Curriculum development

Unit 1: Definition, Meaning and Approaches to Curriculum Development

Unit 1: Definition, Meaning and Approaches to Curriculum Development

1.1. Curriculum – definition, meaning and concept

1.2. Principles of curriculum development
1.3. Types of curricula – developmental, functional, ecological and eclectic
1.4. Approaches to curriculum transaction – child centered, activity centered, holistic
1.5. Points to consider for developing curriculum for students with diverse learningneeds.
1.1 Curriculum – definition, meaning and concept

Curriculum is the heart and soul of any educational process. It is the sum total of all that is
rendered by an educational institution in bringing out the required changes in the child. The
activities range from classroom to playground, and beyond. As you may have experienced,
every society tries to socialize her child through the process of adjustment with the
environment in which s/he lives. The curriculum is an instrument to fulfil such an objective.
We shall discuss more in this unit about the meaning of curriculum, need and bases of
curriculum, curriculum process, and the different types of curriculum.
Definitions of Curriculum
Curriculum has been defined in many ways by educationists. Some definitions are very
specific and others are very wider in their meaning. Some of the important definitions are
given below. You should read these definitions carefully and try to comprehend the
underlying meaning of curriculum in each of the definitions.
1. "A Curriculum is a structured series of intended learning outcomes" (Johnson, 1967).
2. "Curriculum includes the totality of experiences that a pupil receives through the
manifold activities that go on in the school - in the classroom, library, laboratory, workshop,
playgrounds and in the numerous informal contacts between teachers and pupils. In this
case the whole life of the school becomes the curriculum which can tough the life of the
students of all points and help in the evolution of balanced personality" (Secondary
Education Commission, 1952-53).
3. "Curriculum is the sum total of student objectives which the school sponsors for the
purpose of achieving its objectives" Alberty and Alberty, 1959).
4. "A Curriculum is the formulation and implementation of an educational proposal, to be
taught and learnt within schools or other institutions and for which that institution accepts
responsibility at three levels: its rationale, its actual implementation and its effects" (Jenkin
and Shipman, 1975).
5. "Curriculum can refer to the total structure of ideas and activities, developed by an
educational institution to meet the needs of students and to achieve desired educational
aims" (Derek Rowntree in A Dictionary of Education, 1981).
6. "A curriculum is all of the experiences that individual learners have in programme of
education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives, which is
planned in terms of framework of theory and research or past and present Professional
Practice" (Glen Hass, 1987).
The term ‘curriculum’ has been derived from a Latin word ‘currere’ which means a ‘race
course’ or a runway on which one runs to reach a goal. Accordingly, a curriculum is the
instructional and the educative programme by following which the pupils achieved their
goals, ideals and aspirations of life.

It is curriculum through which the general aims of a school education receive concrete
expression.

Traditional Concept of Curriculum

In the past, the second name of curriculum was ‘course of studies’. This term was
considered to be a program related to various subjects only. However, the term ‘curriculum’
and ‘course of studies’ were, sometimes interchangeable but used in a very limited sense.
As a matter of fact, this viewpoint was a static-view which emphasised only the textbook
knowledge or factual information. In those it was correct because the main objective of
education was to help the learner to memorize the contents.
Furthermore, curriculum was a body of preserved factual knowledge to be transmitted from
the teacher to the pupils and mastered by them through memorization, recitation and drills;
and to be reproduced on the demand of the teacher.
The traditional curriculum was subject centred while the modern curriculum is child and life-
centred or student centred.

Modern Concept of Curriculum

With the passes of time and reinforcement of mind the traditional concept of curriculum
(which was limited in scope) was replaced by a dynamic and modern concept. Hence, it is
now considered to be a broad cumulative and comprehensive term including all the
curricular and co-curricular activities. It is the totality of all the learning activities to which
we are exposed during study, i.e. classroom experiences, laboratory, library, playgrounds,
school building, study tours associations withy parents and community. Now, it is more than
the textbooks and more than the subject matter selected for a particular class.
Modern education is the combination of two dynamic processes. The one is the process of
individual development and the other is the process of socialisation, which is economically
known as adjustment with the social environment.
In short, curriculum is a series of potential experiences, set-up in educational institutions for
the reason of disciplining the learners in desirable ways of thinking of the concerned society.
It is a path by following which we can reach a specified destination. Furthermore, it is
considered to be a series of learning opportunities which are planned and carried out by a
teacher and pupils working together.

Characteristics of Curriculum

a. The curriculum is continuously evolving:- It evolved from one period to another, to the
present. For a curriculum, to be effective, it must have continuous monitoring and
evaluation. Curriculum must adapt its educational activities and services to meet the needs
of a modern and dynamic community.
b. It is is based on the needs of the pupils:- A good curriculum reflects the needs of the
individual and the society as a whole. The curriculum is in proper shape in order to meet the
challenges of time and make education more responsive to the clientele it serves.
c. It is democratically conceived:- A good curriculum is developed through the efforts of a
group of individuals from different sectors in the society who are knowledgeable about the
interests, needs and resources of the learner and the society as a whole. The curriculum is
the product of many minds and energies.
[Link] curriculum is the result of a long term effort:- It is a product of long and tedious
process. It takes a long period of time in the planning, management,evaluation and
development of a good curriculum.
e. It is a complex of details:- A good curriculum provides the proper instructional equipment
and meeting places that are often most conducive to learning. It includes the student-
teacher relationship, guidance and counselling program, health services, school and
community projects, library and laboratories, and other school related work experiences.
f. It provides for the logical sequence of subject matter:- Learning is developmental. Classes
and activities should be planned. A good curriculum provides continuity of experience.
g. The curriculum complements and cooperates with other programs of the community:- It
is responsive to the needs of the community. The school offers its assistance in the
improvement and realisation of ongoing programs of the community. There is cooperative
effort between the school and the community towards greater productivity.
h. It has educational quality:- Quality education comes through the situation of the
individual’s intellectual and creative capacities for social welfare and development. The
curriculum helps the learner to become the best that he can possibly be. Its support system
is secured to augment existing sources for its efficient and effective implementation.
i. It has administrative flexibility:- A good curriculum must be ready to incorporate changes
whenever necessary. The curriculum is open to revision and development to meet the
demands of globalization and the digital age.
Importance of curriculum development in education
1. Organized path to acquire knowledge: The main purpose of the curriculum is to
provide an achievable learning framework that helps students to acquire knowledge. To
make the wide spectrum of knowledge acquirable and understandable for learners,
educational institutions have divided it into subjects and organized them in an engaging
learning model.
2. Determining the structure of content: All subject matter needs to be represented in
an acquirable form to the learners according to their learning capability. The development
of a curriculum helps in determining the structure of the subject matter for a particular level
of teaching.
3. Defining instructional methods: Curriculum development helps to determine a
student-centric instructional method that makes the subject interesting to the learners.
4. Development of knowledge, skill, and attitude: A curriculum provides the framework
for developing knowledge and skills along with enhancing creative ability.

1.2 Principles of curriculum development

A good curriculum should aim at bringing out the maximum possible potentials of a child –
may him be retarded or non-retarded. It has to take into consideration certain basic
principles to arrive at a curriculum with achievable, practical goals.
Basic considerations and steps in curriculum development
A good curriculum influences the thoughts, feelings, ideas and opinions of the learner in the
given context. A good curriculum developed on sound learning theory principles will
consider the environmental influences on the teaching learning situations. This includes,
1. Government policies: Disabilities is an area of responsibility for more than one
Government department. Health, Education, Welfare and Labour departments have their
specific role to play in disability rehabilitation. In education, in India for instance, special
education is the responsibility of Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment whereas
integrated education is under Department of Education, Ministry of Human Resource
Development. The curricular decisions are influenced by the respective departments. It
comes under as it is governed by the rules and regulations of the respective department.
The National Policy on Education (1986) has specific mention on special education which
has brought about changes in special education and integrated education. Similarly the
Persons with Disabilities Act (1995) has certain mandates for education of the disabled
persons, which is yet to be implemented. This is likely to have effect on teacher preparation,
curriculum and instructions and other related areas.
2. The school administrative policies: Many schools have their own policies and
philosophy though they follow a prescribed syllabus of CBSE, ICSE, State Board and so on.
The curriculum for special education should take into account the schools policies. For
instance, admission decisions on age restriction or type or severity level of disability will
influence the content of special education curriculum.
3. Support systems available: Many children with disabilities require therapeutic, medical
or counseling support. Not all schools are equipped with these facilities. Depending on the
availability or non-availability of such facilities, the curriculum needs to include/make
referral arrangements to ensure a wholistic curricular provision for the students who
require these facilities.
4. Family support: Every special education programme needs an extension of school
training at home for successful transfer of training. A good curriculum should include
activities for home training, which the teacher transfers to the caretaker for training at
home. Suitable alternative should be sought for residential schools.
5. Community resources: Normalization through integration and inclusion is the ultimate
aim of special education, which cannot be accomplished without community participation.
While developing the curriculum, the educational milieu should include the available
community resources specific to each community for successful community participation
and thus the spontaneous integration.
6. Available teacher competencies: While regular school teachers are sensitized to special
education in recent years, certain areas in disabilities require specific teacher competencies
which a trained teacher can offer. The curriculum should focus on objective judgement of
the competencies of the teacher and alternatives for filling gaps.
7. Student profile: The disabilities vary in their nature and therefore, children with
different disabilities require different content and process for transaction, yet maintaining
the general curricular demands to the extent possible. Education of children with hearing
impairment, visually impairment or locomotor disabilities have the prescribed school
curriculum with certain modifications – deletion of certain content (such as second language
for hearing impaired children) and addition of disability specific educational requirement
called the `plus curriculum’ (such as Braille skills for visually impaired children). Functional
curriculum is developed for children with mental retardation, which is, totally function
oriented leading to personal adequacy, social competency and vocational preparation.
8. Financial availability: While the basic requirements are to be met, the extent of success
in any curriculum development depends on how practical and feasible it is. The financial
implications play a major role in the decision making of `how much’ and `how far’ regarding
content and process decision.
Whether one follows the child centered or activity centered or wholistic approach, the
above considerations are of utmost importance. The above eight factors are inter-related
among themselves and they interact with the teaching learning situation between the
teacher and the learner. Thus if anyone of them has a change, it will affect the total,
learning environment and its other components.

1.3 Types of curricula – developmental, functional, ecological and eclectic

Developmental Curriculum
A curriculum designed for learners with severe cognitive impairments reflecting their
developmental stage. It should be age and developmentally appropriate, rather than merely
being a curriculum designed for younger learners. Such a curriculum, while taking specific
challenges into account, should nevertheless contribute to fully developing the learner’s
potential.
Developmental Curriculum is an engaging, play based curriculum that involves children in
exciting and authentic learning experiences that reflect the particular needs, interests and
strengths of the individual child. It places teaching strategies around the developmental
stage of children to ensure that they are engaged in ways that respect and suit their stage of
development It aims to increase rich oral language for all children and integrates literacy
and numeracy into all learning experiences.
The expression of a developmental curriculum requires certain generalizations to be made
with respect to the advancement of students’ learning and professional skills across the
curriculum. It is understood that not all students possess the same levels of skill entering or
exiting the medical program; likewise, not all students demonstrate a linear developmental
progression as they move through the curriculum. Nevertheless, it can be said that the most
successful students do demonstrate increasing levels of sophistication with respect to their
skills and the application of those skills to content challenges.
The purpose for operationalizing the developmental curriculum is two-fold: first is to make
sure the expression of the curriculum does not inhibit the development of students’ higher-
level cognitive skills and behaviors; the second is to identify those characteristics desired of
an “ideal” graduate and to create a longitudinal strategy for the educational program that
fosters students’ development and builds upon those characteristics.
With those goals in mind, the planning task is to articulate desired levels of developmental
sophistication and to identify the general points in the academic program where those
levels can be reached. Students benefit the most when their progression is constantly
challenged. Gains are easily lost if acquired sophistication is not subsequently supported
and reinforced by the program as students advance. For this reason, it is essential to
consider ways to challenge students in order to promote development, as well as to identify
the types of support students will need as they work to attain new levels of sophistication.
The developmental curriculum is also expressed in psychosocial, ethical and professional
development domains. Expectations for student maturation in these domains are to be
reflected in learning objectives, types of interpersonal encounters and practical skills for the
practicum-based curriculum.

Functional Curriculum
A functional curriculum is a curriculum that focuses upon independent living skills and
vocational skills, emphasizing communication and social skills. Students at the secondary
level who are prime candidates for such a curriculum are identified. A procedure for
assessing students for placement in the curriculum is described as well as methods for the
teaching of social skills and the placement of students in community based jobs. Although
many parts of the curriculum can be taught in a classroom setting, the need for generalizing
those taught skills in the community is essential. Results with a population of students with
severe emotional disturbances are described.
Learning functional academic skills for children with Mental Retardation is necessary in
order to become independent and successfully seek employment. Declaration of UNESCO
towards “Education for All” in 2000 AD, includes children with disabilities, this also
addresses learning needs of students with Mental Retardation. Literacy skills of individuals
with Mental Retardation are not the same as children with other special needs due to the
limited intellectual capacity. However, individuals with Mental Retardation can use literacy
and numeracy skills to some extent which are application-oriented if they are given right
kind of training.
The Functional Curriculum focuses on various areas, including community skills, consumer
skills, and domestic and self-help skills. Possessing consumer skills, such as the ability to
shop, implies being able to make payment with cash, pay through debit cards, and locate a
commodity and pay for it. Other money-associated skills being taught include making orders
and making payments in restaurants by the use of a vending machine. Community skills
include such basic skills as street crossing, while office skills and vocational skills are also
areas to be taught. Additionally, in the domestic and self-help category, students are trained
to take care of themselves in their home, hence being able to live independently. Such
capabilities include laundry skills, preparing food, hygiene, putting away groceries, and
dressing.
Ecological Curriculum
The planning team using the ecological approach to curriculum development devises an
individual curriculum which addresses the skills, activities, and environments most relevant
to the student. The curriculum content is ever changing as the needs of the student change.
It promotes teaching skills that are age-appropriate and relevant to the student's daily life,
while it respects the need to teach skills in order of progressive refinement and complexity.
It encourages the use of adaptations that accommodate the disability or simplify task
demands.
The ecological approach also tends to unify team member efforts because the environments
and activities that are identified as priorities for each student provide a natural context for
integrating related services.

With reference to learning, the ecology metaphor is inspired by the study of the
relationships of organisms with one another and their environment. It builds on the dialectic
premises that underlie sociocultural, situative and sociomaterial approaches, but
emphasizes a core premise that is strongly at variance with ideas that still dominate
mainstream perspectives on learning: namely, that learning is not a confined, internal
process but instead involves mutually constitutive relationships between individuals and
their (social, intellectual and digital material) environments, where both person and
environment are transformed. According to a sociocultural line of reasoning, the individual
actively relates to environments of various natures (social, economic, cultural, personal,
institutional) and those relationships then become internalized to form part of how a person
knows and develops. But the individual also initiates externalization, production of
knowledge or production of materials and, through this process, acts upon and changes the
world. This understanding indicates both the way that knowledge, relationships and
materials are organized, but also how they can be drawn upon by learners who are engaged
in their own process of sense‐making and learning. Furthermore, learners may approach a
variety of distributed resources and relate to different actions and environments (eg,
professional, social, cultural, digital). The way we view it, an ecology of resources contains
the wider pools of resources and infrastructures that learners can draw upon to construct
their own learning spaces.

Eclectic Curriculum Development

Eclecticism has been derived from the verb root “elect”. To elect means to choose and pick
up. The good ideas, concept and principles from various schools of thought have been
chosen, picked up and blended together to make a complete philosophy. Thus eclecticism is
a philosophy of choice. Eclecticism is nothing but fusion of knowledge from all sources. It is
a peculiar type of educational philosophy which combines all good ideas and principles from
various philosophies. Eclecticism is a conceptual approach that does not hold rigidly to a
single paradigm or set of assumptions, but instead draws upon multiple theories, styles, or
ideas to gain complementary insights into a subject, or applies different theories in
particular cases. It can sometimes seem inelegant or lacking in simplicity, and eclectics are
sometimes criticized for lack of consistency in their thinking. It is, however, common in
many fields of study.
In the move away from teachers following one specific methodology, the eclectic approach
is the label given to a teacher's use of techniques and activities from a range of language
teaching approaches and methodologies. The teacher decides what methodology or
approach to use depending on the aims of the lesson and the learners in the group. Almost
all modern course books have a mixture of approaches and methodologies.
Example: The class starts with an inductive activity with learners identifying the different
uses of synonyms of movement using a reading text. In another class the input is recycled
through a task-based lesson, with learners producing the instructions for an exercise
manual.
A person with an eclectic taste in music likes music of many different types, selected from a
wide variety of musical genres. An eclectic approach would be one using a variety of
methods of approaching/ tackling/ addressing/ dealing with a subject /problem /challenge/
task.

