NERVOUS SYSTEM and SENSORY

ORGANS

MODULE 7
 Learning outcomes
• Define related concepts
• Describe the anatomical organization of
the nervous system
• List the basic functions of the nervous
system
• Identify and describe the parts of a neuron
• Distinguish between white and gray matter
• Describe the structure and function of the
meninges
 Learning outcomes continue
• Explain the formation composition, flow
and function of cerebrospinal fluid
• Describe the structure, function and
location of the major parts of the brain
• Describe the locations and functions of the
sensory, association and motor areas of
the cerebral cortex
• Describe the gross structure and functions
of the spinal cord
 Learning outcomes cont…..
• Identify and describe the spinal nerves
according to their location and functions
• Outline the function of a nerve plexus
• Identify the cranial nerves by names,
number, and types and give the function of
each
• Describe the major responses of the body
to stimulation by the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous system
 Learning outcomes continue..
• Compare the somatic and autonomic nervous
system
• Describe the conditions necessary for a
sensation to occur
• List the types of sensory receptors
• Describe the structures, location,
mechanisms (physiology) and functions of
the sensory organs
• List the diseases associated with the nervous
system and sensory organs
 Concepts
Axons
• A long process of a nerve cell that
propagates nerve impulse toward the axon
terminals
Aphasia
• Loss of ability to express oneself properly
through speech or loss of verbal
comprehension
Hemiplegia
• Paralysis of the upper limb, trunk, and lower
limb on one side of the body
 Concepts
Gray matter
• Areas in the central nervous system and ganglia
containing neuronal cell bodies, dendrites,
unmyelinated axons, axon terminals, and
neuroglia.
Cerebral cortex
The surface of the cerebral hemisphere, consisting
of grey mater: arranged in six layer of neuronal cell
bodies in most area
Concussion
• Traumatic injury to the brain that produces no
visible bruising but may result in abrupt,
temporally loss of consciousness
 Concepts
Cranial nerves
• Are 12 pairs of nerves that leave the brain:
pass through foramina in the skull: supply
sensory and motor neurons to the head,
neck, part of the trunk, and viscera of the
thorax and abdomen.
 Concepts

Cerumen
• Waxlike secretion produced by
ceruminous glands in the external auditory
meatus that secretes cerumen (ear wax)
Auditory ossicles
• The three small bones of the middle ear
called the malleus, incus, and stapes
Analgesia
• Pain relief: absence of the sensation of
pain
 Concepts
Nerve
• A cordlike bundle of neuronal axons and/ or
dendrites and associated connective tissue
coursing together outside the central nervous
system
Neuroglia
• Cells of the nervous system that perform
various supportive functions
Olfaction
• Sense of smell
 Concepts
Paraplegia
• Paralysis of both lower limbs
Neuron
• A nerve cell, consisting of a cell body,
dendrites, and an axon
Myelin sheath
• Multilayered lipid and protein covering,
formed by Schwann cells and
oligodendrocytes, around axons of many
peripheral and central nervous system
 Concepts
Neuralgia
• Attacks of pain along the entire course or
branch of a peripheral sensory nerve
Paralysis
• Loss or impairment of motor function due to a
lesion of nervous or muscular origin
Neurology
• The study of the normal functioning and
disorders of the nervous system
 Concepts
Sensation
• A taste of awareness of external or internal
conditions of the body
Spinal cord
• A mass of nerve tissue located in the
vertebral canal from which 31 pairs of nerves
originate
White matter
• Aggregations or bundles of myelinated and
unmylinated axons located in the brain and
spinal cord
 Concepts
• Gustation- the sense of test
• Vision- the act of seeing.
• Cerebral palsy-is a neurological disorder
caused by a non progressive brain injury or
malformation that occurs while the child`s
brain is underdevelopment.
• Contusion- any various degrees of bruising
of the brain resulting from head injury.
• Cerebral oedema- swelling of the brain
tissue
 Concepts
• Sound waves- a travelling waves in which
oscillation of pressure is transmitted through a
solid, liquid or gas, composed of frequencies
within the range of hearing

