Physics for Scientists and Engineers

with Modern Physics

Fifth Edition, Global Edition

Chapter 16
Sound

© 2024 Pearson Education Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Units of Chapter 16
• Characteristics of Sound
• Mathematical Representation of Longitudinal Waves
• Intensity of Sound: Decibels
• Sources of Sound: Vibrating Strings and Air Columns
• Quality of Sound, and Noise; Superposition
• Interference of Sound Waves; Beats
• Doppler Effect
• Shock Waves and the Sonic Boom
• Applications: Sonar, Ultrasound, and Medical Imaging
16-1 Characteristics of Sound
Sound can travel through any kind of matter, but not through a
vacuum.

The speed of sound is different in different

materials; in general, it is slowest in gases,
faster in liquids, and the fastest in solids.
The speed depends somewhat on
temperature, especially for gases.
Conceptual Example 16-1: Distance from a lightning strike

A rule of thumb that tells how close lightning has struck is “one
kilometre for every three seconds before the thunder is heard”.
Explain why this works, noting that the speed of light is so high
(3 × 108 ms−1, almost a million times faster than sound) that the
time for light to travel to us is negligible compared to the time for
the sound.
Loudness: related to intensity of the sound wave
Pitch: related to frequency
Audible range: about 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz; upper limit
decreases with age
Ultrasound: above 20,000 Hz; see ultrasonic camera
focusing in following example
Example 16-2: Autofocusing with sound waves.
Autofocusing cameras can use very high frequency (ultrasonic)
sound that is emitted and travels to the object being
photographed. A sensor on the camera detects the returning
reflected sound. To get an idea of the time sensitivity of the
detector, calculate the travel time of the pulse for an object
(a) 1.0 m away;
The pulse travels 2.0 m overall (there and back).
We solve for t thus:
d
t=
v
2.0 m (b) 20 m away.
=
343 ms−1 40 m
= 0.0058 s t=
343 ms−1
= 5.8 ms = 0.12 s
= 120 ms .
16-2 Mathematical Representation of
Longitudinal Waves
Longitudinal waves are also called
pressure waves. The displacement is
90∘ out of phase with the pressure:
By considering a small cylinder within the fluid, we see that
the change in pressure is given by (B is the bulk modulus):

∂D
ΔP = − B
∂x
If the displacement is sinusoidal, we have

D = A sin (k x − ωt)
∂D
ΔP = − B
∂x
∂
= − BA (sin (k x − ωt))
∂x
= − BAk cos (k x − ωt) .

where
B
v=
ρ

and
ω
v=
k
16-3 Intensity of Sound: Decibels

The intensity of a wave is the energy

transported per unit time across a
unit area.

The human ear can detect sounds with

an intensity as low as 10−12 Wm−2 and
as high as 1 Wm−2.

Perceived loudness, however, is not

proportional to intensity.
The loudness of a sound is much more closely related to the
logarithm (base 10) of the intensity.
Sound level is measured in decibels (dB) and is defined as:
I
β (in dB) = 10 log
I0

I0 is taken to be the threshold of hearing:

I0 = 1.0 × 10−12 Wm−2
Example 16-3: Sound intensity on the street.
At a busy street corner, the sound level is 75 dB. What is the
intensity of sound there?

I β
log =
I0 10
I
⇒ = 10 β/10
I0
I = I010 β/10
= (1.0 × 10−12 Wm−2) 107.5

= 3.2 × 10−5 Wm−2 .

An increase in sound level of 3 dB, which is a doubling in intensity,
is a very small change in loudness.
In open areas, the intensity of sound diminishes with distance:

1
I∝ 2
r
However, in enclosed spaces this is complicated by reflections,
and if sound travels through air, the higher frequencies get
preferentially absorbed.
Conceptual Example 16-5: Trumpet players.
A trumpeter plays at a sound level of 75 dB. Three equally
loud trumpeters join in. What is the new sound level?
Example 16-6: Airplane roar.

