6/10/26, 12:00 AM CSCA Math — Unit 2: Functions

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CSCA WITH WADAH · 2026 EDITION

Unit 2
Functions
Deep theory · Worked examples · All past exam questions mapped
Mar 2026 · Jan 2026 · Apr 2026 · Dec 2025

Lesson 2.1 Lesson 2.2 Lesson 2.3

Domain, Range & Concepts Parity — Odd & Even Monotonicity & Inverse

Lesson 2.4 Lesson 2.5 Lesson 2.6

Exponential & Log Functions Trigonometric Functions Sequences

Search topics, formulas, past questions…

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6/10/26, 12:00 AM CSCA Math — Unit 2: Functions
[Link] · mathematics · unit 2

▲ Top 2.1 Domain 2.2 Parity 2.3 Monotonicity 2.4 Exp & Log 2.5 Trig 2.6 Sequences

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f(x)
UNIT 02 · CSCA MATHEMATICS 2026

Functions
The largest unit on the exam. Functions appear in almost every question — understanding
domain, parity, monotonicity, inverses, exponential/logarithmic behavior, trigonometry,
and sequences is essential. Every concept is explained deeply with the underlying
reasoning, not just the formula.

Domain & Range Odd & Even Functions Monotonicity Inverse Functions

Exponential Functions Logarithmic Functions Log Properties

Trigonometric Functions Trig Identities Half-Angle Formulas

Arithmetic Sequences Geometric Sequences General Term & Sums

Lesson 2.1 Domain & Range — Finding Where Functions Live

What Is the Domain?

The domain is the complete set of all x-values for which a function produces a valid real
number output. Think of it as the "allowed inputs." Every restriction comes from a
mathematical reason — you must identify all restrictions and combine them.

THE FOUR SOURCES OF DOMAIN RESTRICTIONS

1. Even roots (√, ⁴√, …) — radicand must be ≥ 0

y = √(x−1) → x−1 ≥ 0 → x ≥ 1 → domain: [1, +∞)

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2. Denominator — cannot equal zero

y = 1/(x+1) → x+1 ≠ 0 → x ≠ −1 → domain: (−∞,−1) ∪ (−1,+∞)

3. Combined: 1/√(expression) — must be strictly positive (both rules apply)

y = 1/√(x+1) → x+1 > 0 (not ≥ 0!) → x > −1 → domain: (−1, +∞)

4. Logarithm — argument must be strictly positive

y = ln(x−3) → x−3 > 0 → x > 3 → domain: (3, +∞)

CRITICAL DISTINCTION — ODD ROOTS HAVE NO RESTRICTION

The cube root ³√x and all other odd roots are defined for every real number, including
negatives and zero.
³√(−8) = −2 ✓ ³√0 = 0 ✓ ³√(x+1) is defined for all x ∈ ℝ

Only even roots (√, ⁴√, ⁶√, …) require the radicand ≥ 0.

When Multiple Restrictions Combine

When a function has more than one restriction, find what each requires separately, then
take the intersection (AND condition — must satisfy all).

WORKED EXAMPLE — F(X) = 1/X + √ (1−X) (JAN 2026 Q5)

1 From 1/x: denominator ≠ 0 → x ≠ 0

2 From √(1−x): even root → 1−x ≥ 0 → x ≤ 1
3 Combine (AND): x ≤ 1 AND x ≠ 0 → (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, 1]

WORKED EXAMPLE — Y = 1/ √ (X+1) (DEC 2025 Q4)

1 Inside the root: x+1 ≥ 0 → x ≥ −1

2 But it's also a denominator: x+1 ≠ 0 → x ≠ −1
3 Combining both: x > −1 (strict) → (−1, +∞)

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4 Why not [−1, +∞)? At x=−1: √(0) = 0, then 1/0 is undefined. So −1 is excluded.