Advantages of eclectic approach

· It is the nature of man that he likes change. He wants new and novel ways in every
field of work. The same is the case with learning process. Learners always like something
new and exciting. This approach is broad and may include every kind of learning activity and
saves learner from monotony.
· It is more appropriate for Pre School learning but not less beneficial in the class
rooms.
· It is helpful in all kinds of skills in stimulating a creative environment and gives
confidence to the learners. In this approach children discovers and instill good ways of
learning.
· Above all this approach gives a chance to our common sense to mould and shape
our method according to the circumstances and available materials of teaching aids.
· These days, parents of first-time preschoolers are faced with the dilemma: where to
enroll their kids. With all the existing teaching methods offered in schools, we can imagine
how difficult choosing the right one is.
· The Eclectic Method is explained here by Nelle S. Ricardo, school directress of The
Children’s House International School (CHINS) in Marikina City and a specialist in Early
Childhood Education & Special Education

1.4 Approaches to curriculum transaction- child centered, activity centered, holistic

Approach to curriculum is a design for deciding the various aspects of curriculum

development and transaction. It is a planned or pattern of organization that the teachers
follow in providing learning experiences to the learners.
Activity-Centred Curriculum
Some experts view curriculum "as various forms of activity that are grand expression of the
human spirit and that are of the greatest and most permanent significance to the wide
world". According activity-centred curriculum students, should learn by engaging
themselves in various activities which is desirable and purposeful. It stresses the practical
aspects of life. Emphasis is given on "learning by doing" and "learning by relating to life".
Laboratory work and field work are given more importance. Activity-centred curriculum may
consist of activities such as making a dress, constructing a box, building a miniature house,
etc. The activities become the focus (rather than the fixed content), which are intended to
achieve the pre-stipulated objectives.
Learner Centred Curriculum
In learner-centred curriculum, the learner occupies the central position in the teaching-
learning exercise. Stress is given on the all-round development of the learner. Provision is
made for the varying abilities and interests of learners. They have choices and options to
fulfil their needs and interests. The learner-centred curriculum is based on the psychological
foundations of education. Subject-matter and objectives are identified with the cooperation
of or in collaboration with thelearner. Importance is given to the 'process' of acquiring
knowledge or facts, rather than simple acquisition of knowledge. Attempt is made to orient
selection of content and teaching-learning towards every individual child, based on his/her
abilities, interest, aptitude and learning styles.
Integrated Curriculum
Integrated curriculum involves judicious mix of subject-centred, learner-centred and
activity-centred curriculum. It enables the students to get a comprehensive view of the
concepts to be learnt. For example, a course like "History of Civilization" may be an
integrated curriculum representing history, literature, art, music, and sociology.
The traditional curriculum is too much formal, fragmented and isolated. As a result it fails to
give a comprehensive view of life. It does not lead to unity of knowledge. Introduction of
integrated curriculum overcomes such barriers.
Holistic Curriculum
The Holistic approach integrates all developmental areas in an environment that is carefully
designed to encourage discovery and exploration. Classroom materials allow children to
interact with the world familiar to them. A unifying project focus (theme) that is interesting
to the children connects learning experiences across all developmental areas to form a
developmental web. This integration of developmental areas results in children reaching
higher levels of thinking. This approach carefully balances the opportunity for children to
initiate play and learning activities and the responsibility of the teacher to optimize
children's development by challenging and supporting their learning.
A more authentic curriculum emerges when all developmental areas are creatively
integrated in a natural way rather than artificially inserting developmental activities for the
sake of including each area. Project themes that are broad are the best guarantee for the
holistic approach. Not every focus lends itself to all development areas, while others are
well suited for certain development areas. For instance a focus built around the
supermarket offers a natural springboard for mathematical activities. A focus built around
the clothing we wear easily lends itself to activities involving language concepts. Language
has a double function as both a learning tool and as a learning goal. Therefore, language
activities must have an extra place in all project focuses based around a network of
concepts

1.5 Points to consider for developing curriculum for students with diverse learningnee
ds.

Humans have a tendency to fall into patterns of behavior. For teachers, that means that if
we’re not careful, we begin to teach things the same way every year. This is comfortable for
us, but it can result in a rigid curriculum that may not work for all students—and traditional
classrooms are curriculum-centered already, not easily adapted to the differing needs of
individual students. Instead, students are required to adapt to the curriculum.
Whether you ascribe to the notion of individual learning styles or not, one way to
accommodate the diversity in your classroom is to vary your teaching style, the way you
present information, and the ways you let students express their learning. Not only are you
more likely to let your students find learning activities at which they excel, but you may also
open their eyes to different ways of thinking.
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) at its most basic advocates for removing barriers to
learning and adding flexibility to your class.
Universal Design originally came out of architecture where it was originally concerned with
removing barriers to physical access. It quickly became obvious that when architects
expanded access to those with physical disabilities, many more people benefited. The
typical example is curb cuts. Originally designed for people in wheelchairs, curb cuts also
make life easier for anything on wheels (bicyclists, baby strollers, grocery carts) and anyone
with mobility issues.
In education, think of the audio recording you provide to a student with a visual impairment
or a reading disability. The recording also benefits any student who simply prefers listening
to information as well as the time strapped student who lives an hour away and can now
listen to the recording in her car, during her commute.
Implementing UDL
At its most basic, UDL emphasizes offering choices in 3 key areas of teaching:
Representation - how you deliver course content
Engagement - how students participate
Expression - how students demonstrate what they have learned
Inclusive curriculum design requires a global and inclusive perspective, sensitivity to cultural
differences, and an appreciation of the numerous ways in which culture influences learning.
Instructional designers need to consider the ethical and pedagogical underpinning of goals,
objectives, content, and instructional activities, and incorporate not one, but multiple
pedagogies according to learner needs (McLoughlin & Oliver, 2000). It is also imperative
that the design be authenticated by a member of the group or groups to whom the learning
materials are addressed. McLoughlin and Oliver (1999) also noted that learning materials
should be tested with the target groups during the development phase to ensure
authenticity.
Instructors should create flexible tasks and tools for knowledge sharing. One of the basic
principles of instructional design is that learners should be able to share what they have
constructed with others (McLoughlin & Oliver, 2000). This reinforces the social and
collaborative focus of learning and creates an online community. Collaborative task design
that enables groups to combine expertise and assign roles encourages learner control.
Knowledge sharing can be fostered by utilizing online tools that students can use to discuss
assignments and offer peer support like Facebook, Twitter or Google Drive. It is also
important that flexible and responsive student roles and responsibilities are established.
From the onset, awareness of learners needs must inform the design process. For most
students, introduction into an online community is often a new experience and therefore
technology related skills have to be learnt. Communication tools and social interaction
should be provided for learners to co-construct knowledge. Learners should be able to
access multiple channels of communication with instructors and with other learners.
Learners should also have access to varied resources to ensure multiple perspectives. This
can be achieved by moving away from instructivist approaches where all information is
prescribed by the teacher to constructive and connectivist approaches where learners
actively add to learning resources, suggest additional materials of interest, and discuss
alternatives. By providing flexibility in learning goals, outcomes, and modes of assessment,
learners take ownership of their learning goals, the topics they choose to research, and the
pace and order in which they access the resources. By offering choice learners can develop
self-knowledge of their own learning needs and performance.
It is essential that instructors be attentive in studying how deficit assumptions may be
influencing perceptions of certain students. As Bartolome (1994) explained, teaching
methods are neither created nor implemented in a vacuum. Design, selection, and use of
particular teaching strategies arise from perceptions about learning and learners. In this
respect even the most pedagogically advanced methods are likely to be ineffective in the
hands of those who implicitly or explicitly subscribe to a belief system that regards some
students, as disadvantaged and in need of fixing, or, worse, as deficient and, therefore,
beyond fixing (Ainscow, 2005). Inclusion is a process. That is to say, inclusion has to be seen
as a continuous search to find better ways of responding to diversity. It is about learning
how to live with difference and learning how to learn from difference. In this way
differences come to be seen more positively as an impetus for fostering learning, among
learners and educators.
Students who are engaged in learning do not exist as a homogenous group. They come into
the learning environment with experiences reflective of their social location and culture.
Culture pervades learning, and in designing instructional environments, consideration
should be allowed for issues concerning the social and cultural dimensions of task design,
communication channels, and structuring of information if the needs of culturally diverse
learners are to be met. To meet the needs of learners, the student should be treated as a
whole. This means that learning tasks go beyond knowledge and skills to include other
aspects of being a person in society as well as an approach that recognizes that the complex
biological, sociological, and psychological individuals that are students are acknowledged.
Inclusive design presumes that the aim of inclusive education is to eliminate social exclusion
which is a consequence of attitudes and responses to diversity in race, social class, ethnicity,
religion, gender, and ability (Vitello & Mithaug, 1998). As such, it starts from the belief that
education is a basic human right and the foundation for a more just society (Ainscow, 2005).
Unit 2: Models of Curriculum in Special and Inclusive Education
2.1. Models of curriculum and their application to varied educationalsettings, Role of tech
nology in curriculum development
2.2. Role of teacher in curriculum development
2.3. Curricular adaptation to meet the educational needs in different settings – special
schools, home based settings, inclusive schools, home learning context such as during
pandemics and other disasters.
2.4. Curriculum development for students with high support needs.
2.5. Planning curriculum based on the student’s profile and assessment.

2.1 Models of curriculum and their application to varied educational settings,Role

of technology in curriculum development

Home-based
Initially early intervention programmes were home-based, mainly for the benefit of rural
families as they were far from health facilities. The key persons in a home based programme
are the home visitors. They need not be professionals. In fact, if they are SSC passed and
receive intensive training in early intervention over a period of 10 weeks and have good
supervision and guidance, then they do equally well. The home visitor is the active agent
who takes the planned system of skills based sequentially, to the home and fulfills the role
of a counselor and friend to both mother and child. The mother teaches the suggested
activities based on the skills to her child and reports the progress to the home visitor at each
visit. She in her turn, reports back to the supervisor regularly. In this way, the child’s
progress can be constantly monitored and the skills adjusted as necessary.
Center based
Center based early intervention is usually carried out in a children’s hospital, a clinic or a
center for children or a rehabilitation center for disabled children.
If such programmes are in hospitals they are part of OPD services and are conducted daily.
They are usually attached to a Department of Neonatology/Pediatrics. In the latter case,
they are offered daily on a full-time or part-time basis.
In center-based early intervention, the services of units like physiotherapy, occupational
therapy speech therapy are also available and are provided as part of the programme. In
addition, a Children’s Hospital has other units like Departments of Neurology Cardiology,
ENT, Ophthalmology, etc., where center-based children can be referred for tests and
consultation. For multiply disabled infants, a center-based programme becomes imperative.
However, the effect of early intervention can only be gauged over a long-term and in our
experience, mothers who are overburdened, or have other young children or who have to
travel over long distances, usually are unable to continue unless there is family support.
Unfortunately, very few hospitals are willing to undertake such programmes as they involve
additional expenses. In center-based early intervention, the supervisor can be a pediatrician
or a public health nurse, therapist or a special educator with knowledge in child
development and experience in early intervention. Under her, she may have staff who are
trained (equivalent to home visitors) and who give the planned system of skills sequentially
to the mother individually. She works in the same way as a home visitor and guides the
mother periodically in learning activities based on the skills.
Multi-disciplinary curriculum model
Multidisciplinary curriculum is studying a topic from the viewpoint of more than one
discipline and solving a problem using a different disciplinary approach. For example,
reducing the CO2 emissions from a car can be achieved by studying how to develop fuel
chemistry or by studying how to improve car engine performance.
Latin multus (v.) “much, many” — looking at one problem by adding multiple perspectives
and disciplines to the mix. In this process, a root discipline may involve other disciplines to
solve a problem. Participants exchange knowledge and compare results, but stop short of
integrating them. The disciplines maintain their distinctiveness and the results remain
grounded in the framework of the root discipline. A multidisciplinary panel of business
consultants, psychologists, lawyers and financial experts are common to resolve business
conflicts.
Characteristics of an Effective Multidisciplinary Integrated Curriculum
· Academic and Technical Rigor— Curriculum units are designed to address key
learning standards identified by the district.
· Authenticity—Units use a real world context (e.g., community and workplace
problems) and address issues that matter to the students.
· Applied Learning—Units engage students in solving problems that call for
competencies expected in high-performance work organizations (e.g., teamwork, problem-
solving, communication, etc.).
· Active Exploration—Units extend beyond the classroom by connecting to
internships, field based investigations, and community explorations.
· Adult Connections—Units connect students with adult mentors and coaches from
the community’s industry and postsecondary partners.
· Assessment Practices—Units involve students in regular performance-based
exhibitions and assessments of their work; evaluation criteria reflect personal, school, and
real-world standards of performance.

Trans-disciplinary curriculum model

Trans-disciplinary curriculum is removing the boundaries between the core disciplines,

integrating them to construct new context of real-world themes and introducing a sub-
major stream course. For example in the last century, mechanical engineering curriculum
has been integrated with the electronics and computer engineering curriculum to introduce
the mechatronics engineering curriculum, which is called now robotics.
Latin trans (prep.) “across, over, beyond” — emergence of a new
discipline transcending the boundaries of disciplinary perspective. Trans-disciplinarity
combines inter-disciplinarity with a participatory approach. The research paradigms involve
non-academic participants as (equal) participants in the process to reach a common goal —
usually a solution to a problem of society at large. It can be considered as the culmination of
interdisciplinary efforts. Trans-disciplinary also has a wholism associated with it. While
interdisciplinary collaborations create new knowledge synthesised from existing disciplines,
a trans-disciplinary team relates all disciplines into a coherent whole . The field of
‘sustainability’ in essence is a trans-disciplinary one.

Role of technology in curriculum development

For any educational institution, the curriculum is the roadmap for both teachers and
learners. Curriculum development is a crucial aspect of making a course valuable to
learners. It is the framework that provides the foundation to achieve a larger learning goal
through suitable teaching methods, learning strategies and instructional materials.
Curriculum development is vital for the selection and organization of appropriate learning
material and other activities, so that learners can acquire the core competencies of a
course. It helps teachers to choose their teaching approach and helps learners to achieve
their goals and objectives.
While creating the perfect curriculum for students, instructional designers and educators
also need to factor in the benefits of technology in the field of education. Digital learning is
the preferred mode of learning for today’s tech-savvy generation. Therefore, higher
education institutions are considering the incorporation of digital technologies to make
their curriculum more relatable and engaging.
In the present scenario, when textbooks are getting replaced by laptops or tablets, and
backboards are giving way to smart boards, it has become essential to reform the
curriculum for tech-savvy students and develop a new curriculum that embeds digital
technologies. Many institutions are collaborating with IT and software organizations to
develop smart learning apps and tools to integrate technologies in their curriculum. The aim
is to provide students instant access to a wide spectrum of knowledge and various types of
learning materials. Some of the changes that institutions can incorporate when it comes to
developing a curriculum for tech-savvy students are:
· Developing and providing eLearning content
· Developing learning videos and audio books
· Incorporation of online lectures and interactive lessons for flipped learning
· Leveraging simulation and gamification to make the learning process engaging
· Use of learning software for better understanding
· Use of course management software for better collaboration
· Implementation of online collaboration and broadcasting tools to make the courses
accessible from anywhere
· Adoption of cloud-based applications (such as – Learning management system) for
better learning experience
For online or hybrid education programs, it is essential to have all study materials available
online. Many institutions have already incorporated measures to facilitate a digitized
learning infrastructure, such as preparation of a course outline with due dates, planning of
assignments for evaluation of learners’ knowledge, creating online quizzes and so on. In
short, implementation of technology in the curriculum needs the collaborative effort of all
teaching facilitators, institutional heads, and governing bodies. Some educational
institutions are already using advanced technologies to improve the student learning
experience.
With a thoughtful and seamless integration of technology in the curriculum, students will
not only have a better learning experience, but the role of teachers will also evolve.
Effective technology integration in the learning process will change the classroom dynamics.
Today’s tech-savvy students are comfortable with smart campus concepts, where they can
freely interact with smart devices and accumulate knowledge whenever and wherever they
want. To facilitate this concept of active learning, educators prepare online lectures and
interactive lessons (Flipped Classrooms concept) that students can access anytime.
2.2 Role of teacher in curriculum development
Without doubt, the most important person in the curriculum implementation process is the
teacher. With their knowledge, experiences and competencies, teachers are central to any
curriculum development effort. Better teachers support better learning because they are
most knowledgeable about the practice of teaching and are responsible for introducing the
curriculum in the classroom. If another party has already developed the curriculum, the
teachers have to make an effort to know and understand it. So, teachers should be involved
in curriculum development. For example, teacher’s opinions and ideas should be
incorporated into the curriculum for development. On the other hand, the curriculum
development team has to consider the teacher as part of the environment that affects
curriculum. Hence, teacher involvement is important for successful and meaningful
curriculum development. Teachers being the implementers are part of the last stage of the
curriculum development process.
The teacher involved in curriculum organization has many roles and responsibilities.
Teachers want to enjoy teaching and watching their students develop interests and skills in
their interest area. The teacher may need to create lesson plans and syllabi within the
framework of the given curriculum since the teacher's responsibilities are to implement the
curriculum to meet student needs. Many studies support empowerment of teachers
through participation of curriculum development. For example, Fullan (1991) found that the
level of teacher involvement as a center of curriculum development leads to effective
achievement of educational reform. Therefore, the teacher is an important factor in the
success of curriculum development including the steps of implication and evaluation.
Handler (2010) also found that there is a need for teacher involvement in the development
of curriculum. Teachers can contribute by collaboratively and effectively working with
curriculum development teams and specialists to arrange and compose martial, textbooks,
and content. Teacher involvement in the process of curriculum development is important to
align content of curriculum with students needs in the classroom.
The teacher associated with the curriculum association has numerous jobs and obligations.
Educators need to appreciate educating and viewing their understudies creates interests
and aptitudes to their greatest advantage territory. The instructor may need to make
exercise plans and prospectuses inside the structure of the given curriculum since the
instructor's obligations are to execute the educational plan to address understudy issues.

Teacher's inclusion as a focal point of educational plan improvement prompts the powerful
accomplishment of instructive change. In this way, the instructor is a significant factor in the
accomplishment of educational plan advancement including the means of suggestion and
assessment.

A teacher can contribute by cooperatively and adequately working with curriculum

development groups and authorities to arrange and design materials, course books, and
content. Teacher association during the curriculum development is imperative to adjust the
content of the curriculum based on student's needs in the classroom.

Lastly, No curriculum is perfect, or most suitable for students, or free from criticism, but to
be effective it must be accepted by teachers and must be deemed educationally valid by
parents and the community at large.
2.3 Curricular adaptation to meet the educational needs in different settings –
special schools, home based settings, inclusive schools, home learning context such as
during pandemics and other disasters.

