Excretion
Biology Notes — Human Excretory System
1. Human Excretory System — Organs
• A pair of Kidneys — Bean-shaped organs responsible for filtering blood.
• A pair of Ureters — Long tubes through which urine is passed from the kidneys to the bladder.
• Urinary Bladder — A muscular bag that stores urine temporarily.
• Urethra — The opening through which urine passes out of the body.
• Blood Vessels — Include the Renal Artery (from Aorta — brings oxygenated blood into the kidney)
and the Renal Vein (carries deoxygenated blood out of the kidney).
2. Structure of the Kidney
Size & Shape: Reddish-brown in colour; ~10 cm tall, 5 cm wide, 2.5 cm thick.
• Fibrous Capsule — Outermost protective covering of the kidney.
• Cortex — Outer zone, reddish in colour.
• Medulla — Inner zone; contains Medullary Pyramids that extend up to Renal Papillae.
• Columns of Bertini — Cortex extending between medullary pyramids.
• Hilum — Notch inside the kidney through which blood vessels, nerves, and ureter enter.
• Renal Pelvis — Funnel-shaped tube inside the Hilum.
• Calyces — Renal papillae project into Minor Calyces; 10–15 minor calyces form Major Calyces.
3. Nephron
Nephron is the structural and functional unit of the kidney.
• 1–1.3 million nephrons in a kidney; helps drain urine into the Renal Pelvis.
• Composed of: Renal Corpuscle + Renal Tubule
3.1 Malpighian Body / Renal Corpuscle
= Bowman's Capsule + Glomerulus
• Bowman's Capsule — Double-walled, cup-like structure of the nephron.
• Glomerulus — A tuft of capillaries invaginated inside Bowman's Capsule.
• Afferent Arteriole — Larger diameter; brings blood into the glomerulus.
• Efferent Arteriole — Shorter diameter; takes blood out of the glomerulus.
3.2 Renal Tubule
PCT (Proximal Convoluted Tubule)
– Coiled network made of single-layered cells.
– Cells have Microvilli → increase surface area for maximum absorption.
– Cells contain Mitochondria → generate ATP for active transport of Na+.
– Cell apices joined via Tight Junctions.
– PCT Convolute → coiled; PCT Recta → straight.
Loop of Henle
– Has 2 limbs: Ascending and Descending.
– Descending limb + 1st part of Ascending limb → made of Simple Squamous Epithelium.
– Thick part of Ascending limb → Simple Cuboidal / Low Columnar Epithelium.
DCT (Distal Convoluted Tubule)
– Fewer microvilli compared to PCT.
– Low cuboidal epithelium.
– Last part of DCT → Simple Cuboidal Epithelium.
– Contains Principle cells & Intercalated cells (part of Collecting Tubule).
Collecting Tubules
– DCTs of different nephrons join together → form Duct of Bellini (Collecting Tubule).
– Principal cells: receptors for ADH & Aldosterone; increase water permeability by increasing
pore sizes; help in Na+ reabsorption.
– Intercalated cells: secrete H+ ions (urine becomes acidic); help in transport of HCO3–.
4. Juxta Glomerular Apparatus (JGA)
Controls the filtration rate. Contains three types of modified cells:
• Macula Densa — Tuft of DCT; sensory arm for Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone; senses Na+
deficiency → releases Renin.
• JG Cells — Afferent arteriole thickens before entering Glomerulus; these thickenings are modified
smooth muscles. Contain Golgi, ER, developed Mitochondria. Have Baroreceptors (sense change in
blood pressure) → release Renin (proteolytic enzyme).
• Mesangial Cells — JGA supporting cells found between capillaries. In contact with both JG cells &
Macula Densa. Functions: structural support to glomerular tuft; communication (secrete soluble
factors); blood-flow regulation by contractility; during hyperactivity → secrete Renin (granulation).
5. Mechanism of Urine Formation
Three main steps:
Step 1: Glomerular Filtration
Blood plasma and dissolved substances (smaller than proteins) get filtered into the glomerular capsule.
Step 2: Tubular Reabsorption
Along the renal tubule, collecting duct — water and ions are reabsorbed from the renal tubule lumen →
Peritubular capillaries → Blood. Can be active or passive. Solutes like glucose, amino acids, urea are
filtered from fluid and sent back to blood.