WORKED EXAMPLE — Y = 1/LG|X−5| (APR 2026 Q42)

1 lg is log₁₀: argument must be > 0 → |x−5| > 0 → x ≠ 5

2 Denominator ≠ 0: lg|x−5| ≠ 0 → |x−5| ≠ 1 → x−5 ≠ ±1 → x ≠ 4 and x ≠ 6
3 All exclusions: x ≠ 4, 5, 6 → (−∞,4) ∪ (4,5) ∪ (5,6) ∪ (6,+∞)

WORKED EXAMPLE — Y = F(X²−1) WHEN F HAS DOMAIN (−1,0) (APR 2026 Q36)

1 The argument x²−1 must land inside the domain of f, which is (−1, 0).
2 So: −1 < x²−1 < 0
3 Left inequality: x²−1 > −1 → x² > 0 → x ≠ 0
4 Right inequality: x²−1 < 0 → x² < 1 → −1 < x < 1
5 Combine: (−1 < x < 1) AND (x ≠ 0) → (−1,0) ∪ (0,1)

⚠ COMMON MISTAKES — DOMAIN

✗ Domain of y = 1/√(x+1) is [−1, +∞)

✓ Correct: (−1, +∞) — strict open bracket
At x = −1 the denominator becomes 1/0 which is undefined. When a square root is in the
denominator, the condition upgrades from ≥ 0 to > 0.

✗ Domain of ³√(x+1) is [−1, +∞) (treating it like a square root)

✓ Correct: (−∞, +∞) — all real numbers
Cube roots (and all odd roots) are defined for every real number. ³√(−8) = −2. Only even roots
require non-negative arguments.

✗ For y = 1/lg|x−5|, only excluding x = 5

✓ Must also exclude x = 4 and x = 6 (where lg|x−5| = lg(1) = 0)

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The denominator lg|x−5| = 0 when |x−5| = 1, giving x = 4 or x = 6. These make the denominator
zero — both must be excluded.

📋 PAST EXAM QUESTIONS — LESSON 2.1: DOMAIN

Mar 2026 · Q4

The domain of f(x) = (1−x)/(1+x) is:

A (−∞,−1) ∪ (−1,+∞)

B (−∞,0) ∪ (0,+∞)

C ℝ (all real numbers)

D (−∞,1) ∪ (1,+∞)

Dec 2025 · Q4

The domain of y = 1/√(x+1) is:

A [−1, +∞)

B (−1, +∞)

C (0, +∞)

D (−∞, −1)

Dec 2025 · Q20

The domain of y = √(x−1) is:

A [1, +∞)

B (1, +∞)

C (−∞, 1]

D (−∞, 1)

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Jan 2026 · Q5

The domain of f(x) = 1/x + √(1−x) is:

A (−∞, 1]

B (−∞,0) ∪ (0,1)

C (−∞,0) ∪ (0,1]

D [1, +∞)

Apr 2026 · Q5

The domain of f(x) = ³√(x+1) is:

A (−∞, 0]

B (−∞, +∞)

C [1, +∞)

D [0, +∞)

Apr 2026 · Q36

If y = f(x) has domain (−1,0), what is the domain of y = f(x²−1)?

A [−1, 1]

B (−1, 1)

C (−1,0) ∪ (0,1)

D (−1, 0)

Apr 2026 · Q42

The domain of y = 1/lg|x−5| is:

A (−∞,4) ∪ (4,5) ∪ (5,6) ∪ (6,+∞)

B (−∞,4) ∪ (4,+∞)

C (−∞,5) ∪ (5,6) ∪ (6,+∞)

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D (−∞,5) ∪ (5,+∞)

Lesson 2.2 Parity — Odd Functions, Even Functions & Neither

The Deep Idea — Symmetry

Parity describes the symmetry of a function's graph. It is not just a formula test — it has a
geometric meaning.

Even Function — f(−x) = f(x) Odd Function — f(−x) = −f(x)

Geometry: mirror symmetry about the y- Geometry: 180° rotational symmetry

axis. about the origin.
The right half of the graph is a mirror If you rotate the graph 180° around (0,0)
reflection of the left half. it looks the same.