Although the concept of curriculum adaptation is fairly straightforward, it can take many
different forms. In essence, teachers and curriculum specialists adjust and modify curricula
according to student needs and the goals set forth by that student’s Individualized
Education Program (IEP). Educators and theorists use many different terms for varying types
and degrees of curriculum adaptation, often with overlapping meanings. But most terms
and definitions represent a similar spectrum of the magnitude of necessary adaptation.
Special Schools
Planning doesn't exist in a vacuum. A teacher needs to set a lesson within a series of lessons
in a scheme of work. The National Curriculum provides programmes of study for all subjects.
However in a special school it is often the case that neither the programme of study nor the
identified age group is applicable to meet the needs of children with learning difficulties.
The curriculum of special education schools is tailored to support children with moderate to
severe special educational needs.
Within this curriculum we focus on -
· Children who are spontaneous communicators and who are able to make a choice and
interact with others.
· Children will develop learning skills that are concrete and relevant to their levels of
learning.
· Children who are able to access and engage with personalised learning opportunities.
· Children will access a curriculum that promotes the positive wellbeing and resilience of
all pupils.
· Children who are ready for the next stage of their education and learning.
· Children who are able to self-regulate their behaviour and sensory needs, as well as
keep themselves safe.
· Children who are independent and confident.
The 6 core learning domains are:
 Academic
 Daily living
 Physical education and sports
 Social-emotional
 The arts
 Vocational
Special education schools generally offer customised curriculum aimed at providing a child-
centred, holistic learning experience for children with special needs.
The curriculum is intended to develop students' potential and equip them with essential
knowledge and life skills through key learning areas.
Home based settings
The practice of home-based education was initiated by the S.S.A. as a pathway to inclusion.
S.S.A. adopted a zero rejection policy for all children. In order to fulfil this zero rejection
policy it follows a multi- option model for children with disabilities.
Home-based curriculum. A program that operates the home-based option must:
(1) Ensure home-visiting and group socializations implement a developmentally appropriate
research-based early childhood home-based curriculum that:
(i) Promotes the parent’s role as the child’s teacher through experiences focused on the
parent-child relationship and, as appropriate, the family’s traditions, culture, values, and
beliefs;
(ii) Aligns with the Head Start Early Learning Outcomes Framework: Ages Birth to Five and,
as appropriate, state early learning standards, and, is sufficiently content-rich within the
Framework to promote measurable progress toward goals outlined in the Framework; and,
(iii) Has an organized developmental scope and sequence that includes plans and materials
for learning experiences based on developmental progressions and how children learn.
(2) Support staff in the effective implementation of the curriculum and at a minimum
monitor curriculum implementation and fidelity, and provide support, feedback, and
supervision for continuous improvement of its implementation through the system of
training and professional development.
(3) If a program chooses to make significant adaptations to a curriculum or curriculum
enhancement to better meet the needs of one or more specific populations, a program
must:
(i) Partner with early childhood education curriculum or content experts; and,
(ii) Assess whether the adaptation adequately facilitates progress toward meeting school
readiness goals consistent with the process.
(4) Provide parents with an opportunity to review selected curricula and instructional
materials used in the program.

Inclusive schools
Inclusive education means education of all students, where all students are equal
participants in the learning process. This right is upheld by the Indian Constitution. Provision
of inclusive education is based on the belief that those with disabilities should not have to
depend on specialized services alone to benefit from educational resources, activities and
practices that are otherwise available to all. Inclusivity is maintained when all members of a
group are able to participate in its activities, which mean provisions made are considerate of
all members and not just those from specific groups or with special abilities, disabilities
and/or needs. Inclusion is a process or a key strategy to reach out to all children and support
their learning. It's the right time to upgrade and make more concentration on the
development of curriculum for inclusive education both for teachers and the children with
special needs (CWSN).
With the continued push toward the inclusion of students with special needs in the general
education classroom, educators are constantly looking for ways to improve each student’s
experience and learning. Although there are proven benefits of inclusion, traditional
curricula and instructional techniques are not always optimal for students with cognitive,
emotional or physical disabilities.
To positive effect, innovative educators have implemented adaptive technologies, various
differentiated instruction methods and theory-based educational models such as the
constructivist approach. Often, however, the curriculum needs adaptation as well in order
to best meet the learning needs, goals and ability levels of special education students.
Accommodation, Adaptation, Parallel Curriculum Outcomes and Overlapping Curricula
1. Accommodation:
Accommodation is this simplest form of adapting curriculum. It addresses students who are
able to comprehend and perform at the regular curriculum’s levels of content and
conceptual difficulty but require differentiation in instructional techniques and the medium
in which each student demonstrates their depth of understanding.
2. Adaptation:
Adaptation is appropriate for students whose needs and learning goals are in line with the
content of the regular curriculum but require a moderate modification of the depth of
conceptual difficulty of that content.
3. Parallel Curriculum Outcomes:
Implementing parallel curriculum outcomes implies a greater modification of conceptual
difficulty than adaptation. However, similar to adaptation, the content subject is the same,
allowing that student to participate in classroom activities alongside other students. A
teacher must address each student’s needs and IEP goals with adjusted learning outcomes
and conceptual depth levels for each lesson.
4. Overlapping Curricula
Students who require heavily modified learning outcomes and goals may need integration
into general classroom activities through overlapping curricula. In this situation, a student
participates in classroom activities with individualized learning outcomes for each activity,
including social/behavioral development goals, cognitive learning goals, language skills or
even physical ability development.
Regardless of the terms and definitions, educators and theorists agree that the most
effective way to adapt curricula in the inclusive classroom is truly individualized and student
specific. Before modifying a curriculum, teachers should know each student’s learning goals
and needs, assess their abilities, and implement the least intrusive form of curricular
adaptation possible. By studying and implementing varying methods of adaptive instruction
and curricular modification, special educators can develop the tools and techniques
essential to creating effective, inclusive learning environments.
Home learning context such as during pandemics and other disasters
The COVID-19 pandemic has forced school closure thus shifting teaching and learning
towards full home-based learning (HBL). Technology plays a key role but the considerations
to design online learning environments that meaningfully engage students are complex.
Many schools and institutions of higher learning have shifted their teaching and learning
activities online due to school closures and lockdowns to reduce virus transmissions, forcing
a change from face-to-face mode of schooling to online home-based learning (HBL). Instead
of the supportive role, the use of technology has become a core essential for teaching and
learning. There are, however, considerations related to issues of using technology for
teaching and learning, such as accessibility of hardware and software, screen time,
ownership, student engagement and most importantly, pedagogy.

2.4 Curriculum development for students with high support needs.

The extant research related to instruction on the general curriculum and alternate
curriculum for students with extensive support needs provides strong evidence that
students can acquire content in both types of curriculum in both self-contained special-
education and general-education contexts. The research also provides strong evidence that
the instructional strategies previously demonstrated to be effective when teaching
alternate-curriculum content in self-contained special-education contexts also can be
effective when teaching the general curriculum in general-education contexts. Furthermore,
the research demonstrates that using these instructional strategies to teach both types of
content can be effective when embedded in general-education instructional activities in
general-education contexts. However, some in the field warn that an overpowering
emphasis on the general curriculum could overshadow instruction on functional and
foundational skills, potentially not serving students well who have extensive support needs
(Ayers et al., 2011; Courtade et al., 2012).
At various points in their educational experience, any student might require different types
of supports and services to be successful (Kirkpatrick, 1994). For students whose life
experiences are extremely challenging (e.g., students who are homeless, live in poverty, are
migrant, are linguistically or racially diverse, or have significant cognitive disabilities), those
supports and services might be considered to be extensive; that is, more specialized, or
needed more broadly across content areas and contexts, when compared with the majority
of students. In Chapter One, Kleinhammer-Tramill, Burrello, and Sailor (2013)
reconceptualize special and general education within one system in which all students
achieve their capabilities together in the same classes within their neighborhood schools.
They describe "special education" as a "temporally bounded instructional support system
for any student in the public schools who might need support to achieve his or her full
capabilities" (p. 3). Using this support system, teachers would blend academic, social, and
behavioral interventions into a rich and engaging curriculum that enables all students to
learn at high levels and prepares them for postschool life (p. 23). Thus, the needs of
students with extensive support needs would be met within instructional activities and
classes provided for all students of the same age.
The implementation of schoolwide, multitiered systems of support often results in the
categorizing or grouping of students by the supports and services they require to progress in
the general curriculum. This can result in students being excluded from supports and
services that are less extensive and provided in general education contexts. For instance, if a
student receives extensive supports and services outside of general education classes, then
that student would be excluded from the instruction, instructional content, activities, and
access to personnel that other students are receiving. This is the case for students with
significant disabilities who are placed in self-contained classes or schools. The
reconceptualization of education presented in this book promotes a view of the student as
an individual with capabilities that might change based on the instructional objectives,
tasks, materials, and activities [Link] students are not given access to the same
contexts as their age- and grade-level peers, there is a risk of assuming that students'
capabilities are static and unaffected by instructional objectives, tasks, activities, and
materials.
For schools to view all students, including those with significant disabilities, as learners who
should be included in schoolwide, multitiered systems of support, schools must reflect
certain qualities. Janney and Snell (2004) suggest that these qualities include providing
environments that welcome and make accommodations for all students, valuing diversity,
supporting collaboration, and developing a sense of community within the school. Other
qualities that might contribute to viewing all students as learners include: (a) educating all
students in the school they would attend if they did not have a disability to facilitate the
development of natural support networks; (b) supporting teachers considered to be highly
qualified in academic content areas and specialized pedagogy, to ensure that general and
special educators are knowledgeable of the content they are teaching and provide students
access to high-quality instruction; and (c) implementing schoolwide, multitiered systems of
support for all students across all school personnel.

2.5 Planning curriculum based on the student’s profile and assessment.

Students and their learning needs are at the centre of effective curriculum planning and
assessment. This principle enables teachers to devise experiences to develop lifelong
learners and responsible citizens. This dimension is underpinned by a shared set of values
and clear purposes for teaching and learning.
Curriculum planning and assessment recognise that learning occurs along a continuum. This
allows teachers to embed relevant formative and summative assessment strategies into
classroom practice. Students have opportunities to reflect on and direct their learning,
offering insights into the curriculum, teaching and assessment practices.
Content, process, and product are what teachers address all the time during lesson planning
and instruction. These are the areas where teachers have tremendous experience in
everything from lesson planning to assessment. Once the curtain is removed for how these
three areas can be differentiated, meeting students’ diverse needs becomes obvious and
easy to do—because it’s always been present.
DIFFERENTIATING CONTENT
Content comprises the knowledge, concepts, and skills that students need to learn based on
the curriculum. Differentiating content includes using various delivery formats such as
video, readings, lectures, or audio. Content may be chunked, shared through graphic
organizers, addressed through jigsaw groups, or used to provide different techniques for
solving equations. Students may have opportunities to choose their content focus based on
interests.
DIFFERENTIATING PROCESS
Process is how students make sense of the content. They need time to reflect on and digest
the learning activities before moving on to the next segment of a lesson. Think of a
workshop or course where, by the end of the session, you felt filled to bursting with
information, perhaps even overwhelmed. Processing helps students assess what they do
and don’t understand. It’s also a formative assessment opportunity for teachers to monitor
students’ progress.
DIFFERENTIATING PRODUCT
Product differentiation is probably the most common form of differentiation.
· Teachers give choices where students pick from formats.
· Students propose their own designs.
Products may range in complexity to align to a respectful level for each student. The key to
product options is having clear academic criteria that students understand. When products
are cleanly aligned to learning targets, student voice and choice flourish, while ensuring that
significant content is addressed.
Unit 3: Curriculum Development for individuals with ASD
3.1. Perspective Taking and Executive Functioning
3.2. Social, Communication skills, Interactions and Emotional Regulation
3.3. Self-care, personal hygiene and independent living.
3.4. Academics, - literacy and numeracy skills, pre-vocational preparation
3.5. Self-advocacy, Community Participation, Civil Rights, Leisure andRecreation

3.1 Perspective Taking and Executive Functioning

Perspective taking was defined by Howlin as “the ability to infer other people’s mental
states (their thoughts, beliefs, desires, intentions, etc.), and the ability to use this
information to interpret what they say, make sense of their behaviour, and predict what
they will do next”. Howlin give examples of perspective taking, such as reading and
responding to intentions, reading the listener’s level of interest in one’s speech, detecting a
speaker’s intended meaning, and deceiving or understanding deception.
Traditional definition: The chief operating system located in the prefrontal region of the
brain used to engage in cognitive processes required for goal-directed behavior.
What this actually means: Everything that you do every day to manage your own behavior.
Common executive function processes for goal-directed behavior include:
· Working memory
· Task initiation
· Sustained attention
· Inhibition
· Flexibility
· Planning
· Organization
· Problem solving
Teaching students with autism to look at things from different perspectives will go a long
way toward supporting their social and emotional development. This lesson offers a range
of activities you can use in your classroom.
If you are a teacher who works with students with autism, then you know that these
learners often face their most significant challenges in the social and emotional realm. It can
be really hard for students with autism to regulate their emotions, to read social cues, and
to form meaningful and reciprocal connections with others.
One aspect of developing better social skills, as well as developing critical thinking
capacities, is learning about perspective taking. In other words, you students with autism
can gradually learn how to look at the same situation from different points of view.
Of course, no two students with autism are exactly alike, and their capacity to understand
perspective taking will depend somewhat on their overall level of function. However, the
activities in this lesson appeal to a variety of modalities while teaching your students with
autism about perspective taking.
Many individuals on the autism spectrum have great memories for facts and details, but
they have trouble organizing their thoughts and accessing and integrating the information
they have to make it useful for them. This is called “Executive Function” (EF) difficulty.
Executive Function can be considered the “epi-center” of the brain; it controls the
integration of cognitive processes such as planning and prioritizing, accessing working
memory, directing attention, problem solving, verbal reasoning, inhibiting extraneous
ideas, mental flexibility or shifting thoughts, multi-tasking, time management, and initiating
and monitoring one’s actions (metacognition). Together, these skills allow all individuals to
solve problems, organize a plan of action, and control emotions and behaviors throughout
the day.
Here is a list of our executive functions and their basic descriptions.
Planning: Planning is the ability to forward-think and choose the necessary actions to reach
a goal, decide the right order, assign each task to the proper cognitive resources, and
establish a plan of action. Those on the spectrum can have difficulty formulating plans to get
through their days and organize tasks into completable sections.
Problem Solving:To problem solve, an individual must identify a problem and then
formulate a strategy to solve the problem. Problem solving uses almost all the other
executive functions including reasoning, attention, planning, initiation, working memory,
and monitoring. Depending on which of the executive functions the individual struggles
with, that is where the problem solving chain will get broken.
Working Memory: Individuals on the spectrum notoriously have specific memory deficits
and strengths. They can seemingly remember every Jedi name, rank and serial number in all
ten Star Wars movies, but have trouble remembering to eat, or what day it is, or what the
order of the steps are when brushing teeth. Working memory is the ability to remember
specific short term memories needed to execute a function or daily task.
Attention: Attention is closely tied to working memory, and again those on the spectrum
can show great strengths in some areas and severe challenges in others. Individuals with
ASD often have a keen ability to focus, but directing that focus can be challenging. If the
person with ASD has sensory issues, then it’s possible all they will be able to focus their
attention on is the sound of the lights buzzing or the smells of the other people in the room.
An individual’s ability to focus directly affects what they can keep in and recall from their
short term memory
Reasoning: Reasoning, or verbal reasoning, is the ability to understand, analyze and think
critically about concepts presented in words, and then relay them back or integrate them
successfully. Many of those on the spectrum struggle with verbal acuity. Verbal reasoning
can also be hindered by social meanings that are not obvious to those with autism.
Initiation: Initiation is the ability to start an activity, plan, or task. For those with executive
function difficulties with initiation, they may want to play a certain game, do their
homework, or play an instrument, but unless the activity is initiated by someone else it
doesn’t happen. It has nothing to do with desire, or “want” – it is about lacking the function
of “just doing it”.
Inhibition: Inhibition is impulse control; the ability to have emotional, cognitive or physical
reactions that aren’t acted upon in the moment. So when a person with ASD starts
“information downloading” all the names and songs of their favourite 500 K-pop groups,
this would be a lack of cognitive impulse control. Emotional outbursts, hand flapping, or
stimming can be emotional and physical ways that impulse control aren’t in place,
(although some stimming can be soothing and help concentration if controlled and non-
harmful). Some children with ASD simply cannot control their impulses sufficiently to
participate in structured situations.
Cognitive Flexibility: Cognitive flexibility in simple terms is the ability to roll with the
punches. Those with autism are well known to need structure and predictability, and change
can be very challenging. This can also lead to rigidity of thoughts and opinions, as well as
schedules and routines.
Monitoring: Monitoring is normally an unconscious process that kicks in when we are on
auto pilot doing normal tasks. For instance, if you are walking down the street and talking to
someone at the same time, normally only a small part of your brain is engaged in walking.
You already know how to walk, so the monitoring part of the brain takes over and keeps you
from bumping into things while you have your chat. For someone with executive function
issues, if they were tired or overloaded, they would suddenly have problems with the “auto
pilot” settings on basic activities, dropping or bumping into things, or simply not being able
to pay attention in ways that could be hazardous like walking out onto a busy street.