The sound level measured 30 m from a jet plane is 140 dB. What
is the sound level at 300 m? (Ignore reflections from the ground.)
We proceed with the intensity as before. At 30 m:

( 10−12 Wm−2 )
I
140 dB = 10 log

( 10−12 Wm−2 )
I
14 = log

I
⇒ 1014 =
10−12 Wm−2
⇒ I = 100 Wm−2 .

At 300 m, ten times the distance, and with I ∝ r −2, then

I
Inew =
100
= 1 Wm−2

( 10−12 )
1
β = 10 log = 120 dB .
Example 16-7: How tiny the displacement is.
(a) Calculate the displacement of air molecules for a sound having a
frequency of 1000 Hz at the threshold of hearing.
(b) Determine the maximum pressure variation in such a sound wave.

Threshold of hearing: I = 10−12 Wm−2. For the amplitude:

1 I
A=
πf 2ρv

1 10−12
= 3 −1
10 π s 2 (1,29 kg.m−3) (343 ms−1)

= 1.1 × 10−11 m .

It’s a pressure wave, so,

ΔPM = 2πρvA f
= 2π (1.29 kg.m−3) (343 ms−1) (1.1 × 10−11 m) (103 s−1)

= 3.1 × 10−5 Pa .
The intensity can be written in terms of the maximum pressure
variation. With some algebraic manipulation, we find:

I = 2π 2vρf 2 A 2

( 2πρvf )
2
2 2
ΔPM
= 2π vρf

(ΔPM)
2

=
2vρ
The ear’s sensitivity varies with frequency. These curves
translate the intensity into sound level at different
frequencies.
16-4 Sources of Sound: Vibrating Strings and
Air Columns

Musical instruments produce sounds in various ways—

vibrating strings, vibrating membranes, vibrating metal or
wood shapes, vibrating air columns.
The vibration may be started by plucking, striking, bowing, or
blowing. The vibrations are transmitted to the air and then to
our ears.
This table gives frequencies
for the octave beginning with
middle C. The equally
tempered scale is designed
so that music sounds the
same regardless of what key
it is transposed into.
This figure shows the first three standing waves, or
harmonics, on a fixed string.
The strings on a guitar
can be effectively
shortened by fingering,
raising the fundamental
pitch.
The pitch of a string of
a given length can also
be altered by using a
string of different
density.
Example 16-8: Piano strings.
The highest key on a piano corresponds to a frequency about
150 times that of the lowest key. If the string for the highest note
is 5.0 cm long, how long would the string for the lowest note have
to be if it had the same mass per unit length and was under the
same tension?
As v = FT /μ , the velocity is the same on each string, so the frequency is
inversely proportional to the length l of the string. ( f = v/λ = v/2l)
So we write the ratios, lL fH
=
lH fL
lH fH
⇒ lL =
fL
= 150 × 5.0 cm
= 750 cm .
This, er, is a bit long, especially for an upright… The strings in the lowest
register of the piano are made heavier than those in the highest.
Example 16-9: Frequencies and wavelengths in the violin.
A 0.32 m long violin string is tuned to play A above middle C at
440 Hz.
(a) What is the wavelength of the fundamental string vibration?
λ = 2l = 2 × 0.32 m = 0.64 m = 64 cm

(b) What are the frequency and wavelength of the sound wave
produced?
v 343 ms−1
A: 440 Hz λ= = = 0.78 m = 78 cm
f 440 Hz
(c) Why is there a difference?
The sound waves from
vibrating strings need to be
amplified in order to be of a
practical loudness; this is done
in acoustical instruments by
using a sounding board or box,
creating a resonant chamber.
The sound can also be
amplified electronically.
Wind instruments create sound through standing waves in a
column of air.
A tube open at both ends (most wind instruments) has
pressure nodes, and therefore displacement antinodes,
at the ends.
A tube closed at one end (some organ pipes) has a displacement
node (and pressure antinode) at the closed end.
Example 16-10 Organ pipes