Examples: x², |x|, cos x, x⁴, x⁴+3, x·sin x Examples: x, x³, sin x, tan x, x+x³, −x

Test: replace every x with −x; if you get Test: replace every x with −x; if you get
back f(x) exactly → EVEN −f(x) → ODD

DOMAIN MUST BE SYMMETRIC ABOUT 0

Before testing parity, check the domain. If the domain is NOT symmetric about 0 (e.g.,
[0,+∞)), the function is neither odd nor even — no matter what f(−x) gives, because f(−x)
might not even be defined.

Example: y = √x has domain [0,+∞). Since this is not symmetric about 0 (negative values
excluded), y=√x is neither odd nor even.

Complete Test Walkthrough — Every Exam Type

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TEST: F(X) = LN(X²) — MAR 2026 Q7

1 Domain: x² > 0 → x ≠ 0 → domain: (−∞,0)∪(0,+∞). Symmetric about 0 ✓

2 Test: f(−x) = ln((−x)²) = ln(x²) = f(x)
3 Since f(−x) = f(x) → EVEN. Makes sense geometrically: ln(x²) = 2ln|x|, which is
symmetric about the y-axis.

TEST: F(X) = X·SIN X — DEC 2025 Q8 (TRAP!)

1 Domain: all ℝ — symmetric ✓

2 Test: f(−x) = (−x)·sin(−x) = (−x)·(−sin x) = x·sin x = f(x)
3 EVEN! (not odd) — product of two odd functions is an even function. Many
students think it must be odd because "x·sin x has two odd factors," but odd × odd
= even.

TEST: F(X) = X + X³ — DEC 2025 Q8 (CORRECT ANSWER)

1 Domain: all ℝ — symmetric ✓

2 Test: f(−x) = (−x) + (−x)³ = −x + (−x³) = −(x + x³) = −f(x)
3 ODD. Sum of two odd functions is always odd. Both x and x³ are odd → their sum
is odd.

TEST: F(X) = X³ + 1 (TRAP — A CONSTANT SHIFTS PARITY)

1 f(−x) = (−x)³ + 1 = −x³ + 1

2 Is this f(x)? f(x) = x³+1. Is −x³+1 = x³+1? No (unless x=0).
3 Is this −f(x)? −f(x) = −x³−1. Is −x³+1 = −x³−1? No.
4 NEITHER odd nor even. Adding a non-zero constant to an odd function destroys
its parity (it no longer passes through the origin).

PATTERN RECOGNITION — SHORTCUTS

Even: all exponents in the polynomial are even (x², x⁴, …) plus possibly a constant →
y=x⁴+3, y=cos x, y=|x|
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Odd: all exponents are odd, no constant term → y=x, y=x³, y=x+x³, y=sin x, y=tan x
Neither: mixed exponents (e.g., x³+x²) OR a constant added to an odd function (x³+1) OR
non-symmetric domain

⚠ COMMON MISTAKES — PARITY

✗ f(x) = x·sin x is ODD (because x is odd and sin x is odd)

✓ Odd × Odd = Even: f(−x) = (−x)(−sinx) = x sinx = f(x) → EVEN
The product of two odd functions is always EVEN, just like (−1)×(−1) = +1.

✗ f(x) = x³+1 is ODD because x³ is odd

✓ Adding the constant +1 makes it NEITHER. The graph no longer passes through the
origin — it is shifted up by 1.
An odd function must satisfy f(0)=0 (when 0 is in the domain). Here f(0)=1≠0, so it cannot be
odd.

✗ y = (√x)² is identical to y = |x|

✓ y=(√x)² has domain [0,+∞) only; y=|x| has domain ℝ. Same rule, different domain → NOT
the same function.
Two functions are identical if and only if they have the SAME rule AND the SAME domain.
Domain differences make them different functions even if the formula simplifies the same way.

📋 PAST EXAM QUESTIONS — LESSON 2.2: PARITY

Mar 2026 · Q7

Over its domain, f(x) = ln(x²) is:

A Odd

B Uncertain about parity

C Neither odd nor even

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D Even

Dec 2025 · Q8

Which of the following functions is an ODD function?