There are many ways to help individuals compensate for EF deficits. Many individuals
use Assistive Technology to help them stay organized and on track. These can include
assignment notebooks or checklists, annotated calendars, picture schedules, and color-
coded information to distinguish subjects or projects. Electronic aides can be wonderful
tools for those who enjoy technology.
Besides Assistive Technology, there are other strategies to help compensate for EF
difficulties. Students may benefit from sitting closer to the teacher. Employees may benefit
from working out of the main flow of traffic, where distractions are minimized.
When faced with a large project (either in school or at work), individuals can benefit from
having the project broken down into manageable pieces so that the project doesn’t feel so
overwhelming. The project can be completed one piece at a time. Some individuals benefit
from intermediate deadlines. For example, instead of making a large assignment due in a
month, the first part can be due in one week, the second part the second week, etc., until
the project is completed. In fact, with help, many individuals can learn how to do this for
themselves.
Executive Functioning strategies and accommodations can be included in Individualized
Education Programs (IEPs) and 504 Plans. As in any situation, the IEP or 504 Plan needs to
address the individual’s deficits and incorporate the strategies and goals that will specifically
work for that particular student. They may also be provided as an
employment accommodation.
Some psychologists and speech-language pathologists specialize in Executive
Functioning training. Adults may also want to consult a job coach to determine how
accommodations can be made in the workplace.
Potential evidence-based practices that teachers may want to consider to address
difficulties in EF include visual supports, social narratives, and video modeling.
Effective visual supports include environmental modifications to a student’s environment
that support engagement in a desired behavior or skill (Wong, et al., 2014). For a student
who just can’t seem to get started on an activity or assignment, or who has difficulty making
the switch between activities, using a visual support in the form of a first-then board may
useful. The function of a first-then board is to show the order of two activities by specifying
what activity must be completed first (e.g., first math, then reading; first bell work, then
your Spanish vocabulary words; first housekeeping chores, then screen time). Depending on
the age and the developmental level of the student, the activities can be visually
represented using images or text.
Reminder cards are another type of visual support. They are individualized for a specific
situation, created and placed on a piece of paper, an index card, or other media (i.e., iPad or
smartphone,) that is easily accessible. Using language and/or illustrations that instruct the
student what to do versus what not to do, reminder cards can also be placed in the
student’s binder, inside school locker, etc. Used in the classroom as well as other school
environments, they can provide a visual cue to remind the student to focus, pay attention,
remain on task, complete work, turn in assignments, inhibit responses, raise hand to ask
questions, etc. (Wilkins and Burmeister, 2015).
Student behavioral expectations in today’s classroom include the ability to work
appropriately in small groups. To interact successfully, learners need to have the ability to
read the intentions of others and understand emotions. This can be especially challenging
for students who struggle with taking perspective taking. Social narratives, interventions
that describe social situations in some detail by highlighting relevant cues and offering
examples of appropriate responding (Wong, et al., 2014), may help students gain
information about the thoughts and feelings of others, as well as contextual information
they may have missed (Wragge, 2011). As with visual supports, social narratives are specific
to a learner’s needs and may include photos or other images to support social and
behavioral understanding. Social narrative strategies include social scripts, power cards,
and cartooning.
Social scripts, the most basic of social narrative strategies, are an effective way to decrease
the demands of conversing (Aspy and Grossman, 2012). Determine which social situations
are difficult for a student and formulate a brief, simple dialogue. Script topics may include
joining or leaving a group activity, asking for help, or discussing points of view on a
particular topic. Written on small index cards and kept in an unobtrusive place, they can be
easily accessed and used as initiation or response cues in specific situations. Allow frequent
opportunities for guided practice; then provide support as the student practices in actual
situations.
A power card is a social narrative that capitalizes on a student’s passion or special interest
(Gagnon, 2001) to teach and reinforce social, academic, and behavioral skills. The power
card strategy consists of two major components: a short scenario that describes the
problem-solving process for a situation that is difficult for the student’s hero, role model, or
special interest and the card itself, which recaps how the student can use the same strategy
to solve a similar problem (Gagnon, 2006). The card may be the size of an index card,
business card, or bookmark and include an illustration of the student’s special interest. The
power card strategy can be a valuable tool for supporting learners with EF deficits in our
classrooms as well as other school environments.
Cartooning refers to the use of cartoons to enhance social understanding (Wragge,
2011). Comic Strip Conversations™, an application of cartooning (Gray, 1994), are simple
drawings that illustrate ongoing communication, providing additional support to those who
struggle to comprehend the quick exchange of information that occurs in a conversation.
Simple symbols and stick drawings can be used to turn abstract dialogue into a concrete
representation, allowing an individual an opportunity for reflection and understanding. For
learners with ASD who have difficulty identifying thoughts, beliefs, and motives of others,
the thought bubbles used in Comic Strip Conversations™ can be an effective way to
explicitly emphasize what people may be thinking, providing missing social information
through concrete visual representation.
Video modeling capitalizes on the strength processing channel which, for most individuals
with ASD, is visual--by presenting a visual representation of the target skill instruction
(Burmeister, 2010). While four types of video modeling include basic video modeling, video
self-modeling, point-of-view modeling, and video prompting (LaCava, 2008), each involves
the following basic components: (a) the learner being taught or other models are
videotaped demonstrating some targeted behavior, (b) the video recording is then played
back to the learner, and (c) the learner is prompted or asked to demonstrate the behavior
(Wong, et al., 2014). Video modeling has effectively been used in home and school settings
(Bellini and Akullian, 2007), can be used to address a broad range of needs for students of
all ages (Aspy and Grossman, 2012), and is easily incorporated with the features available on
the average smartphone, such as a video recorder (Wilkins and Burmeister, 2015).
Although EF deficits can greatly impact a learner’s ability to access the curriculum that is
provided to all students, these easy-to-use strategies can help learners with EF deficits to be
more mentally flexible, less impulsive, able to control emotions, and capable of planning
and problem solving.

3.2 Social, Communication skills, Interactions and Emotional Regulation

Children with ASD may have difficulty developing language skills and understanding what
others say to them. They also often have difficulty communicating nonverbally, such as
through hand gestures, eye contact, and facial expressions.
The ability of children with ASD to communicate and use language depends on their
intellectual and social development. Some children with ASD may not be able to
communicate using speech or language, and some may have very limited speaking skills.
Others may have rich vocabularies and be able to talk about specific subjects in great detail.
Many have problems with the meaning and rhythm of words and sentences. They also may
be unable to understand body language and the meanings of different vocal tones. Taken
together, these difficulties affect the ability of children with ASD to interact with others,
especially people their own age.
Below are some patterns of language use and behaviors that are often found in children
with ASD.
 Repetitive or rigid language. Often, children with ASD who can speak will say things
that have no meaning or that do not relate to the conversations they are having with
others. For example, a child may count from one to five repeatedly amid a
conversation that is not related to numbers. Or a child may continuously repeat
words he or she has heard—a condition called echolalia. Immediate echolalia occurs
when the child repeats words someone has just said. For example, the child may
respond to a question by asking the same question. In delayed echolalia, the child
repeats words heard at an earlier time. The child may say “Do you want something
to drink?” whenever he or she asks for a drink. Some children with ASD speak in a
high-pitched or sing-song voice or use robot-like speech. Other children may use
stock phrases to start a conversation. For example, a child may say, “My name is
 Tom,” even when he talks with friends or family. Still others may repeat what they
hear on television programs or commercials.
 Narrow interests and exceptional abilities. Some children may be able to deliver an
in-depth monologue about a topic that holds their interest, even though they may
not be able to carry on a two-way conversation about the same topic. Others may
have musical talents or an advanced ability to count and do math calculations.
Approximately 10 percent of children with ASD show “savant” skills, or extremely
high abilities in specific areas, such as memorization, calendar calculation, music, or
math.
 Uneven language development. Many children with ASD develop some speech and
language skills, but not to a normal level of ability, and their progress is usually
uneven. For example, they may develop a strong vocabulary in a particular area of
interest very quickly. Many children have good memories for information just heard
or seen. Some may be able to read words before age five, but may not comprehend
what they have read. They often do not respond to the speech of others and may
not respond to their own names. As a result, these children are sometimes
mistakenly thought to have a hearing problem.
 Poor nonverbal conversation skills. Children with ASD are often unable to use
gestures—such as pointing to an object—to give meaning to their speech. They
often avoid eye contact, which can make them seem rude, uninterested, or
inattentive. Without meaningful gestures or other nonverbal skills to enhance their
oral language skills, many children with ASD become frustrated in their attempts to
make their feelings, thoughts, and needs known. They may act out their frustrations
through vocal outbursts or other inappropriate behaviors.
Teaching children with ASD to improve their communication skills is essential for helping
them reach their full potential. There are many different approaches, but the best
treatment program begins early, during the preschool years, and is tailored to the child’s
age and interests. It should address both the child’s behavior and communication skills and
offer regular reinforcement of positive actions. Most children with ASD respond well to
highly structured, specialized programs. Parents or primary caregivers, as well as other
family members, should be involved in the treatment program so that it becomes part of
the child’s daily life.
For some younger children with ASD, improving speech and language skills is a realistic goal
of treatment. Parents and caregivers can increase a child’s chance of reaching this goal by
paying attention to his or her language development early on. Just as toddlers learn to crawl
before they walk, children first develop pre-language skills before they begin to use words.
These skills include using eye contact, gestures, body movements, imitation, and babbling
and other vocalizations to help them communicate. Children who lack these skills may be
evaluated and treated by a speech-language pathologist to prevent further developmental
delays.
For slightly older children with ASD, communication training teaches basic speech and
language skills, such as single words and phrases. Advanced training emphasizes the way
language can serve a purpose, such as learning to hold a conversation with another person,
which includes staying on topic and taking turns speaking.
Some children with ASD may never develop oral speech and language skills. For these
children, the goal may be learning to communicate using gestures, such as sign language.
For others, the goal may be to communicate by means of a symbol system in which pictures
are used to convey thoughts. Symbol systems can range from picture boards or cards to
sophisticated electronic devices that generate speech through the use of buttons to
represent common items or actions.
Speech and Language Pathologists play an important role in autism treatment. They can
help the person with autism build communication and social skills in various settings like
home, school, and work. SLPs can also help the person learn to use AAC if they need help
communicating. SLPs may work with the person alone or in small groups. Groups can help
the person practice their skills with others.
Depending on the person’s needs, SLPs may work on some of the following skills:
 Getting along with others in a variety of settings
 Using appropriate communication behaviors
 Taking turns in conversation
 Transitioning from one task or setting to another
 Accepting change and expanding interests, including trying new foods
 Improving reading and writing skills
For people with autism who are transitioning to work, SLPs can also
 help them write cover letters;
 practice interview skills; and
 learn strategies to communicate better at work.
Emotion regulation (ER) is a construct that may provide explanatory power for
understanding the observed emotional and behavioral problems in ASD. ER is generally
defined as the automatic or intentional modification of a person’s emotional state that
promotes adaptive or goal-directed behavior. Individuals with ASD may fail to employ
adaptive ER strategies and instead react impulsively to emotional stimuli with tantrums,
aggression, or self-injury. Such behaviors are often interpreted as deliberate or defiant, but
may be due to inadequate management of emotion.
Emotional self-regulation is the ability to adapt behavior when engaged in situations that
might provoke emotions such as stress, anxiety, annoyance and frustration. A person with
strong emotional regulation skills can:
· Notice when they become emotionally charged.
· Consider the consequences of their response.
· Engage in activities that move them toward their goal, even if they are feeling negative
emotions.
Alternatively, a person who lacks emotional self-regulation may:
· Overreact to situations when compared to same-age peers.
· Experience negative emotions for a longer amount of time than same-age peers.
· Have a short temper and engage in emotional outbursts.
· Have mood swings.
Encouraging emotional development in autistic children
Autistic children can build skills in recognising and managing their emotions. You can use
everyday interactions to help your autistic child learn about emotions and improve their
ability to express and respond to emotions.
Here are some ideas:
 Label emotions in natural contexts: when you’re reading a book, watching a video or
visiting friends with your child, you can point out emotions. For example, you might
say, ‘Look – Sally’s smiling. She’s happy’.
  Be responsive: respond to your child’s emotions by saying, for example, ‘You’re
smiling, you must be happy’. You can also play up your own emotional responses –
for example, ‘I am SO excited! Give me a high five’.
 Get your child’s attention: if you speak to your child and get no response, speak
again. You might need to do this in an exaggerated way to get your child’s attention
– for example, by using a bright voice and a lot of expression.
 Draw your child’s attention to another person. For example, ask someone else to tell
your child what you said, to draw your child’s attention to another person who’s
speaking.

3.3 Self-care, personal hygiene and independent living.

For most typically developing children, learning grooming skills and practicing good personal
hygiene may be simple. On the other hand, children with ASD may find it challenging to
learn and maintain such self-care skills. Family members, caregivers and therapists of
children with ASD might have to work hard to teach and enforce good personal hygiene in
their day to day lives.
For a child with ASD, a simple routine could overwhelm one’s senses, and the act of
grooming is truly a combination of multiple gross motor skills put together to form one large
complex skill. Sadly, daily hygiene habits do not simply involve basic life skills such as
brushing one’s teeth or taking a shower. It includes using the toilet properly, cutting one’s
nails, managing body odor, and more. Furthermore, neglecting to take care of one’s self in
these areas could result in poor hygiene in various aspects of one’s life, such as social
experience, health, and employment.
Using Rewards
Children with ASD may not experience the same relief that most of us receive from engaging
in self-care skills, such as feeling clean, smelling nice, and looking neat. As such, it would
benefit them to learn skills by finding a strong motivator and reward them when they are
able to perform a specific task at hand (eg. brushing their teeth thoroughly). This reward
could be in the form of a toy, a snack, or extra play time.
Often, if a child strongly dislikes the activity he is doing, it could lead to an attempt of
avoiding the task. For example, a child that has been used to wearing diapers may not want
to start peeing in the toilet. Therefore, we can first start by rewarding every step of going to
the toilet. As the child gains more independence in completing the steps and acquires more
tolerance, parents can provide a reward after each task is completed. Once a child is able to
grasp the skill, their body will build muscle memory and instinctive responses. It would be
beneficial to slowly and incrementally fade out the rewards as they progress (eg. initial
reward was food, current reward is verbal praise) in order to avoid over-reliance and
dependence.
Using Social Stories or Videos
If a child likes listening to stories, it would be worthwhile to invest some time to create a
printed social story. These social stories consist of short phrases and realistic photos to
break down each specific task, such as the steps for showering, which a child can review
before beginning the task. While teaching a child to operate the faucet safely, it is beneficial
to model the preferred behavior, such as turning on the faucet at the right temperature. If
the child associates color with temperature, the realistic photos could include red for hot
water and blue for cold water. It would also further aid the child if the photos of a particular
item (eg. shampoo) include various brands, so that your child learns to identify all these
non-identical items as shampoo. If a child responds better to animation, videos on specific
skills can be found online at YouTube that demonstrate rapid and effective training methods
and reduce the number of verbal prompts in teaching the different steps to showering.
(Drysdale et al., 2015)
Using Visual Checklist
To make learning more manageable and to promote independence, these tasks can be
broken down into simpler steps and instructions. It is crucial to develop a routine with
visuals when teaching a new life skill. There are a number of ideas that can help in grasping
these concepts: (1) modeling tasks; (2) creating and laminating a short checklist; and (3)
taking realistic pictures of the specific item, the action, the child completing the action (eg.
brushing teeth), and having the child check off the steps as he or she completes them. Also,
it is important to set up a specific place that is relaxing to address specific sensory needs (if
any) for brushing and flossing. This will further help the child associate the bathroom with a
routine. Afterwards, slowly let the child take over each step of the process and prompt for
requesting help if there are certain difficulties.
By utilizing the methods mentioned above, combined with consistent practice and
persistence, teaching personal hygiene and grooming skills should be relatively more
manageable for children with ASD.
As young adults finish high school, perhaps going to college or getting a job, at some point
they may choose to take on the additional responsibility of living “on their own.” Our
society generally regards this as developmentally appropriate (though some families choose
to live together in multi-generational home settings).
The transition to living away from mom and dad usually occurs between the ages of 18 and
30. It may happen when a young adult goes to college or gets a job too far away from where
the parents live to commute, or it may happen simply because the young adult and/or the
young adult’s family believes it is time for more independence.
Living away from mom and dad may sound ideal. No one nagging you to do your chores, no
arguing over the computer or the TV. But it also means that you will need to take
responsibility for many of the daily supports your parents provided.
Let’s think of the “new” skills a young person needs to live on their own:
· Managing money: paying the bills (rent, utilities, food, etc.), budgeting for expenses,
using an ATM, timely depositing paychecks and benefits checks;
· Sleeping: determining when to go to bed, when to wake up so as not to be late for work
or school;
· Cooking and eating: purchasing food, preparing food items, ordering take-out;
· Staying healthy: taking medications, maintaining good hygiene, maintaining a balanced
diet, exercising, sleeping, etc.;
· Taking care of household chores: cleaning the house, cleaning, folding, and putting away
the laundry, doing the dishes, taking out the trash, etc.;
· Getting places: arranging for transportation to school, work, doctor’s appointments,
social events, etc.;
· Managing free time;
· Practicing good social skills: getting along with neighbors, co-workers, grocery store
clerks, etc.;
· Staying safe: locking doors, turning off the burners/oven, having and knowing how to
use a fire extinguisher, replacing batteries in smoke detectors, etc.
All of this is necessary for independent living.
Many young adults, not just young adults on the autism spectrum, need to be taught
specific life skills before they are ready to live on their own. If you had an Individualized
Education Program (IEP) you may have learned many of these skills at school. Your parents
may have also helped you learn daily living skills by assigning you chores and helping you
manage a bank account. Regardless of how much preparation you have had, you, like all
people (whether autistic or not), will find that there are experiences that you are
unprepared for. When confronted with something new, it is important to be able to ask for
help or advice on how to proceed.