Step 3: Tubular Secretion
Along the renal tubule and collecting duct — waste, drugs, excess ions (H+, K+, NH4+, creatinine) are
secreted from peritubular capillaries → Renal tubule (urine). Helps remove waste and maintain blood
pH.
6. GFR (Glomerular Filtration Rate) & GF Principle
Works on the principle of pressure. Filtrate produced every minute by Renal Corpuscles of both
kidneys.
• Males GFR → 125 ml/min
• Females GFR → 105 ml/min
High Rate of Filtration due to:
• Large Surface Area — Glomerulus capillaries are very large, regulated by mesangial cells.
• Thin & Porous Membrane — These membranes are 50× more leaky than membranes of other
tissues.
• High Glomerular Blood Pressure — Afferent arterioles have large diameter; efferent arterioles are
very small in diameter → generates high pressure in capillaries.
Net Filtration Pressure (NFP)
Depends on 3 pressures:
• GBHP (Glomerular Blood Hydrostatic Pressure) = 55 mmHg → promotes filtration
• CHP (Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure) = 15 mmHg → opposes filtration
• BCOP (Blood Colloid Osmotic Pressure) = 30 mmHg → opposes filtration (Albumin, Globin in blood
plasma)
NFP = GBHP − BCOP − CHP = 55 − 30 − 15 = 10 mmHg
7. GFR Regulation — 3 Main Mechanisms
(A) Renal Autoregulation
(i) Myogenic Mechanism
BP↑↑ → Renal blood flow↑↑ → Stretches afferent arteriole → Smooth muscle fibres contract → Lumen
gets narrow → Blood flow↓↓ → GFR gets normal.
(ii) Tubuloglomerular Feedback
Feedback provided by Macula Densa cells.
BP↑ → GFR↑ → Loop of Henle & PCT could not reabsorb Na+, Cl– → Macula Densa detects these ions
→ Stimulates JGA to release Nitric Oxide (NO) [vasodilator] / Inhibit → constricts wall of Afferent
arteriole → Blood flow↓↓ → GFR↓↓.
(B) Neural Regulation
Body at rest → Sympathetic stimulation (low) → Renin Autoregulation works.
Body active → Sympathetic fibres release Norepinephrine (vasoconstrictor) → GFR is maintained.
(C) Hormonal Regulation
• Angiotensin II — Powerful vasoconstrictor; constricts both afferent & efferent arterioles → GFR↓↓.
• ANP (Atrial Natriuretic Peptide) — Blood volume↑↑ → Atrial cells stretch → ANP secretion →
Relaxes Mesangial cells → GFR↓↓.
8. Tubular Reabsorption — Routes & Transport
Reabsorption Routes:
• Transcellular Reabsorption — Before passing through lumen of tubule → substances cross apical
membrane of cell → then cytosol → interstitial fluid → basolateral membrane.
• Paracellular Reabsorption — Cellular gap (Tight Junctions) → substances leak passively →
interstitial fluid.
Transport Mechanism:
• Specific transport proteins on apical & basolateral membrane.
• Na+ Transport → Na+/K+ ATPase pump on basolateral membrane → pumps Na+ out; not on apical
membrane.
• Water Absorption → through osmosis.
• Obligatory Water Reabsorption (90%) — water reabsorption occurs in PCT & DCT with solute
reabsorption.
• Facultative Water Reabsorption (10%) — controlled by ADH; water is reabsorbed in collecting
duct.
9. Counter-Current Mechanism & Exchange
Counter-Current Mechanism (Concentration Gradient):
When hyperosmolar fluid moves upward in the thick ascending limb of Loop of Henle → Solute (NaCl)
transferred into medullary interstitium → Water extracted out from descending limb → maintains
hyperosmolarity → energy cost is reduced to remove solutes from thick ascending limb.
Counter-Current Exchange:
Concentration gradient maintained through Vasa Recta.
Microcirculation System of Medulla:
• Traps salts in Renal Medulla.
• Carries only reabsorbed water.
Vasa Recta — Permeable walls:
• Blood flows into medulla → becomes concentrated due to diffusion of medullary salts & urea.
• Blood flowing out of medulla → doesn't carry any of these salts, since they diffuse easily back out of
blood.
End of Notes — Excretion