• Hydrocephalus- an abnormal increase in the

amount of cerebrospinal fluid within the
ventricles of the brain.
• Vagotomy- the surgical cutting of any of the
branches of the vagus nerve.
• Craniotomy- surgical removal of a portion of the
skull, performed to expose the brain.
 Introduction
Nervous system is one of the smallest and
yet the most complex of the body systems.
This network have billions of neurons and
Neuroglia.
Organized into two main subdivisions:
 Central nervous system
 Peripheral nervous system
These are essential structures and are both
well protected from damage and injury
Anatomical Organization of the
nervous system
 Central Nervous System (CNS)
• Consist of : Brain and Spinal cord
• The brain is located in the skull
• Contain 100 billion neurons

• Spinal cord is connected to brain through the

foramen of magnum of the occipital bone.
• Encircled by the vertebral column.
• Contain 100 million neurons
 Peripheral Nervous System(PNS)
Nervous structures outside the brain and spinal
cord
 Sensory (afferent)
– Senses
– Internal environment
 Motor (efferent)
– Somatic
– Autonomic
• Sympathetic
• Para Sympathetic
 Peripheral Nervous System(PNS)
• Nerves allow the CNS to receive
information and take action
• Functional components of the PNS
– Sensory inputs and motor outputs
categorized as somatic or visceral
– Sensory inputs also classified as
general or special
Peripheral Nervous System(PNS)
 Peripheral Nervous System(PNS)
• Includes:
Cranial nerves (12 pairs)
Spinal nerves (31 pairs)
• Also includes sensory receptors in skin
and wall of gut tube as well as in tendons
and skeletal muscles.
 Basic functions of nervous system

• Sensory function

• Integrative function

• Motor function
Sketch of a neuron (page 451)
Myelin Sheath Formation
 Most neuron has three parts
• Dendrites
– branched appendages that receive stimuli
• Cell Body (soma)
– location of organelles, and Nissl bodies
– Has neurofibril composed of bundles of
filaments and microtubules which assist in
moving material
• Axon
– long extension of the cell body, that can
branch many times which sends the
electrical impulse to other cells in the body
Difference between white and gray matter
White matter
• Composed of myelinated axons
• White and glistening
• Three funiculi (columns)
Gray matter
• It appears greyish
• unmylinated
• Contains neuronal cell bodies,dendrietes,,axon
terminals and Neuroglia.
• Three horns
white and gray matter continue..
 Meninges
The brain and spinal cord are surrounded
by three protective connective layers of
tissue.
1. Dura mater – outer, thick strong layer,
composed of dense, irregular connective
tissue.
2. Arachnoid mater – middle, thin avascular
layer, arranged with collagen and elastic
fibers.
3. Pia mater – inner layer with transparent
connective tissue.
 Meninges continue
• Between the Dura mater and the Arachnoid
mater there is a thin space called: Subdural
space, which contains interstitial fluid.