3.4 Academics, - literacy and numeracy skills, pre-vocational preparation

The academic development of children with autism spectrum disorders is important to

investigate as it can provide opportunities for higher education, independent living, and
successful employment in adulthood. Although educational data find that children with
autism spectrum disorders can achieve similar levels of academic achievement in inclusive
settings as neurotypical children, little is known about how children with diverse language
experiences with autism spectrum disorders develop academically.
Reading
Many students with ASD have strong visual skills and are often more successful in learning
to read through a whole word sight recognition approach than through a more traditional
phonics program. Whole words that are meaningful are usually easier for students to learn
to read than words for which students have no basis of experience or knowledge. In the
beginning stages of learning to read, it is critical to enable students to develop a sense of
confidence.
While knowing the alphabet and knowing the sound symbol associations are usually
regarded as prerequisite skills for learning to read, many students with ASD often have
difficulty acquiring these prerequisite skills (Mirenda, 2003). Some students are able to
recite alphabet letters and letter sounds by rote, but may be unable to apply this to
decoding words in a fluent manner. The rate of reading fluency will affect a student’s ability
to comprehend the message of the words. If a student needs to give more cognitive
attention to a difficult decoding process, then it is likely that the student’s understanding of
what the words are saying will decrease.
Some students may be better able to understand and learn the phonetic components of
words after they have learned to read them through a whole word sight recognition
approach, working backwards within a top-down framework from the whole to the parts. It
is important to consider that, although some students may be unable to manipulate the
symbolic representations of sounds, they may still be able to recognize and comprehend
words and acquire skills in phonics.
As the student acquires more words, it is essential to provide activities in which these words
are used in meaningful contexts. Ongoing practice in sentence construction enables the
student to understand how words are organized to express thoughts and needs, as well as
how pronouns, articles, and prepositions are used in context. Daily practice in sentence
construction provides students with the opportunity to develop an understanding of
grammar and to learn a framework for using language. This practice also reinforces that
repetition and rehearsal of language construction are ongoing expectations of daily task
performance.
Writing
While some students with ASD are proficient in printing and handwriting, many others have
difficulty with written tasks because of difficulties with fine motor skills. The visual-motor
coordination and fine motor movements that are required in written activities may be
extremely frustrating and divert the student’s attention from the content of what he is
writing to the physical process of print production. Difficulties with handwriting have been
identified as one of the most significant barriers to academic participation for students with
ASD in schools today (Simpson, 2007).
There are many ways in which technology can be used to enhance and compensate for the
limitations that students have in their writing skills. If fine motor skills are a barrier to
participation and academic function, then seek the alternative of assistive technology.
The use of keyboards, word processors, and writing software has facilitated the writing
process for many students with ASD. Learning to use a keyboard is a valuable skill for
students to acquire. For many students with ASD, using a computer is a highly preferred
activity. Teach and encourage the student to learn to use the keyboard as a writing
instrument. This is a reasonable accommodation to the motor planning difficulties often
associated with ASD. While learning to print can be a useful exercise for many, when
students’ difficulties with penmanship inhibit their ability to demonstrate their knowledge
and spark behavioural upsets, the use of the keyboard is a viable alternative.
Mathematics
For many students with ASD, participation in mathematics can be a challenging aspect of
the academic curriculum. There are several reasons for this:
· Although many mathematical concepts can be demonstrated through visual examples,
they are often accompanied by sophisticated verbal instruction.
· The language of mathematics instruction has its own vocabulary, and the precision of
instruction and usage of terms can vary from one instructor to another.
· Mathematical terminology can be very complex and is challenging for students who
struggle with processing the language of everyday interactions.
· Along with the verbal, orthographic, and representational expressions of number, there
is also the symbolic representation in the form of numerals.
· Mathematical operations are usually performed with a pencil. Many students with ASD
have fine motor difficulties and learning to form numerals and manipulate them on paper
may be challenging.
Some students may have difficulty verbally explaining how an answer was reached. This
reflects the language processing aspect of ASD. When this happens, it will be important to
determine what the expectations for the student will be and how the student’s difficulties
will be accommodated. It may be necessary to apply a different or modified rubric for
assessment.
Children with autism too eventually need to make a living just like other children. Pre-
vocational and vocationaltraining help the youngster with autism develop such a skill.
Training that leads to employment offers the youngster a sense of self-esteem, confidence,
dignity and a sense of accomplishment. More importantly, the opportunity to be a
productive worker and to contribute to the community promotes independence and
enhances a positive self-awareness and self-identity.
Adolescence is the prime time to start training in pre-vocation ideally around age 14, even
though it might seem that adulthood is far away. What kind of vocational training children
should go for will depend on the functional level of the child, their strengths and their
interests. Most kids with autism enjoy repetitive work they do well in jobs that require
assembling as well as in the information technology industry and in the manufacturing
industry. Several vocations should still be explored to find the right fit.
Pre-vocational training will include working on independent life skills, vocational job
training, and self-care. No matter how functionally affected a youngster with autism is, with
the right training there are things that they can all do. While starting prevocational training
early is the key to success, prevocational preparation begins early in life.
Elementary school years: Preparation for prevocational training starts in elementary school.
Children with autism are strong at visual tasks hence they are quick to learn tasks that use
this skill. Skills that are useful in developing career awareness and feeling of job satisfaction
include: matching, sorting, correcting sorting errors, matching to jigs (instructions using
pictures, drawings, words, or a combination), simple alphabetising, collecting papers,
cleaning tables, serving snacks, getting own snack, delivering messages, packaging and
assembly and making simple purchases.
Intermediate school years: In the intermediate school years work habits such as attention
to task, rule compliance, sustained work on already mastered tasks are important.
Systematic typing, office work such as collating and sophisticated alphabetising,
measurement, survival signs, money calculations, use of vending machines can be taught.
These can be taught in both classrooms and community based settings.
High school years: Skills to learn include self preservation and safety skills, work without
supervision and independent movement. The students should receive a combination of
classroom instruction and training at varied worksites.

3.5 Self-advocacy, Community Participation, Civil Rights, Leisure and Recreation

Self-advocacy
Self-advocacy involves knowing when and how to approach others to negotiate desired
goals, build better mutual understanding and trust, and achieve fulfillment and productivity.
Successful self-advocacy often involves an amount of disclosure about oneself to reach the
goal of better mutual understanding. In other words, it can be necessary to explain that you
have autism and what that means in order to explain why an accommodation is needed or
helpful.
Ideally, parents lay the groundwork for self-advocacy when the child is young. An important
precondition for successful self-advocacy and disclosure is self-awareness. People with ASD
need to understand how autism affects their interactions with others and the
environment. Also, they need to be familiar with their strengths and challenges. A parent or
caretaker can do this with a child from a very early age. In fact, the earlier a child has an
explanation about his differences, the better off he will be.
Parents should let their child know of their strengths in any way they can. In addition to
developing greater self-understanding, it means talents can be fostered for future academic
and professional pursuits.
Teaching Self-Advocacy Skills
Just as social skills and an understanding of nonverbal communication are necessary for
those on the autism spectrum, self-advocacy and disclosure requires direct instruction to
develop skills.
Areas of instruction can include a variety of topics and skill areas, including:
· Using a child with autism’s IEP as a tool to teach her about self-advocacy and disclosure
· Teaching children or adults about sensory systems and how to ask for environmental
accommodations
· Supporting a person on the spectrum in learning how and when to self-disclose
· Introducing a person with ASD to the basics of the Americans with Disabilities
Act and other important laws.
· Assisting a child or adult in creating self-advocacy scripts to use a variety of settings and
situations.
Community Participation
Contributing to and participating in community in some way is key to a good quality of life
for any person.
As with most people, most individuals on the autism spectrum want friends and social
engagement. Yet, social isolation is common among people on the autism spectrum.
Trouble with communication and social interaction sometimes makes community
participation difficult and friendships hard to attain.
Participating in the community is an element of every day life, however, this can present
unique challenges for families of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD).
Community participation for children with ASD is very important both for the family and for
the children in order to:
• Gain new experiences
• Interact with different people and environments
• Have the opportunity to generalize current skills
• Participate in daily living activities
Meaningful community participation for young children with ASD is more than teaching
children to simply tolerate the outing, but creating an opportunity to learn and build a
foundation for future skills.
Civil Rights
The Constitution of India has given the Fundamental Rights to the people with autism. It
secures them a right of justice and they can enjoy equality of status in the community.
[xx][xxi]
• Article 14- They like every citizens of India are equal before the law.
• Article 15(1) - The Government cannot discriminate any Indian including the person
with autism on the ground of religion, caste of sex.
• Article 15(2)- Every citizens including the people with disability cannot be
discriminated on any grounds for the access of any public places.
• Article 17- Autistic people cannot be treated as untouchable which is a punishable
offence.
• Article 21- Every person has a right to life and liberty. It also includes right to
education for the children with autism in the age group of 6 to 14.
• Article 23- Prohibition of forced labour.
• Article 24- Prohibition of employment of children under the age of 14 years.
• Article 32- A person with autism or any disability can seek constitutional remedy and
can move to the Supreme Court by filing Writ Petition.
• Article 300A- No person shall be deprived of the right to property.
Under Sections 80DD and 80U of the Income Tax Act 1961 states that people with disability
have the right to enjoy earnings of tax concession. The Mental Health Act also provides
various rights to people with disabilities.[xxii]

The Rights or Persons with Disabilities Act 2016 considers Autism a one of the 21 recognised
disabilities. It gives certain rights and facilities to the autistic people so that they could live
their lives in a better way as well as they are not deprived because of their disorder. Under
the act 4% of the people with disabilities can be given employment in Government
Establishment. And the person who has the disability benchmark of 40% is entitled to
certain benefits.[xxiii]

The rights and facilities of the autistic person: [xxiv]

Separate Law: There is a special institution for the people with Autism which was created by
national law. Under the National Trust for the Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral
Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities Act (Act44 of 1999), the National Trust is
statutory body of the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment.
Health Insurance: The people with Autism, Cerebral Palsy and other disabilities can get the
health insurance of Rs. 1,00,000 by the Niramaya Health Insurance Policy which was set up
by The National Trust.
Housing: the schemes set up by the GHARUNDA of the National Trust provides affordable
housing and minimum quality care for the people with Autism.
Schooling: Early intervention and support setup by DISHA Centres to help the children with
autism and their families. Children who are in the age group of 0 to 10 are covered under
the scheme. Their aim is to make the kids ready to attend the school.
Educational and Vocational Training: Schemes set up by the GYAN PRABHA of the National
Trust provides people with autism monetary assistance for their graduation and post
graduation course as well as vocational course. The Rights of People with Disabilities Act
provides all children between ages of 6 to 18 free education.

Recreation and Social Life: Opportunities and Issues

Individuals who have autism, generally have to be taught to develop leisure skills,
something that most of us do naturally. However, once taught, they may develop diverse
leisure interests and often enjoy the same recreational activities as their non handicapped
peers. A large number enjoy music and many are great singers, working on puzzles,
computer games and physical activities that can be done on their own yet alongside others
such as swimming, hiking, camping, cycling, and roller skating. Because of their socially
awkward ways they are often made to feel unwelcome at sports facilities, except where the
parents are able to surmount such hurdles. However, there are other public areas that
people with autism visit. Increasingly one finds people with autism enjoying meals in
restaurants and tolerating long hours in theatres and to enjoy the experience.
Unit 4: Curriculum for students with ID
4.1. Curriculum Designing for Students with Intellectual Disability
4.2. Personal, social, functional academic and occupational, recreationalskills
4.3. Curriculum development for pre-primary, primary and secondary levels
4.4. Curricular adaptation -accommodation, modification for inclusivesettings
4.5. Curriculum evaluation process.

4.1 Curriculum Designing for Students with Intellectual Disability

The curricular content of children with Intellectual disability requires a different focus. Due
to the intellectual impairment, they cannot study like the other disabled children upto high
school or beyond and hence the curricular focus here should be function oriented. This
demands content as well as the process planned differently, considering each child with the
unique characteristics, individualized educational programming (IEP) is required for each
retarded child with the objective to achieve independence in his functioning in the age
appropriate activities.
There are different approaches used and found successful for students with Intellectual
disability.
Ideally, in special education, as in regular education, the curriculum should be derived from
an analysis of the needs of society. Therefore, a good curriculum should focus on imparting
social competencies to children with Intellectual disability so that they may perform as
independently as possible in the community. With the trend toward integrated education,
the curriculum for mildly retarded children is generally an adaptation of the regular
education curriculum with a focus on vocational education. This training allows for
appropriate job placement of the child when he/she grows up. These curricula include
functional reading, writing, arithmetic, time, travel money and other related skills.
Generalization or transfer of classroom learning to application of skills in natural
environments is an important aspect of these curricula, as Intellectual disability children
often do not automatically generalize the skills they have learned.
Curricula used with children who are moderately and severely retarded emphasize training
is functional activities. The content of the curricula are chosen from among the various tasks
that have a high probability of being required in day-to-day living. These tasks include
personal, social, occupational and recreational activities. Academic skills are incorporated
when the children have the ability to learn them.
Behavioural approaches for increasing desirable Behaviours and decreasing undesirable
Behaviours are currently in practice in most of the special educational units. The methods
used include task analysis, modeling, shaping, chaining, prompting and fading and
reinforcement. For the past two decades, behaviour modification techniques, based on
operant conditioning principles have been widely popular and implemented in many school
systems all over the world. These applications included aversive and non-aversive
techniques. The use of aversive techniques were highly criticized as unethical. As rightly
pointed out by Kazdin (1975) the target behaviour may be eliminated by aversive
techniques, the consequences resulting directly form punishment may be worse than the
original behaviour. Considering such views, `gentle teaching’ was introduced. This included
concepts and processes such as ecological manipulation, errorless learning, environmental
engineering, teaching which considers modality strengths, and individualization and
flexibility with the learner and staff. Special teachers in India are updated with such current
concepts and trends through periodic in-service training workshops, to enable them to
adapt teaching methods suitably.
4.2 Personal, social, functional academic and occupational, recreational skills

