, more and more electrons are available in
conduction band, eventually leading to breakdown.
• Avalanche Breakdown:-
• When an electric field is applied to an atom, electrons will drift from
cathode to anode.
• During this motion, electrons gains kinetic energy from electric
field and losses it during collision.
• Collision occurs due to sudden increase in applied voltage(impulse
voltage) within a short time (about 10-8 seconds)
• During collision, free electron collide with a neutral particle and
gives rise to new electron and +ve ion (i.e, ionization takes place).
• This process repeats until avalanche exceeds a critical size.
• Electrochemical breakdown usually occurs in very high
temperature and very high humidity of the surrounding air.
• When temperature rises, mobility of ions increases and hence
electro chemical reaction takes place.
• The electro chemical reaction gradually decreases the insulation
resistance and finally creates the dielectric breakdown.