• Between the Arachnoid mater and Pia mater

there is a space called Subarachnoid space,
which contains shock-absorbing cerebrospinal
fluid.
Meninges
Spinal Cord
 Cerebrospinal fluid(CSF)
• CSF is a clear, colorless, liquid composed
primarily of water.
• CSF is secreted into each ventricle of the
brain by choroid plexuses
• Protects the brain and spinal cord from
chemical and physical injuries.
• It also carries small amount of oxygen,
glucose and other needed chemicals from
the blood to neurons and Neuroglia.
• The total volume of CSF is 80 – 150 ml in an
adult.
 Formation of CSF in the ventricles
• CSF production is from the choroid plexuses
• Networks of blood capillaries in the walls of
the ventricles.
• Ependymal cells joined by tight junctions
cover the capillaries of the choroid plexuses
• Selected substances from the blood plasma
are filtered from the capillaries
• Secreted by the Ependymal cells to produce
the cerebrospinal fluid.
 Formation of CSF in the ventricles
• Materials entering CSF from choroid capillaries
cannot leak between these cells, in stead they
pass through Ependymal cells.
• Blood –Brain Barrier (BBB) permit certain
substances, while excluding others.
• Protecting the brain and spinal cord from
harmful substances
 Circulation of CSF
• CSF formed in the choroid plexuses of each lateral
ventricles flows
• Through two narrow, oval openings the
interventricular foramina into
• The third ventricle
• More CSF is added by choroid plexuses in 3rd
ventricle than
• Through the aqueduct of the midbrain(cerebral
aqueduct) into
• The fourth ventricle ,more fluid is added
• Than flow through a single median aperture and
paired lateral apertures
 Circulation of CSF continue..
• Enters the subarachnoid space in the central
canal for circulation.
• CSF is then gradually reabsorbed into the
blood through Arachnoid villi.
• To superior sagittal sinus
 Functions of CSF
Mechanical protection
• CSF serve as a shock-absorbing medium that
protects tissues of the brain and spinal cord.
Homeostatic function
• Homeostatic controls for brain tissue
Circulation
• Medium for exchange of nutrients and waste
products
 Major parts of the brain
The brain is a large organ weighing around
1.4 kg, lies within the cranial cavity
[Link]
[Link] diencephalon
– Thalamus
– Hypothalamus
[Link] brain stem
– Mid brain
– Pons
– Medulla oblongata
[Link]
 Brain structures
cerebellum
Cerebrum

Diencephalon

Brain stem
Brain structures
 Brain Stem
Comprised of the Pons and the medulla
oblongata
Clusters of neurons (brain centers) in regions of
the Pons and medulla control the basic life
functions:
– heart rate
– blood pressure
– breathing rate
– Control reflex for
vomiting,swallowing,sneezing, coughing and
hiccupping.
– Medulla contains nuclei that are components
of sensory pathways for taste, hearing, and
equilibrium.
 The cerebellum
• The second largest part of the brain
• Makes up 11% of the brain’s mass
• Contains nearly half of the neurons in the brain.
• Protrudes under the occipital lobes of the cerebrum
• Modifies the motor information leaving the motor
cortex
– provides precise timing and appropriate patterns
of skeletal muscle contraction to maintain
balance and coordination
• Cerebellar activity occurs subconsciously
 Cerebrum-seat of intelligence
• The largest part of the brain.
• Provides us with the ability to read, write ,speak,
make calculation, compose music, remember the
past and plan for the future
• It consists of an outer cerebral cortex, an internal
region of cerebral white matter and gray matter.
• The cortical region rolls and folds on itself and
make folds which are called gyri
• The deepest grooves between folds are called
fissures.
• The shallow grooves are called sulci
 Cerebrum continue..
• Cerebrum is divided into two
hemispheres, each of which is divided
into four lobes.
• Longitudinal Fissure – Divides the two
Cerebral Hemispheres
• Transverse Fissure – Separates the
Cerebrum from the Cerebellum
• Sylvian/Lateral Fissure – Divides the
Temporal Lobe from the Frontal and
Parietal Lobes
Cerebrum continue
cerebrum
Functional areas of the cerebral cortex
Sensory areas
• Receive and decode sensory impulses or
enabling sensory perception.
Motor areas
• Direct skeletal (voluntary) muscle movements.
Association areas
• Concern with integration and processing of
complex mental functions
• Such as intelligence,
memory,reasoning,judgement and emotions
Sensory areas of the cerebral cortex

• The somatosensory
(pain,temp,touch,mascular movement)
• The auditory (hearing)
• The olfactory (smell)
• The taste
• The visual
 Motor areas of the cerebral cortex
Primary motor area
• This lies in the frontal lobe immediately
anterior to the central sulcus and they control
skeletal muscle activity