Personal skills
Personal skills include eating, drinking, toileting, bathing, dressing and grooming. However,
to perform these activities, other skills such as motor (gross motor and fine motor) and
language and communication skills are also required. Take the example - take water from
the water filter and drink. The girl has to walk to the kitchen, identify glass and take the
glass, open the tap (finger grasp) fill the water, close the tap and drink. Another example is
when the family goes to their friend’s house and the girl feels thirsty, she has to tell her
mother (communication) that she needs water. Therefore, we need to remember that skill
areas are not isolated, but they all overlap.
Eating and drinking
 Give opportunity to children to understand that we eat food when we feel hungry
and we drink water when we feel thirsty.
 Use lunch time and break time to teach.
 Let children identify their lunch boxes/bags. After completing the meals, let them
take care of their belongings.
 Ask parents to give a plate and glass for each student which can be kept in school.
 Prepare a duty chart indicating the name of the student and the activity to be
performed.
Specific skill related points
Drinking:
 Use a cup/glass with handles on both sides if the child has difficulty in holding the
glass.
 Take one fourth of water in the glass in the initial stages of teaching and later
increase the water level.
 Use fruit juice, or buttermilk (in addition to water) while teaching drinking. Child’s
choice of drink motivates him to drink.
 Give a small jug/bottle with less water while teaching pouring water into glass for
drinking. Eating:
 Begin teaching independent eating with non-sticky food items like poori/dosa.
 See that the children eat chapatti with curry, dosa/idli with sambar/chatni; rice and
dall/curry and other items to be eaten with side dish. Often it is noticed that children
with Intellectual disability have difficulty in taking proper proportion of the food
along with the side dish. They tend to eat curry and chapatti or rice separately.
 Before teaching the student to mix and eat rice, mix rice and curry/dall and make
small balls for student to pick up with fingers and eat. If he needs physically guide by
placing your hand on top of his right hand and help in picking. Be behind the child so
that your right hand and his right hand are in same direction.
 Tell students what they are eating during training.
 See that you do not serve all the food in the plate at a time. Serve a little. Name the
food items. After he finishes the food first served, ask the student whether he would
like to be served more food
 Tell the parents to give opportunity to their son/daughter to ask for food and also
which item he/she wants. Generally parents serve the rice/chapatti with all side
 dishes and keep in front of the child, not giving him a choice. Before serving, if we
ask the child to name the food items, the child will be able to associate the name to
the food item in the long run. It facilitates learning language.
 Eating activity also involves washing and wiping hands, washing plate and glass, tiffin
box and wiping table. These activities should also be taught to students as part of
training in eating skills.
Toileting skills: Teaching of toileting skills should happen at appropriate time in school and
at home.
 Teaching privacy is an important step in teaching toileting skills. Always remember to
teach the student to close the toilet door while he uses the toilet. When you are
teaching him to remove pants to use the toilet or wear pants after using toilet, see
that you teach him with door closed.
 Make an effort to teach him to unfasten. In case, it is beyond the students capacity
to learn, use adaptations such as elastic velcro in place of buttons/hooks.
 Some children refuse/hesitate to use the toilet with the fear of falling. You can fix
the handles on either side of the walls in the toilet so that the child can hold the
handles and sit without fear.
 Washing after defecation, pouring water/flushing toilet, washing hands after
toileting are part of toileting skills and to be taught to the students.
 Train independent use of left hand for cleaning after toileting when adult pours
water. When he perfects that train in pouring water by himself using right hand. It
he can not do both together adapt by attaching hosepipe for use by right hand.
Bathing skills: Teaching of bathing skills is generally done at home by parents/family
members as it may not be possible for teachers to teach bathing skills in day care centers.
Inform parents/family members on the following points:
 It is always important to see that children select and take their clothes and towel to
the bathroom before they take bath. This activity will help in identifying their own
clothes and naming of the clothes.
 Children should be allowed to mix cold water and hot water to check the required
temperature.
 Privacy needs to be maintained while training in taking bath and wearing clothes.
 Initially sponge can be used for applying soap on the body to avoid more usage of
soap or slipping of soap from hands.
 Use a napkin or small towel fixed to rings at the two edges for cleaning the back for
those children who have difficulty in reaching the back with hands.
Brushing: This activity can be taught in schools after lunch to those children who have
difficulty in brushing teeth.
 Thicken the brush handle with cloth/plaster/fix a wood handle for holding in case
there is a need for good gripping.
 Use mirror as far as possible (standing in front of the mirror) while training children
in brushing.
 Initially children may eat the paste. A little paste swallowed does not harm children.
Gradually train to spit.
 Give a small mug or glass of water for gargling after brushing teeth.
 Teach children to identify their brush, and paste. Teach squeezing the paste from the
tube, as the last step as it needs fine motor coordination. Waste of paste should be
avoided.
  Children should also be taught to brush their teeth without reminder as it is
expected of any non-retarded child above the age of 6 years.
Dressing skills: Dressing activities include removing and wearing clothes including
unzipping/zipping, unbuttoning, buttoning, unhooking and hooking and tying lace/ribbon.
 Use stool/chair/box (size depending on the height of children) to sit while teaching
children to remove or wear pants. For example the child removes pants upto knee
level and sits on the stool, or box. He can remove the pants easily without having to
balance on one foot. Often children with Intellectual disability have problems in
balancing on one foot and may fall. In case of children with cerebral palsy
with Intellectual disability, this method of teaching is very useful.
 First teach removing of clothes after unfastening (by trainer) and then wearing of
clothes.
 Use large buttons on shirts while teaching unbuttoning and buttoning of clothes.
 Teach fastening of buttons, zips, hooks directly on self after wearing clothes rather
than teaching using frames. If needed, give physical prompt by standing behind the
child and extending hands.
 Use stickers/labels already on shirts, banians or pants for teaching identification of
correct and wrong side of clothes.
 Use adaptations such as Velcro/elastic bands if children have difficulty in buttoning,
zipping/tying.
Grooming skills: Applying oil, combing hair, applying powder, fixing bindi (in case of girls)
wearing chappal/shoes are all activities to be taught under grooming. Generally, by the time
children are 8-9 years, they learn all the above mentioned activities by themselves through
observational learning. However, children with Intellectual disability need to be taught all
the activities using special methods.
 For children, who do not know to identify left and right, fix stickers/marking on the
inside of heel of the footwear to help in identifying left and right chappal or shoes.
 Tying shoe lace is a very complex activity. There are variety of shoes available in the
market without shoe lace, which can be bought for use. Our aim of education is to
train students to take care of their personal needs by themselves.
 Use cloth puff to teach applying powder evenly on face. Encourage children (girls) to
use bindi stickers which are easy to fix.
 Select comb with a thick handle convenient to hold convenient to hold for teaching
combing hair.
 In case of children with low ability, plaiting hair which is a complex activity may be
avoided keeping the hair short where one can use rubber band to fix the hair.
 To teach plaiting hair, follow the sequence:
1. Ribbons of 3 colours fixed on undo grill.
2. Wool of three colours.
3. Wool of same colour.
4. False hair.
5. Plaiting other’s hair.
Social skills:
One of the characteristics of children with Intellectual disability is inappropriate behaviours
which make them look different in groups. In addition, due to lack of proper socializing skills
with the age appropriate groups, they tend to play with younger children. Therefore, they
need to be taught the manners group behaviour in various situations and environments.
  Use situations in school, in neighbourhood and in community to teach children social
skills. For example, we can teach saying thank you during the activities involving
distribution of materials to children in the classroom, playground, lunch room.
 Standing in a queue, waiting for their turn, sharing, playing cooperatively, taking
leadership role are some activities which happen routinely in school. However,
teachers should make conscious effort to make use of all these situations to impart
the curriculum content to students who need training.
 When bullied, beaten or in distress, getting help/managing the situation is also a
social competency to be taught.
 Parents/family members need to be informed to practise the same at home. It helps
in developing appropriate, acceptable social behaviours among children with
Intellectual disability .
 Travelling by bus involves getting into the bus, finding a seat and sitting, holding the
rod and standing if there is no seat for sitting, paying ticket money or showing bus
pass. Similarly, shopping at this stage involve dressing up, taking money, going to the
shop, identifying/asking items (which costs smaller amounts) for buying, and
carrying the items back home. Training in all these activities is necessary for
performing the tasks by themselves. (See SESM-03, Block-1, Unit-4B)
 Taking care of personal belongings, not to get cheated by others and understanding
rights are essential social skills for independent living.
Functional skills
Functional skills are those skills a student needs to live independently. An important goal of
special education is for our students to gain as much independence and autonomy as
possible, whether their disability is emotional, intellectual, physical, or a combination of two
or more (multiple) disabilities. Skills are defined as functional as long as the outcome
supports the student's independence. For some students, those skills may be learning to
feed themselves. For other students, it may be learning to use a bus and read a bus
schedule. We can separate the functional skills as:
 Life Skills
 Functional Academic Skills
 Community-Based Learning Skills
 Social Skills
Life Skills
The most basic of functional skills are those skills that we usually acquire in the first few
years of life: walking, self-feeding, self-toileting, and making simple requests. Students with
developmental disabilities, such as Autism Spectrum Disorders, and significant cognitive or
multiple disabilities often need to have these skills taught through modeling, breaking them
down, and the use of Applied Behavior Analysis. The teaching of life skills also requires that
the teacher/practitioner complete appropriate task analyses in order to teach the specific
skills.
Functional Academic Skills
Living independently requires some skills which are considered academic, even if they do
not lead to higher education or the completion of a diploma. Those skills include:
 Math Skills - The functional math skills include telling time, counting and using
money, balancing a checkbook, measurement, and understanding volume. For
higher functioning students, math skills will expand to include vocationally oriented
skills, such as making change or following a schedule.
  Language Arts - Reading begins as recognizing symbols, progressing to reading signs
(stop, push), and moves on to reading directions. For many students with disabilities,
they may need to have reading texts supported with audio recordings or adults
reading. By learning to read a bus schedule, a sign in a bathroom, or directions, a
student with disabilities gains independence.
Occupational skills
To prepare an individual with Intellectual disability for independent living, training in overall
development of skills is important. Occupational skills include activities such as cooking,
shopping and house keeping. However, the curriculum content at primary level will be
minimum when compared to secondary and prevocational level.
Shopping and travel skills are interrelated, ie., if one has to go for shopping, he/she has to
go using the right mode of travel to the respective place. Therefore, a teacher can select
related curriculum content in both the areas for teaching. For example, if students are
taught to read and write numerals from 1-5. The teacher can teach identifying and naming
rupee notes/coins and using money to buy things which costs within Rs.5. Reading price
tags, selecting item and paying bills, all with your support.
Involve in domestic activities such as washing plate, glass and tififn box, wiping the table,
sweeping the floor, dusting separating vegetables and placing them into boxes/plastic bags.
Arranging for breakfast, lunch, dinner by placing plates, glasses and serving water, can form
part of the routine.
Recreational skills
In the past, western societies have tended to devalue people with disabilities and as a
result, these individuals were less likely to be accepted and have valued social roles in their
community. Negative stereotypes such as being regarded as: a dependent person, an object
of charity, an object of ridicule and pity, a menace or an object of dread were commonly
expressed in the literature of that time. This dominant view that people with disabilities
were seen as helpless victims was based on their functional limitations, and as a result
needed to be effectively excluded from mainstream society. This became known as the
‘functional limitations’ perspective on disability which supported the view that people with
disabilities were a ‘problem’ and in need of ‘cure or care’.
Perhaps nothing reveals so much about individuals as how they choose to play - how they
invest their time and energy for leisure time. Leisure is that time free from demands of
school, work, or required activities of daily living. Everyone needs regular recreation that
develops skills, promotes good health, relieves stress, facilitates social interactions, and
provides a general joy for living.
The physiological benefits of recreation participation were derived from studies where
people engage in physical activity of some kind (e.g., exercise, cycling, swimming, walking,
jogging, running, hiking, weight lifting, etc). Specific results from involvement in a physical
recreation activity are an increased lung capacity, reduced resting heart rates and lower
blood pressure levels. Other benefits consist of decreased body fat mass, increased lean
body mass, increased muscle strength, and improved structure and function of connective
tissues (ligaments, tendons, cartilage) and joints. Weight-bearing and strength-building
activities help sustain bone mass and reduce the incidence of trauma-induced fractures
(Paffenbarger, Hyde, & Dow, 1990). Moderate physical recreation activities are known to
reduce the symptoms of mild or moderate depression and anxiety through improved self-
image, social skills, and mental health (Taylor, Sallis, & Needle, 1985). Noted psychological
benefits of recreation activity are as follows:
 perceived sense of freedom, independence, and autonomy,
enhanced self-competence through improved sense of self-worth, self-reliance, and
self-confidence,
 better ability to socialize with others, including greater tolerance and understanding,
 enriched capabilities for team membership,
 heightened creative ability,
 improved expressions of and reflection on personal spiritual ideals,
 greater adaptability and resiliency,
 better sense of humor,
 enhanced perceived quality of life,
 more balanced competitiveness and a more positive outlook on life (Academy of
Leisure Sciences & Driver, 1994).
Involvement in recreation activities releases stress and tension from the perils of society.
Braum (1991) recalls the findings of researchers that state,"relaxation tends to alleviate
many of the symptoms of stress. Activities that fill leisure time, performed within a group,
strengthen social support ties known to negate stress" (p. 407). The idea of choice in leisure
presents opportunities where one can recreate.

4.3 Curriculum development for pre-primary, primary and secondary levels

Curriculum development for pre-primary (2-6 years)

Early intervention is an early stimulation and enrichment programme for infants and young
children with varying types and degrees of disability. It is primarily used for children with
developmental disabilities offering services which will enhance the development of young
children. In developing countries, where health services are lacking in urban slums and
deprived rural populations and where poverty is widespread, such early intervention
services form the basis of ensuring proper care and management of at-risk infants.
The early years are the most significant years for human growth, development and learning
of all children including those with special needs due to disability conditions. The all-round
capacities that emerge in 3 to 6 years age group are the pre-requisites for later success in
school and life.
National Council of Educational Research and Training has framed the Pre school curriculum
that aim at helping the teachers, administrators, policy planners and other stakeholders to
provide good quality preschool education to children.
Encouraging the development of children with disabilities through early intervention
minimises learning difficulties and accelerates child development. It also reduces the
expenses by minimising the need for special education services. Early intervention includes
a system of services tailored to individual needs, that aim to help children directly and also
through providing support to their parents. Early intervention can be offered in several
forms:
 Speech and language therapy can help in improving hearing and using hearing aids.
 Physiotherapy can help in development of motor skills such as, balance, sitting,
crawling and walking.
 Development and work therapy can help develop motor skills of hands, play,
cognitive, social emotional and development for self care.
 Assistance technology equipment that a child may need.
Inclusion provides an opportunity to treat children with disabilities equally and focus on
their abilities. This empowers them with adequate facilities, infrastructure and personal
support. Hence,
 Carry out the early developmental screening of all children and identify their
strengths.
 Understand the significance of early identification and intervention.
 Make adjustments in the physical environment to ensure it is barrier free.
 Make curriculum flexible and accessible to children with different impairments.
 Develop appropriate assessment and evaluation procedures.
 Build the capacity and empower all the stakeholders to revisit their own attitudes
and work towards changing them if required. Gradually encourage them to use
positive terminology when working with children with disabilities.
 Use age appropriate play and learning material.
 Sensitization; orientation; training; and counseling of parents and community should
be done.
Children between the age group of 6 to 9 years are considered as belonging to the primary
level. Due to the intellectual impairment, children with Intellectual disability show delays in
all developmental areas, which reflects in learning academics and deficits in adaptive
behaviour. Hence curricular emphasis should be learning skills and behaviours that are
necessary to function independently as far as possible and in a socially acceptable manner.
Curriculum for the primary group is an extension of that of the pre-primary class. Therefore
emphasis will continue to be on the areas like self-help, language, communication, social,
functional academics, domestic/occupational and recreational skills. The extent of coverage
of activities to be stressed at primary level again depends on the exposure and achievement
at the pre-school level by the children and also the activities have to be age appropriate. For
example, an 8 year old non-retarded child is not expected to cook a meal but can help
mother in laying table, serving food or arranging utensils in the shelf. In case of academic
skills, we need to follow a sequence. For example, after a student learns to do addition
sums, subtraction sums are taught.
Personal skills
Personal skills include eating, drinking, toileting, bathing, dressing and grooming. However,
to perform these activities, other skills such as motor (gross motor and fine motor) and
language and communication skills are also required. Take the example - take water from
the water filter and drink. The girl has to walk to the kitchen, identify glass and take the
glass, open the tap (finger grasp) fill the water, close the tap and drink. Another example is
when the family goes to their friend’s house and the girl feels thirsty, she has to tell her
mother (communication) that she needs water. Therefore, we need to remember that skill
areas are not isolated, but they all overlap.
Social skills:
One of the characteristics of children with Intellectual disability is inappropriate behaviours
which make them look different in groups. In addition, due to lack of proper socializing skills
with the age appropriate groups, they tend to play with younger children. Therefore, they
need to be taught the manners group behaviour in various situations and environments.
Occupational skills
To prepare an individual with Intellectual disability for independent living, training in overall
development of skills is important. Occupational skills include activities such as cooking,
shopping and house keeping. However, the curriculum content at primary level will be
minimum when compared to secondary and prevocational level.
Children between the ages of 10 to 13 or 14 years are grouped under secondary level.
Once the primary group of children achieve 80% of the curriculum content in the primary
level, they can be promoted to secondary level. In case of children with low ability the
teachers have to continue teaching in those tasks which the students have not achieved.
They are grouped as Primary II. Though the same domains/core areas as in the primary level
are included in curriculum at secondary level, the content and complexity of the activities is
increased keeping in mind the learning characteristics of children at this level. This is also
noticed in general education. For example, in every class, students have to study the
subjects English, regional language, Hindi, mathematics, science and social
studies/environmental science. The complexity of content in each subject is increased in
every class keeping in mind the learning characteristics of children. Similarly, for children
with Intellectual disability also, the curriculum content in each domain/core area is the
extension of curriculum at primary level.
Personal skills
With systematic planning and teaching, the high ability group of children with Intellectual
disability learn to eat and drink, dress, brush and bathe on their own by the time they reach
secondary level. However, some of them may require minimum assistance in bathing and
dressing. At this level the following curriculum content needs to be covered as an extension
of primary curriculum.
The curriculum content should cover activities such as eating of different types of breakfast
items and sweets appropriately (eg. Eating gulab jamon/rasagulla/payasam with spoon,
taking a small piece of chapatti with right hand and taking a small quantity of curry/dal and
eating), showing appropriate eating/table manners when children participate in social
functions and cafeteria, carrying water, filing water in bottles, folding manageable clothes,
bed covers/sheets, cutting pictures, pasting, folding papers and inserting them into covers
and the other routine activities. Never underestimate student’s ability. Expose him to
various activities and assist in learning.
 Provide opportunity to children to eat different types of breakfast and snacks items
which are commonly prepared at home and available outside as eating of different
items need different skills.
 Take them to eating places as a part of school activity to expose them to various
types of eating environments.
 Allow children to decide what they want to eat and order the items.
 Give them an experience of folding letters and inserting them into envelops and
pasting. Every organization has a lot of correspondence to do. The students can be
given them activity after initial training.
 Folding of napkins, towels, aprons or table cloth can be taught at school as these
materials are used during organizing various programmes at school.
 Schools celebrate national festivals, birthday parties, sports day, annual day and
such functions through out the year. Students at this level can be involved in
decoration, seating arrangement, food/snacks arrangements.
 Inform parents/family members to involve their children in all these activities at
home also so that transfer of training and generalization is achieved.
Social skills
To be accepted as a member of the group and part of the community, one needs to have
smooth interpersonal relationships for which adequate language and communications skills
are required. Often children with Intellectual disability fail to interact with groups
meaningfully in an acceptable manner. It is observed that most of the children with
Intellectual disability have limited vocabulary and have difficulty in speaking in sentences,
understanding and following instructions and narrating incidents in a sequence. Various
activities should be planned to develop these skills at secondary level.
Acceptable behaviour towards persons of opposite sex needs to be taught subtly and
constantly during social situation at this state. Do’s and dont’s should be clearly specified
to avoid embarrassment. This training should be continued into prevocational stage also.
 Take students on trips to various places (shops, cafeteria, railway station, post
office, place of worship, place of entertainment) during the year. Let students
narrate their experiences after you return from the trip. Write it on the board in
simple words at their level of undersanding and let children copy in their notebooks.
This can become a reading journal for students. As they are real life experiences,
children enjoy narrating the events.
 On rotation teachers can assign to students, the job of delivering messages to other
staff members in school, taking telephone messages, talking of current news,
conducting group games.
 Plan games which require listening skills.
 Teach students short plays wherein students have to speak 2-3 sentences
relevantly.
Occupational skills
At this level the children start helping parents/family members in many of the household
activities. Performing these activities require application of functional reading, writing and
arithmetic skills. For example, when the student is asked to measure two cups of rice, he
should have learned counting as a part of number skills which he applies while performing
the activity. In case of low ability children (Primary II – 7-14 years, Prevocational-II – 15-18
years) measuring of two cups of rice can be an activity for teaching counting. Identifying and
reading labels on edible items/writing a shopping list are other examples. Similarly activities
such as washing clothes, moping floor, wiping, storing, or packing requires knowledge of
functional academics and fine motor skills.
 Sweeping, mopping, dusting, and washing utensils can be regular activities in school.
After completion of art and craft/cooking activities children need to be taught to
clean up.
 Include classes in home science at least once a week, which involves pealing, cutting,
cleaning of pulses and rice, arranging for lunch, cleaning up after lunch, washing and
stacking utensils.
 On rotation, the students can be made responsible for maintaining cleanliness of
space outside classrooms and playground.
 A small kitchen garden can be maintained by students. This can be a part of teaching
environmental science, as well as an occupational activity.