What will be the fundamental frequency and first three overtones for a
26 cm long organ pipe at 20∘ C if it (a) open, and (b) closed.

v 343 ms−1
For the open pipe… f1 = = = 660 Hz
2l 2 × 0.26 m

Overtones: 1320 Hz, 1980 Hz, …

v 343 ms−1
Closed? f1 = = = 330 Hz
4l 4 × 0.26 m
This time, only odd harmonics produce overtones: 990 Hz, 1650 Hz, …
16-5 Quality of Sound, and Noise; Superposition

So why does a trumpet sound

different from a flute? The
answer lies in overtones—which
ones are present, and how
strong they are, makes a big
difference. The sound wave is
the superposition of the
fundamental and all the
harmonics.

In music, this is called timbre or colour.

This plot shows frequency spectra for a clarinet, a piano,
and a violin. The differences in overtone strength are
apparent.
16-6 Interference of Sound Waves; Beats

Sound waves interfere in the same way

that other waves do in space.
Example 16-12 Loudspeakers’ interference

Two loudspeakers are 1.00 m apart. A person stands 4.00 m from one
speaker. How far must this person be from the second speaker to detect
destructive interference when the speakers emit a sound of 1150 Hz.?
Assume the temperature is 20∘C.
To “hear” destructive interference, the person must stand one-half wavelength to one
speaker closer to the other: the distance of 4.00 m ± λ/2. So,
v
λ=
f
343 ms−1
=
1150 Hz
= 0.30 m .
λ /2 = 0.15 m
⇒ d = 3.85 m, or
= 4.15 m .
Waves can also interfere in time, causing a phenomenon
called beats. Beats are the slow “envelope” around two
waves that are relatively close in frequency.
If we consider two waves of the same amplitude and phase,
with different frequencies, we can find the beat frequency
when we add them:

[ ( 2 ) ] ( 2 )
f1 − f2 f1 + f2
D = 2A cos 2π t sin 2π t.

This represents a wave vibrating at the average frequency,

with an “envelope” at the difference of the frequencies.
Example 16-13: Beats.
A tuning fork produces a steady tone of 494 Hz. When this tuning
fork is struck and held near a vibrating guitar string, twenty beats are
counted in five seconds. What are the possible frequencies produced
by the guitar string?

The beat frequency is

fbeat = 20 vibs/5 s = 4 Hz
The other frequency is then 490 or 498 Hz.
16-7 Doppler Effect

The Doppler effect occurs when a source of sound is moving

with respect to an observer.
A source moving toward an observer appears to have a
higher frequency and shorter wavelength; a source moving
away from an observer appears to have a lower frequency
and longer wavelength.
If we can figure out what the
change in the wavelength is, we
also know the change in the
frequency.
 The change in the frequency is given by:

−1

( vsound )
vobs
f′ = 1 − f.

If the source is moving away from the observer:

−1

( vsound )
vobs
f′ = 1 + f.


If the observer is moving with respect to the source,
things are a bit different. The wavelength remains the
same, but the wave speed is different for the observer.
 We find, for an observer moving toward a stationary source:

( vsound )
vobs
f′ = 1 + f.

And if the observer is moving away:

( vsound )
vobs
f′ = 1 − f.


 Example 16-14: A police siren.
The siren of a police car at rest emits at a predominant frequency of
1600 Hz.
(a) What frequency will you hear if you are at rest and the police car
moves at 25.0 ms−1 toward you?
−1
The car is moving towards you:
( vsound )
v
f′ = 1 − obs f

( 343 )
−1
25.0
= 1− × 1600 Hz = 1726 Hz .

(b) What frequency do you hear if you drive 25.0 ms−1 toward the
police car which is at rest?

( vsound )
vobs
You are moving towards the car: f′ = 1+ f

( 343 )
25.0
= 1+ × 1600 Hz = 1717 Hz