Motor speech (Broca’s) area

• This is situated in the frontal lobe just above
the lateral sulcus and controls the muscle
movements needed for speech
Association areas of the cerebral cortex
• They receive, coordinate and interpret impulses
from sensory and motor cortices permitting
higher cognitive abilities
• Premotor area- ensure that learned patterns of
movement can be repeated
• Prefrontal area- intellectual functions is control
in this area e.g. anticipate consequences of
events
• Sensory speech (wernicke’s)- spoken words is
perceived, understanding of language
• Parieto-occipitotemporal- interpreting written
language, memory from past experience.
 The Diencephalon
• It consists of thalamus, hypothalamus and
epithalamus.
• Thalamus is the principal relay station for
sensory impulses from other parts of the brain.
[Link],pain auditory impulses,etc. and as well
as maintaining consciousness.
• The hypothalamus control many body activities
and regulate homeostasis e.g. smell, or somatic
and visceral.
• Epithalamus promote sleep through pineal gland.
Structures and function of the spinal cord
• The spinal cord is attached to the brain and
extends to the lumbar region of the vertebral
column
• It has meninges and CSF
• Functions include:
– integration of basic stimuli presented to the
body below the neck through simple reflexes
• withdrawal reflex in response to pain
– sending sensory and motor information to and
from the brain
 Reflex
• There are five components of a reflex arc
– Receptor
• detect stimulus
– Sensory neuron
• transmits the afferent impulse to the CNS
– Integration (control) center
• region within the CNS where synapses
(processing of sensory info) occur
– Motor neuron
• sends efferent information to an effector
– Effector
• muscle fiber or gland that responds to the
efferent impulse
• the activity of the effector depends upon the
magnitude of the stimulus
 Spinal cord
• Dorsal (posterior) horns (left and right)
– sensory information enter the cord on the dorsal
aspect where they synapse with interneurons or
motor neurons
– extend into dorsal roots and ganglia (group of cell
bodies outside the CNS)
• Ventral (anterior) horns (left and right)
– motor information exits the cord on the ventral
aspect where they control effectors (muscle or
glands)
– extend into motor roots
• Dorsal and ventral roots merge together to form
spinal nerves
Spinal cord continue…
Structure of the nerve
 Spinal nerves
• 31 pairs – contain thousands of nerve fibers
• Connect to the spinal cord
• Named for point of issue from the spinal
cord
–8 pairs of cervical nerves (C1–C8)
–12 pairs of thoracic nerves (T1–T12)
–5 pairs of lumbar nerves (L1–L5)
–5 pairs of sacral nerves (S1–S5)
–1 pair of coccygeal nerves (Co1)
Spinal nerves
 Nerve plexus
• Nerve plexus – a network of nerves
• Ventral rami (except T2 – T12)
– Branch and join with one another
– Form nerve plexuses
• Cervical
• Brachial
• Lumbar
• Sacral
• Coccygeal plexus
 Function of nerve plexus
Cervical plexus- innervate muscles of the
anterior neck
Brachial plexus-Supply the skin and muscles
of the upper limb and the chest muscles
Lumbar plexus- Supply muscle of the lower
abdomen and anterior thigh
Sacral plexus- Supply muscles and skin of the
pelvic floor, hip joint and pelvic organ
Coccygeal plexus- Supply the skin around the
coccyx and anal area
 Cranial nerves
• Attach to the brain and pass through foramina of
the skull
• Numbered from I–XII
• Cranial nerves I and II attach to the forebrain
– All others attach to the brain stem
• Primarily serve head and neck structures
– The vagus nerve (X) extends into the abdomen
The 12 Pairs of Cranial Nerves
 Cranial nerve continue
• Olfactory Nerves (I)- Sensory nerves of smell
• Optic Nerve (II) -Sensory nerve of vision
• Oculomotor Nerve (III) - Innervates four of the
extrinsic eye muscles.
• Trochlear Nerve (IV) - Innervates the superior
oblique muscle (an extrinsic eye muscle)
• Trigeminal Nerve (V)
- Provides sensory innervation to the face
-Motor innervation to chewing muscles
• Abducens Nerve (VI)- Abducts the eyeball –
innervates lateral rectus muscle
 Cranial nerve continue…
• Facial Nerve (VII) - Innervates muscles of facial
expression
• Vestibulocochlear Nerve (VIII) - Sensory nerve of
hearing and balance
• Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX) - Innervates structures
of the tongue and pharynx
• Vagus Nerve (X) - A mixed sensory and motor nerve -
“Wanders” into thorax and abdomen
• Accessory Nerve (XI) - An accessory part of the vagus
nerve -innervates trapezius muscle
• Hypoglossal Nerve (XII)- Runs inferior to the tongue -
innervates the tongue muscles
 Comparison between the somatic and
autonomic nervous system
Motor division
• made of efferent neurons control the action of effectors
– somatic
• motor neurons send APs to voluntary skeletal
muscle
– Visceral
• motor neurons send APs to involuntary cardiac
muscle, smooth muscle and glands
–the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
• Sympathetic
• Parasympathetic
–the two divisions control the same effectors
(with few exceptions) but create opposite
responses in the effectors
Division vs. Autonomic Nervous Division
 Sympathetic nervous systems
(fight and flight response)
• Pupils of eyes dilate
• Increases heart rate and blood pressure
• Airways dilate
• Blood vessels dilate
• Glycogenolysis takes place in liver
• Release of glucose by liver
• Processes not essential are inhibited
Parasympathetic nervous system (rest and
digest response)
• Allow digestion of food
• Decrease body functions that support physical
activities
• SLUDD response increased
• Salivation
• Lacrimation
• Urination
• Digestion
• Defecation
• Decrease heart rate, bronchoconstriction and
constriction of pupils
 Conditions for sensation to occur