4.4 Curricular adaptation -accommodation, modification for inclusive settings

Inclusion is “a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all learners
through increasing participation in learning, cultures and communities, and from education.
It involves changes and modifications in content, approaches, structures and strategies, with
a common vision which covers all children of the appropriate age range and a conviction
that is the responsibility of the regular system to educate all children.” (UNESCO, 2005)
Inclusion is the full acceptance of all students and leads to a sense of belonging within the
classroom community. By the practice of educating all children together, children with
disabilities have the opportunity to prepare for life in the community, and the same practice
also helps the society to make the conscious decision to operate according to the social
value of equality. Inclusive education is the best method of promoting wider social
acceptance, peace and cooperation.
A strategy describes how the goals will be achieved by the resources. Strategy is important
because the resources available to achieve these goals or usually limited. Strategy generally
involves setting goals, determining actions to achieve the goals and mobilizing resources to
execute the actions.
There are various strategies for curriculum adaptation discussing below
Instructional strategies
· Instructional strategies may be defined as instruction in how to learn and perform."
Learning strategies help students learn and perform by providing them with a specific steps
for:
· approaching new and difficult task
· guiding thoughts and actions
· completing task in a timely and successful manner
· thinking strategically
· Learning strategies may include organizing materials, memorizing information, taking
notes, reading text, and taking tests.
Inclusive classroom strategies
· While planning the students in regular Classrooms, their age is to be taken consideration
rather than their academic level to foster friendship.
· The teachers should often evaluate both the groups with the same tasks.
· The general students and students with special needs are paired together common
assignments to build cooperation.
· Games and problem solving make the classes more active.
· Curricular, co-curricular and extra - curricular activities are made community oriented.
· Giving teaching tasks to the students and helping them become part of learning
activity.
· If she/he is co-teaching, commit to planning at least once a week with your co-teaching
partner and determine your respective teaching responsibilities.
6 Steps to Adapting Curriculum and Instruction
1. Choose the activity.
2. Identify your curricular goals for this activity. What do you want the children to learn,
to experience, to be engaged in?
3. What is your instructional plan for this activity? How do you want to present the
information to the children?
4. Identify the children in your classroom who might need adaptations for this activity.
5. Based on your knowledge of each child’s goals and skills, choose and appropriate
adaptation or group of adaptations. Start with the most natural, least intrusive adaptations.
6. Observe and adjust your adaptations as needed during the activity.
* A change in the type of adaptation used,
 * A change in the amount of adaptation needed.
* A change in the number of adaptation used.
Use a variety of team teaching methods, including
· Interactive teaching: Teachers alternate role of presenting, reviewing, and monitoring
instruction.
· Alternate teaching: One person teaches, reteaches, on enriches a concept for small
group, while the other monitors or teach the remaining students.
· Parallel teaching: Students are divided into mixedability groups, and each co-teaching
partner teaches the same material to one of the groups.
· Station teaching: Small group of students rotate to various stations for instructions,
review, and/or practice.
· Be aware of students needs and provide the accommodation listed in your students
individualized education programmers.
UDL (Universal design to learning)
UDL is an approach to designing curriculum including instructional goals, methods,
materials, and assessment that are flexible enough to accommodate learner differences.
According to Meyer and Rose (2005), “UDL is built on the premise that barriers to learning
occur in the interaction with the curriculum they are not inherent solely in the capacity of
the learner. UDL represents a shift in how educators look at learner differences. It
emphasizes the need for a curriculum that can adapt to student needs for a curriculum that
can adapt to student needs rather than requiring learners to adapt to an inflexible
curriculum.” The UDL is increasingly drawing the attention of researchers and educators as
an effective solution for filling the gap between learner ability and individual differences.
UDL framework can be used to proactively design lessons that address learner variability.
Using UDL guidelines, teachers can integrate flexible options and supports that ensure that
standards – based lessons are accessible to a range of learners in their classrooms. To
understand what UDL is, it helps to understand what it’s not. The goal of UDL is to use a
variety of teaching methods to remove any barriers to learning and give all students equal
opportunities to succeed. It’s about building in flexibility that can be adjusted for every
student’s strengths and needs. Teachers can create a more nurturing, equitable and
inclusive space by using different strategies. These includes the 3 major principles /
guidelines such as: first one is Engagement: which is for purposeful, motivated learners,
stimulate interest and motivation for learning, Second one is Representation: for
resourceful, knowledgeable learners, present information and content in different ways,
Third one is Action & Expression: For strategic, goal – directed learners, differentiate the
ways that students can express what they know as well as reflecting diversity in teaching
and supporting the social justice goals of fellow teachers. So it is to improve and optimize
teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights in to how humans learn. It
capitalizes in new technologies and electronic devices and provide a new way of looking at
students with disabilities.
FUNCTIONAL READING
Functional reading is defined as a student’s actions or responses resulting from reading the
printed word.
The following are the goals of reading for persons with Intellectual disability .

The primary goal is the development of their ability to read for protection – sign boards,
labels, directions and so on (concept of survival).
The second goal is teaching them reading for information and instruction – newspaper,
telephone book, job application and so on.
The third goal is giving training in reading for pleasure – magazines, comics, story books.

All persons with Intellectual disability may not be able to achieve all the three goals. Some
may achieve one of the goals and some may achieve all of the three goals It depends on the
severity/level of Intellectual disability i.e., the ability/capacity to understand and learn the
tasks. Further, children to become effective readers they must be able to.
• see a clear and unblurred image projected on the flash card and hear the sound of the
letters and words uttered (auditory-visual sensory input).
distinguish one symbol from another and recognize these differences consistently (auditory-
visual perception).
• remember the sounds or images of the symbols in sequence (auditory-visual
memory).
• relate these symbols to meanings based on experience and synthesize the visual and
auditory clues with the meaningful words for integrative learning (language symbolization).
Teaching Reading
Various approaches have been used by professionals in teaching reading to children with
Intellectual disability. Among them whole word approach is extensively used.
Whole word approach (sight word/paired reading)
Whole word approach is a widely used method in teaching functional reading. Through the
whole word approach, the students learn to recognize and read words and later receive
decoding instructions (to spell). A variety of strategies have been used in teaching sight
word vocabulary. Recent attention has been focused on the imagery level of the word to be
learnt. High imagery words are usually concrete and include nouns such as ball, mango, fan
and house. Low imagery words include abstract terms such as beautiful, good and have. In
some instances, high imagery can be provided for low imagery words by using the word in
context. For example, consider the word “sour”, “I ate mango. It is sour”, becomes more
concrete and students can remember better. Pairing of words with concrete objects and/or
pictures will facilitate development of a high imagery level in the students. Here, the
concrete word `mango’ helps in learning the abstract word `sour’. Following are the steps to
be followed while using whole word approach. When we are teaching any concept to
children, we follow three steps – matching/grouping, identification and naming.
Error analysis in generalization
The sustained ability for generalization does not just lie in analysis of success achieved, but
also in that of the errors committed. When a student performs consistently a certain task
after structured training, he is exposed to a non-trained condition, which will have certain
similarities to the trained conditions. When the learnt response is performed in a non-
trained condition, errors may occur. The teacher should be sensitive to the factors that
contribute to the occurrence of the error and the ways in which they can be prevented. For
example, we teach `3’ and help the child to discriminate `3’ from 5, 7, 13, 30, 53 and so on.
The student understands that when the symbol ‘3’ appears all by itself, only then it is called
‘3’. On a clock dial, when the child is asked to identify 1, he is right when he shows 1 after 12
but not at 10, 11 and 12 as the latter have accompanying numbers with them. This approach
would limit to prevent errors from occurring right in the beginning during the acquisition
stage itself, thereby making generalization easier. This helps in differentiating similar looking
words and similar sounding words.
Teacher should
 Provide sufficient examples
 Be sensitive to learner’s readiness before communicating.
 Demonstrate a range of variations within a given concept.
 Reward the student for his right responses.
FUNCTIONAL WRITING
One of the important modes of communication is written expression. Writing demands eye
hand coordination, motor coordination, sense of direction and recognition of symbols
pictures/letters/numbers/words/ punctuation and so on). Some writing tasks demand
horizontal writing (left to write as in writing words) and some demand vertical writing as in
arithmetic (addition, subtraction) and some demand a combination of both as in statement
sums.
Teaching Writing
Teaching writing involves four stages. They are:
1. Tracing
2. Joint dots (if needed)
3. Copying
4. writing from memory (including learning spelling).
FUNCTIONAL ARITHMETIC
We are in daily contact with situations which require the use of number skills. For example,
when we buy half a dozen bananas from the fruit vendor we glance at the bunch to check
whether it contains six bananas or not. We use number skills in various settings such as at
home, in community and at work place - how many plates to place on the table, which bus
number to take to reach work place, how much is the bus fare, how long it takes to reach
office and so on.
Strategies for arithmetic instruction
Before beginning with numbers, make sure, the child is aware of pre-math concepts such as
more-less, far-near, heavy-light, tall-short-long and so on.
The following are the points to be considered while planning and teaching arithmetic skills.
• The content should be arranged in a sequential order for which the task analytic
approach
is applied.
• Concrete materials should be used while teaching to provide meaning for the
concepts.
• The selection of materials should be such that they can be used meaningfully both
inside and outside the school environment.
• The programme should be structured in such a way that there is a gradual transition in
teaching concepts moving from concrete to semi-concrete and abstract levels.
• Instruction must be practical and functional with special emphasis given to a social
and
vocational orientation.
• Sufficient practice should be given to deal with the concepts in variety of ways to
ensure
understanding.
• Additional opportunities should be provided to generalize the skill to a variety of
experiences to note similarities and to establish associations and relations among their
experiences.
• Practical experiences and situations should be provided for the application of
numerical
skills. However, care should be taken in planning the application of number skills to the real
life experiences that they should have relevance to the world in terms of the individual
child’s needs.
• A programme must be flexible enough to meet the individual needs of students.

4.5 Curriculum evaluation process.

Curriculum evaluation is an essential phase of curriculum development. Through evaluation

a faculty discovers whether a curriculum is fulfilling its purpose and whether students are
actually learning.
Curriculum evaluation is an essential component in the process of adopting and
implementing any new curriculum in any educational setting. Its purpose is to decide
whether or not the newly adopted curriculum is producing the intended results and meeting
the objectives that it has set forth. Another purpose of curriculum evaluation is to gather
data that will help in identifying areas in need of improvement or change.
Why is Curriculum Evaluation Necessary?
There are several parties, or stakeholders, interested in the process and results of
curriculum evaluation.
 Parents are interested because they want to be assured that their children are being
provided with a sound, effective education.
 Teachers are interested because they want to know that what they are teaching in
the classroom will effectively help them cover the standards and achieve the results
they know parents and administration are expecting.
 The general public is interested because they need to be sure that their local schools
are doing their best to provide solid and effective educational programs for the
children in the area.
 Administrators are interested because they need feedback on the effectiveness of
their curricular decisions.
 Curriculum publishers are interested because they can use the data and feedback
from a curriculum evaluation to drive changes and upgrades in the materials they
provide.
Purpose of curriculum evaluation
Educational prepares future generation to take their due place in the society. It becomes
essential that substandard educational goals, materials and methods of instruction are not
retained but up-dated in consonance with the advances in social cultural & scientific field. It
is also important to ascertain how different educational institutions and situations interpret
a given or prescribed curriculum. Hence, arises the need for curriculum evaluation.
Curriculum evaluation monitors and reports on the quality of education. Cronbach (1963)
distinguishes three types of decisions for which evaluation is used.
1. Course Improvement : deciding what instructional material and methods are satisfactory
and where changes are needed.
2. Decisions about individuals : Identifying the needs of the pupil for the sale of planning of
instruction and grouping, acquainting the pupil with his own deficiencies.
3. Administrative regulations : Judging how good the school system is, how good individual
teachers are. The goal of evaluation must be to answer questions of selection, adoption,
support and worth of educational materials and activities. It helps in identifying the
necessary improvements to be made in content, teaching methods, learning experiences,
educational facilities, staff-selection and development of educational objectives. It also
serves the need of the policy makers, administrators and other members of the society for
the information about the educational system.
Objectives of Curriculum Evaluation
1. To determine the outcomes of a programme.
2. To help in deciding whether to accept or reject a programme.
3. To ascertain the need for the revision of the course content.
4. To help in future development of the curriculum material for continuous improvement.
5. To improve methods of teaching and instructional techniques.
Unit 5: Curriculum for students with SLD
5.1 Learning outcomes at elementary stage adapting curriculum to theneeds of students w
ith SLD
5.2. Teaching models – concept attainment model, direct instruction, roleplaying
5.3 Instructional planning – steps
5.4. Pyramid plan
5.5 Curriculum adaptation

5.1
Learning outcomes at elementary stage adapting curriculum to the needs ofstudents with
SLD

Children with learning disabilities begin school expecting to learn and be successful. If your
child is having difficulty in school, she may learn differently from other kids. Parents are
often the first to notice that “something doesn’t seem right.” But sometimes knowing what
to do and where to find help can be confusing.
Children grow up to be adults and unfortunately learning disabilities cannot be cured or
fixed; it’s a life long issue. And some individuals don’t realize they have learning disabilities
until they are adults. With the right support and interventions, however, children and
adults with learning disabilities can succeed in school and life. Recognizing, accepting and
understanding your learning disability are the first steps to success.
Learning disabilities are due to genetic and/or neurobiological factors that alter brain
functioning in a manner which affects one or more cognitive processes related to learning.
The majority of children K-12 who receive special education are served under the specific
learning disability (SLD) category. Approximately 80% of those children have an SLD in
reading.
Learning disabilities range in severity and may interfere with the acquisition and
development of one or more of the following:
 oral language (e.g., listening, speaking, understanding);
 reading (e.g., phonetic knowledge, decoding, reading fluency, word recognition, and
comprehension);
 written language (e.g., spelling, writing fluency, and written expression); and
 mathematics (e.g., number sense, computation, math fact fluency, and problem
solving).
Learning disabilities often run in families. They should not be confused with other
disabilities such as intellectual disabilities, autism, deafness, blindness, and behavioral
disorders. None of these conditions are learning disabilities. Because learning disabilities
cannot be seen, they often go undetected. Recognizing a learning disability is even more
difficult because the severity and characteristics vary.
These approaches, incidentally, can also be helpful for most students who prefer a clear,
structured educational program.
 Ask for a scoring guide. Teachers should develop a scoring guide, share it with
students, and provide models of examples of each level of performance.
 Never use a student's work as a public example of poor work for the class to see.
This is humiliation, and it has no place in any classroom or home.
 Clearly outline the instructions. Lessons should include specific, step-by-step
instructions that are explicitly stated by the teacher and modeled for the student.
  Create models of quality work that students can see and analyze. Include both
spoken and written explanations of how the work fulfills academic expectations.
 Define classroom expectations for work and behavior. Post them, and use them as
a basis of all interactions and class projects. Making your requirements a part of the
classroom or homework routine will help the student meet expectations.
 Have the student repeat back the instructions. Correct any miscommunication
before he begins the actual work. Check back on the student as he works to ensure
he is doing the work correctly. Prompt him as necessary to ensure that he corrects
any mistakes before he finishes.
 Set the stage for learning. Tell children why the material is important, what the
learning goals are, and what the expectations are for quality performance.
 Use graphic organizers. Help students understand the relationships between ideas.
 Use specific language. Instead of saying, "do quality work," state the specific
expectations. For instance, if the teacher is grading based on correct punctuation,
spelling, and the inclusion of specific points, communicate with the teacher and your
child to work on meeting these expectations.

5.2 Teaching models – concept attainment model, direct instruction, role playing

Concept attainment model

The Concept Attainment model is an instructional strategy founded on the works of Jerome
Bruner. Built on the principle of concept formation, the Concept Attainment model
promotes student learning through a process of structured inquiry.
The model helps students to understand and learn concepts by identifying attributes or key
features through a process of analysis, comparison, and contrasting of examples. Two sets
of examples are used in this strategy – Yes (examples that have attributes of the concept)
and No (examples that do not have attributes of the concept) examples.
Concept Attainment Model in Practice
Introduced as a whole-class activity, this instructional strategy can be implemented using
the following steps:
Preparation:
§ Choose a concept with well-defined attributes.
§ Prepare “yes” and “no” examples. Some of the yes examples should have a high attribute
value (meaning it should be a clear representative of the concept)
In the classroom:
§ Introduce and explain the strategy.
§ Draw two columns on the board and title them as “Yes” and “No.”
§ Present each example and write them in the appropriate column. Start with three
examples in each column.
§ Instruct students to analyze and compare the examples, within the group (find similar
attributes in the “yes” group) and between the groups (find how “yes” and “no” examples
differ from each other). Write the attributes listed by the students on the other side of the
board.
§ Add three more examples to each column. Instruct students to refine the attribute list by
analyzing the additional examples.
§ Ask students if they are able to identify the concept, but not to say it out aloud. Students
who have identified the concept can be encouraged to add more “yes” examples to the
column. Encourage other students to examine the student-generated examples to identify
the concept.
§ Teachers can assist by modeling the thought process to help other students identify the
concept. Once identified, help students define it using the list of identified attributes.
§ To test for understanding, have students suggest more “yes” and “no” examples of the
concept with explanations. Or, teachers can present students with examples and instruct
them to categorize them as “yes” or “no”.
Practicing the Strategy
Divide the class into small groups or pairs and provide them with Concept Attainment
Worksheets. (A sample is included at the end.)
Instruct students to find the essential attributes of a concept, identify the concept, and
define it. An additional sheet with random examples can be included which students can be
instructed to categorize. At the end of the session, each group can present and discuss their
findings.
Teachers can combine the Concept Attainment model with the Carousel method, placing
different concept worksheets at different workstations. Each group starts from one
workstation and eventually visits each workstation identifying attributes and recording
them. At the end of the carousel, groups return to their original workstations and using the
information recorded, try to identify and define their concepts. Each group can then present
their concept to the class, teaching using the Concept Attainment model.
The Concept Attainment model serves as a powerful teaching and learning strategy. For
teachers, it is advantageous to use the model to introduce and teach new concepts through
an active, student-centric, inquiry-based approach. Simultaneously, the model as a learning
strategy helps students to:
§ Link past knowledge with new information
§ Critically analyze, compare, and categorize information
§ Examine and understand a concept from multiple perspectives, strengthening
understanding and retrieval of the concept.
Looking at this set of pictures, what theme do you think all the pictures have in common? If
you guessed, 'weather,' you are right. The pictures and text associated with the pictures
(sunny, rainy and cloudy) all have one thing in common - they are symbols and descriptors
of the weather!
That was pretty easy, you may say! Well, that was a very basic and elementary example of
concept attainment.

Concept Attainment is a teaching strategy created by Jerome Bruner that encourages

critical thinking and involves a teacher giving students a group of pictures or words and
asking them to decide what the pictures or words have in common. The concept or common
theme, therefore, is kept from the students so that they can use their critical thinking skills
to figure it out themselves! It really is a fun teaching method and fun for students as well!
Direct instruction
Direct instruction is a teacher-directed teaching method. This means that the teacher stands
in front of a classroom, and presents the information. The teachers give explicit, guided
instructions to the students.
So, isn’t that how everything has always been taught in a classroom? Not entirely.
Nowadays, experimenting in education is “hot”, as teachers find that not all students
benefit from listening to a teacher talk all day, and not all lessons are best taught through
direct instruction. Teachers now match the type of instruction to the task. Using direct
instruction is effective when it suits the skill students have to learn.
The 6 functions (or steps) of direct instruction
Direct instruction doesn’t stop at the teacher explaining a concept. There are 6 steps that
are very important in the process. I’ll briefly describe them below, but if you want to dig
deeper, make sure to read “Teaching Functions”
1. Introduction / review
First, you set the stage for learning. This is the opening of the lesson, and it’s intended to
engage students, get their attention, and activate their prior knowledge.
Build upon a previous lesson, or get an understanding of their background knowledge of the
subject you are about to teach them. To show your students what exactly they have to learn
and what is expected from them, you can give them lesson objectives.
2. Present the new material
Use clear and guided instructions, so students can begin absorbing the new material. The
lesson content should be carefully organized step-by-step, with the steps building on each
other.
In the direct instruction method, you can present new material through a lecture or through
a demonstration.
Lecture method
There are a few essential steps for a lecture to be successful:
1. State the main points of the lecture.
2. Introduce a main organizing idea or theme.
3. Use examples to illustrate each idea.
4. Use repetition to reinforce the main points.
5. Summarize and refer back to the main organizing idea.
But how you go about these steps? This is where the fun comes in, and where every teacher
gets to use their creativity. This is where you get to engage your students. So, if you think a
lecture is boring, you got it all wrong.
Demonstration
Here, the teacher demonstrates the skill or principle in small steps. Visual demonstrations
will engage more students than a pure auditory lecture. This method is often used in science
classes.
3. Guided practice
Here, the teacher and students practice the concept together. The student attempts the skill
with the assistance of the teacher and other students.
The guided practice is conducted by the teacher. The purpose of this step is to guide initial
practice, correct mistakes, reteach (if necessary) and provide sufficient practice so that
students can work independently.
It’s very important to ask good questions to verify your students’ understanding.
4. Feedback and correctives
If students don’t understand the lesson material, the teacher has to correct them and give
feedback. This is also very important in the guided practice, as students have to understand
everything in that phase.
There are 4 types of student responses to questions and actions a teacher should take
depending on the answer.
Student answer Teacher action
Correct, quick, and firm Ask a new question to keep up the pace of the lesson.
Correct, but hesitant Provide encouragement.
Incorrect, but careless Simply correct and move on.
Incorrect and lacking knowledge Provide hints, ask a simpler question, or reteach.
5. Independent practice
After guided practice and receiving the right feedback, students are ready to apply the new
learning material on their own. Independent practice gives the students the repetitions they
need to integrate the new information or skills with previous knowledge or skills.
Independent practice also helps students to become automatic in their use of the skills.
During this phase, students usually go through two stages: unitization and automaticity.
During unitization, the students are putting the skills they’ve learned together and use them
in new situations. As they keep on practicing, students reach the “automatic” stage where
they are successful and rapid, and no longer have to “think through” each step.
6. Evaluation/ review
Check whether your students know everything before moving on to a new concept that
builds upon what they’ve just learned. Collect student data you can review and decide
whether or not the lesson needs to be retaught.
There are much evaluation and reviewing methods, so make sure to pick the right one to
find out data that really means something. Make sure your evaluation says something about
your students’ learning process. Formative assessments are better suited for this.
Direct instruction is a structured, teacher-directed method of instruction. Direct instruction
is recommended especially for instruction of students with learning disabilities. Studies
have shown that a combination of direct instruction can positively influence academic
performance for students with learning disabilities and exceptionalities. DI programs
involve precisely sequenced, scripted fast-paced lessons taught to small groups of 4-10
students with a stress on drill and practice
The Main Features of DI
 Field-tested, scripted lesson plans
 Curriculum based upon the theory of mastery learning
 Rapid pace
 Achievement grouping
 Frequent Assessments

Direct instruction programs are some of the best research-based programs available for
students with learning disabilities (Hallahan & Kauffman & Pullen, 135). Direct instruction
focuses on the specifics of the instructional process. One important piece of DI is using task
analysis. Task analysis is breaking down academic tasks into their component parts, so
teachers can teach those parts separately. Later, the students can be instructed on how to
put those individual parts together in order to demonstrate a skill (Hallahan & Kauffman &
Pullen, 135). Advocates of the DI strategy emphasizes a systematic analysis of the concept
to be taught, as opposed to an analysis of the characteristics of the student.
Role playing
Role-play is a technique that allows students to explore realistic situations by interacting
with other people in a managed way in order to develop experience and trial different
strategies in a supported environment. Depending on the intention of the activity,
participants might be playing a role similar to their own (or their likely one in the future) or
could play the opposite part of the conversation or interaction. Both options provide the
possibility of significant learning, with the former allowing experience to be gained and the
latter encouraging the student to develop an understanding of the situation from the
‘opposite’ point of view.
Advantages of role playing
· Students immediately apply content in a relevant, real world context.
· Students take on a decision making persona that might let them diverge from the
confines of their normal self-imposed limitations or boundaries.
· Students can transcend and think beyond the confines of the classroom setting.
· Students see the relevance of the content for handling real world situations.
· The instructor and students receive immediate feedback with regard to student
understanding of the content.
· Students engage in higher order thinking and learn content in a deeper way.
· Instructors can create useful scenarios when setting the parameters of the role play
when real scenarios or contexts might not be readily available.
· Typically students claim to remember their role in these scenarios and the ensuing
discussion long after the semester ends.
Steps and tips for using role playing
1. Offer a relevent scenario to students. This scenario should include the role the student
must play, the informational details relevant for decision making in this role, and a task to
complete based on the information. This information might be provided on the screen
through power point or by using a handout. It is highly recommended that the instructions
be provided in writing so it is clear to students what they must do and how?
2. Give students five to ten minutes to complete the task. The instructor might have
students do this alone or in small groups or follow the think-pair-share format in which
students work individual and then discuss their results with their partner.
3. Find a way to process student deliberations. The instructor might ask students to write
their replies to submit or this might be a very good lead in to a larger class discussion where
students can justify their differing outcomes or opposing views.
Challenges of the role playing technique
One of the biggest challenges of the role playing technique is to get all students to
participate and be truly engaged. Instructors might want to consider ways of increasing the
likelihood of strong student participation. The instructor might offer a participation grade
somehow tied to a short product students produce from their perspective in their given
role. It is a good idea to find ways to increase student awareness of the likelihood their
group might being called upon to share their answer with the entire class if they are playing
their roles in a group context. The instructor might also consider using some of the role
playing tasks in questions on exams and make it clear to students that that is the case. The
instructor could even tell them that they might have to answer a question from the
perspective of any of the roles, not just the one they were assigned.

5.3 Instructional planning – steps

Instructional planning includes not only planning what students will learn, but how they
will learn it.
Instructional planning, the systematic selection of educational goals and objectives, and
their design for use in the classroom. We will divide this purpose into four parts, and discuss
them one at a time. First is the problem of selecting general goals to teach; where can a
teacher find these, and what do they look like? Second is the problem of transforming goals
into specific objectives, or statements concrete enough to guide daily activity in class; what
will students actually do or say in order to learn what a teacher wants them to learn? The
third is the problem of balancing and relating goals and objectives to each other; since we
may want students to learn numerous goals, how can we combine or integrate them so that
the overall classroom program does not become fragmented or biased? Fourth is the
challenge of relating instructional goals to students’ prior experiences and knowledge.
Planning should include both short-term goals and long-term goals, and for students with
exceptionalities, should address the goals on their Individualized Education Program (IEP).
Instructional plans may include considerations of academic content, assistive or
augmentative technology needs, scaffolded supports, specific teaching strategies, and
adaptations of or modifications to content.
When delivered with fidelity, well-planned instruction is designed to maximize academic
learning time, actively engage learners in meaningful activities, and emphasize proactive
and positive approaches across tiers of instructional intensity.
Specific steps to cover when planning instruction include:
1. Creating a personalized lesson plan calendar. This will help a teacher visualize and
organize instruction.
2. Creating detailed unit lesson plans, which should include objectives, activities, time
estimates, and required materials
3. Planning for students who might be absent during a given lesson
4. Creating assessments, including classwork, homework, and tests
5. Reviewing how the lesson or unit fits into the overall instructional plan for the school
year
6. Writing a daily lesson outline and agenda. The details included will differ depending on
how detailed the teacher wishes to be. At a minimum, the teacher should have an agenda
prepared for herself and her students so that she appears organized and maintains
students' interest. It is very easy to lose student attention if the teacher has to search for a
page she wants students to read or has to fumble through a stack of papers.
7. Creating and/or gathering required items ahead of time. This can include making
handouts, overheads, lecture notes, or manipulatives (learning objects, such as pennies for
counting). If the teacher plans to start each day with a warmup, then he should have this
created and ready to go. If the lesson requires a movie or item from the media center, the
teacher should check out or order the item well ahead of time.

5.4 Pyramid plan

The Pyramid Approach to Education is a comprehensive framework for establishing and

supporting effective learning environments. Designed by Andy Bondy, PhD, and based on
the principles of functional applied behavior analysis (ABA), The Pyramid Approach offers a
solid foundation for those who teach in education, work, home or community settings. This
unique model benefits individuals with developmental differences, autism, communication
challenges and/or other learning complications across all ages.
Maximizing learner outcomes requires not only information about what and how to teach –
it requires a plan to put all the pieces together. The Pyramid Approach provides a clear
guide for everyone on the team to determine what elements to address in a specific order.
Just as building a pyramid begins with establishing a firm foundation before constructing the
body of the building, the Pyramid Approach begins with a strong foundation, relying on a
science-based approach to teaching.
The Pyramid Approach involves a distinction between structural and instructional
components.
The structural elements form the base, creating an environment conducive to learning.
These foundational elements include:
1. Functional Activities
2. Powerful Reinforcement Systems
3. Functional Communication and Social Skills
4. Addressing Contextually Inappropriate Behaviors (CIBs)
The instructional elements form the top of the Pyramid and include information relevant to
the creation of effective lessons. The top elements include:
1. Generalization
2. Lesson Formats
3. Teaching/Prompting Strategies
4. Error Correction (uniquely developed and suited to specific prompting strategies)
All elements involve data-based decision making, requiring both systematic data collection
and analysis. When all of the elements are combined, the approach results in success for
staff, parents and students. By implementing the Pyramid Approach to Education you will
build an effective learning environment that will result in progress and increased
independence.

The Pyramid Approach emphasizes the “why” of learning and “how” to teach rather than
simply “what” to teach, allowing each learner’s program to be individually tailored to meet
their learning goals.
5.5 Curriculum adaptation

Once a learning disability is identified, different kinds of assistance can be provided. In

addition to specialized, explicit types of instruction, child learning Disabilities with
LEARNING DISABILITY are entitled to have accommodations (such as extended time,
readers, and note-takers) or modifications (such as abbreviated tests or alternate
assignments) as appropriate. These guarantees are afforded to child learning Disabilities
with LEARNING DISABILITY by law.
Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1997 and Americans with
Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990, people of all ages with LEARNING DISABILITY—child learning
Disabilities and adults—are protected against discrimination and have a right to different
forms of assistance in the classroom and workplace.
Academics & Organization
· Break learning tasks into small steps.
· Probe regularly to check understanding.
· Provide regular quality feedback.
 Present information visually and verbally.
 Use diagrams, graphics and pictures to support instruction.
 Provide independent practice.
 Model what you want students to do.
 Clearly define and post classroom expectations for work and behavior.
 Explicitly teach study and organizational skills.
 Teach student how to use planner or agenda to record assignments and due dates.
 Provide prompts of strategies to use and when to use them.
 Ask process-type questions such as “How is that strategy working?
 Use Direct Instruction.
 Provide simple instructions (preferably one at a time).
 Sequence slowly, using examples.
 Speak clearly and turn so students can see your face.
 Allow time for students to process requests and allow them to ask questions.
 Use graphic organizers to support understanding of relationships between ideas.
 Use adaptive equipment if appropriate (books on tape, laptop computers, etc.).
 Ask questions in a clarifying manner, then have student describe understanding of
the questions.
 Use an overhead projector with an outline of the lesson or unit of the day.
 Reduce course load.
 Provide clear photocopies of notes and overhead transparencies.
 Provide a detailed course outline before class begins.
 Keep oral instructions logical and concise and reinforce them with brief cue words.
 Repeat or re-word complicated directions.
 Frequently verbalize what is being written on the board.
 At the end of class, summarize the important segments of each presentation.
 Eliminate classroom distractions (e.g. excessive noise, flickering lights, etc.).
 Give assignments both in written and oral form.
 Have more complex lessons recorded and available to the students.
 Have practice exercises available for lessons, in case the student has problems.
 Have student underline key words or directions on activity sheets (then review the
sheets with them).
 Provide and teach memory strategies, such as mnemonic strategies and elaborative
rehearsal.
 Write legibly, use large type, and do not clutter the board.
 Assist the student in borrowing notes from a peer if necessary.
 Clearly label equipment, tools, and materials, and use color-coding.
 Consider alternate activities/exercises that can be utilized with less difficulty for the
student, while maintaining the same or similar learning objectives.
 Review relevant material, preview the material to be presented, present the new
material, and then summarize the material just presented.
 Provide a peer tutor or assign the student to a study group.
 Allow the student to use a tape recorder.
 Use specific language and state expectations.

Reading
 Provide a quiet area for reading activities.
 Use books on tape, and books with large print and big spaces between lines.
 Provide a copy of class notes to student.
 Allow alternative forms for book reports.
 Have students use both visual and auditory senses when reading text.
 Present material in small units.
 Use graphic organizers to connect ideas.
 Read and share stories with students.
 Provide students with chapter outlines or study guides that highlight key points in
their reading.
 Announce reading assignments well in advance.
 Offer to read written material aloud, when necessary.
 Share informational texts and invite students to wonder about the new ideas
presented.
 Point out ways in which reading is important in everyday life (e.g., on labels,
instructions, and signs).
 Teach students how books are organized.
 Use stories that have predictable words and words that occur frequently in the text.
 Label objects in classroom.
 Help students notice the letters in the environmental print that surrounds them.
 Engage students in activities that help them learn to recognize letters visually.
 Teach students to attend to the sounds in language.
 Model and demonstrate how to break short sentences into individual words.
 Have students clap out syllables and listen for and generate rhymes.
 Focus on activities that involve sounds of words, not on letters or spellings.
 Model specific sounds, and ask students to produce each sound in isolation.
 Teach students to blend, identify sounds, and break up words into sounds.
 When teaching the letters of the alphabet, activities should be explicit and
unambiguous.
 When teaching decoding, begin with small, familiar words.
 Model sounding out words, blending the sounds together, and saying the word.
  Have students read new stories and reread old stories every day to build fluency.
 Engage students in discussion of reading topics that are of interest.
 Provide high interest reading selections whenever possible.
 Model comprehension strategies and provide students with guided assistance.
 Point out how titles, headings, and graphics reveal main ideas and tell what a book is
about.
 Teach students to identify main ideas presented in the text, as well as the supporting
details.
 Point out unfamiliar words, revisit them, and explore their meaning.
 Teach students to use contextual clues to figure out meanings of unfamiliar words.
 Build background for reading selections and create a mental scheme for text
organization.
Writing
 Use oral exams in place of written exams when possible.
 Allow use of tape recorder in class.
 Assign a note taker for student.
 Provide notes or outlines to reduce the amount of writing.
 Provide a partially completed outline that allows student to fill in details under major
headings.
 Allow use of a laptop or other computer for writing assignments.
 Provide computer with spell check, grammar, and cut and paste features.
 Reduce copying that the student is required to do (e.g. offer pre-printed math
problems).
 Have wide rule paper, graph paper, and pencil grips available.
 Provide alternatives to written assignments (video-taping or audio recording).
 Use mnemonic devices to teach writing process (e.g. COPS: Capitalization,
Organization, Punctuation, Spelling).
 Teach students spelling conventions systematically, such as the “silent e” rule.
 Allow the student to use print or cursive.
 Teach pre-organization strategies, such as use of graphic organizers.
 Use a speech recognition program combined with the word processor so students
can dictate rather than type (for older students).
 Do not count off for poor spelling on first drafts, in-class assignments, or on tests.
 Have student proofread papers using a checklist (not immediately after writing).
 Shorten writing assignments and allow extra time if necessary.
 Have students complete writing tasks in small steps.
 Stress or de-emphasize certain task requirements during a complex assignment.
 Allow use of abbreviations in writing assignments, and have student keep a list of
appropriate abbreviations available.

Mathematics:
 Allow use of fingers and scratch paper.
 Use diagrams and draw math concepts.
 Present activities that involve all sensory modalities – auditory, visual, tactile, and
kinesthetic.
 Arrange peer assistance and tutoring opportunities.
 Have graph paper available so students can align numbers in math problems.
  Use colored pencils to differentiate problems.
 Offer manipulatives throughout instruction.
 Teach students to draw pictures of word problems.
 Use mnemonic devices to teach steps of a math concept (e.g. order of operations:
“Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally”).
 Use rhythm and music to teach math facts and to set steps to a beat.
 Schedule computer time for drill and practice with math facts.
 Practice new strategies until students are comfortable with them.
 Explain why learning math strategies are important while teaching, and match
strategies with the material.
 Encourage and monitor use of strategies to ensure correct usage and generalization.
 Teach students to understand the problem, develop a plan to solve the problem,
carry out the plan, and look back to be sure the answer solves the problem.
 Use materials such as games for practice, which are interactive and motivational.
 Use distributed practice, meaning practice in small increments (e.g. two 15-minute
sessions per day, rather than an hour session three times a week).
 Use small numbers of math facts per group for mastery, and frequently practice with
mixed groups.
 Emphasize "reverses," or "turnarounds" (e.g., 1+ 2/2 + 1, 1x2/2x1) in vertical,
horizontal, and oral formats.
Testing & Accommodations:
 Avoid overly complicated language in test questions and clearly separate items when
spacing them on the exam sheet.
 Consider other forms of testing (oral, hands-on demonstration, open-book etc.).
 Eliminate distractions while students are taking exams.
 For students who may have difficulty transferring answers, avoid answer sheets.
 Allow student to write answers on the test.
 For students who have reading difficulties, have a proctor read the test to the
student.
 For students with writing difficulties, have someone scribe the answers for them or
use a tape recorder.
 Provide study questions for exams that demonstrate the format along with the
content of the exam.
 Teach students how to proofread assignments and tests.
 Allow students to use a dictionary, thesaurus, or a calculator during tests.
 Develop a scoring guide, share it with students, and provide models of examples of
each level of performance.