• A stimulus
• Sensory receptor must convert stimulus
• Nerve impulse must be conducted along a
neural pathway
• Region of the brain must receive and
integrate the nerve impulse
 Sensory receptors
• Photoreceptors
• Mechanoreceptors
• Thermoreceptors
• Osmoreceptors
• Chemoreceptors
• Nocireceptors
• Exterocepters
• Interoceptors
• Proprioceptors
 Sensory organs
 Eyes
 Light is reflected into the eyes by objects within the
field of vision.
 Refraction (bent) of the light rays
 The brain perceive the object the right way up
 The lens direct the light ray to the retina
 Changing the size of the pupils
 For clear vision pupils control the light ray
 With bright light it constrict, dim light dilate
 Accomodation or adjustment of the lens for near
vision
 Near vision
 distantvision
 Sensory organs
Ears
 Every sound produces sound waves or
vibrations in the air.
 Auricles collects and direct waves to the auditory
canal.
 Tympanic membrane vibrations are transmitted
and amplified through the middle ear by
movement of ossicles at the stapes
 The pressure is transmitted into the cochlear
duct.
 This causes wave motion in the endolymp,
 The ear continue..
 Resulting in vibration of the basilar
membrane and stimulation of the auditory
receptors in the hair cells of the spiral
organ
 The nerve impulses generated pass to the
brain in the cochlear potion of the
vestibulocochlear nerve
• The Vestibulocochlear nerve transmits the
impulses to the auditory nuclei in the medulla
 Sensory organs
Nose (sense of smell)
 All odorous materials give off volatile molecules
which are carried in the nose.
 Inhaled air dissolve in mucus,stimulating the
olfactory chemoreceptors.
 Air entering is warmed and convection currents
carry eddies of inspired air to the roof of nasal
cavity (sniffing).-olfactory nerve- temporal lobe -
cerebrum
 This increase the number of olfactory receptors
and perception of smell.
 The sense of smell and taste are closely related
 Sensory organs
 Tongue (sense of taste)
 Chemicals that stimulate gustatory receptors are
known as tastants.
 Once dissolved in saliva it can make contact with the
plasma membrane.
 Gustatory hairs are the sites of taste transduction
 Resulting to receptor potensial stimulating exocytosis
of synaptic vesicles from the gustatory receptor cells.
 In turn neurotransmitter molecules trigger nerve
impulses in the first order sensory neurons that
synapse with gustatory receptors
 The receptor potential arises differently for different
tastants e.g. Sodium ions in salty food
 Other tastants responsible for stimulating:
sweets,bitter do not enter gustatory receptor cells
 Sensory organs
Skin
 Sensation is the conscious or sub conscious
awareness of changes in the external or
internal environment.
 Sensory modalities: general senses (somatic
and visceral) and special senses
 Diseases associated with the nervous
system and sensory organs
• See, Waugh chapter 7, page 179- 189