A y = x · sin x

B y = x⁴

C y = cos x

D y = x + x³

Jan 2026 · Q8

About f(x) = x⁴ + 3, which statement is correct?

A The function is odd

B None of the above

C Neither odd nor even

D The function is even

Apr 2026 · Q8

Which of the following functions is an ODD function?

A y = ³√(x+2)

B y = x²+3

C y = x³+1

D y = −x

Lesson 2.3 Monotonicity, Same Functions & Inverse Functions

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Monotonicity — What It Really Means

A function is monotonically increasing on an interval if, for any two points x₁ < x₂ in that
interval, we always have f(x₁) < f(x₂). Moving right on the graph always means moving up.

Function Behavior Where Increasing Where Decreasing

Increasing
y = mx+b (m>0) All of ℝ —
everywhere

Decreasing
y = mx+b (m<0) — All of ℝ
everywhere

y = x² Both [0, +∞) (−∞, 0]

Increasing
y = x³ All of ℝ —
everywhere

y = |x| Both [0, +∞) (−∞, 0]

Increasing
y = eˣ (or aˣ, a>1) All of ℝ —
everywhere

y = (½)ˣ (or aˣ, Decreasing

— All of ℝ
0<a<1) everywhere

[−π/2+2kπ, [π/2+2kπ,
y = sin x Both
π/2+2kπ] 3π/2+2kπ]

CRITICAL POINT — Y = −1/X IS NOT GLOBALLY MONOTONE

y = −1/x is increasing on (−∞, 0) and also increasing on (0, +∞) separately.

But it is NOT increasing on all of ℝ — it is not even defined at x=0, and you cannot
compare values across the gap.
On the exam, "decreasing on (−∞,+∞)" does NOT apply to y=−1/x.

Same Function Test — Domain + Rule Both Must Match

Two functions are the same if and only if: (1) they have identical rules, AND (2) they have
identical domains. Both conditions must hold.

SAME ✓ DIFFERENT ✗

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y = √(x²) and y = |x| y = (√x)² and y = x

Both: domain = ℝ, both = |x| Left: domain [0,+∞); Right: domain ℝ
Different domains → NOT same ✗
y = (x⁴−1)/(x²+1) and y = x²−1
Factor: (x²−1)(x²+1)/(x²+1) = x²−1 y = x and y = √(x²)
Domain of left: x²+1≠0 always true → ℝ Left: domain ℝ; Right: domain ℝ
Domain of right: ℝ. Both are x²−1 on ℝ. ✓ But √(x²) = |x| ≠ x for x<0 → NOT same ✗

Inverse Functions — The Method

The inverse function "undoes" f. To find it:

4-STEP METHOD

Step 1: Write y = f(x)

Step 2: Swap x and y → write x = f(y)
Step 3: Solve for y → this gives f⁻¹(x)
Step 4: Domain of f⁻¹ = Range of f; Range of f⁻¹ = Domain of f

INVERSE OF Y = X³ — DEC 2025 Q9

1 Write: y = x³
2 Swap: x = y³
3 Solve for y: y = x^(1/3) = ³√x
4 Answer: y = ³√x, domain: all ℝ (cube root is defined everywhere)

INVERSE OF Y = X³ + 3 — JAN 2026 Q9

1 Swap: x = y³ + 3
2 Solve: y³ = x − 3 → y = ³√(x−3)
3 Answer: y = ³√(x−3), x ∈ ℝ — the domain is all ℝ (cube root, no restriction)

INVERSE OF Y = 10X + 3 — APR 2026 Q10

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1 Swap: x = 10y + 3
2 Solve: 10y = x − 3 → y = (x−3)/10
3 Answer: y = (x−3)/10

⚠ COMMON MISTAKES — MONOTONICITY & INVERSE

✗ Inverse of y = x³ is y = 3x (confusing cube with multiplying by 3)

✓ Inverse of y = x³ is y = ³√x (the cube ROOT, not 3x)
To "undo" cubing, you cube root. To undo y=3x, you divide by 3: y=x/3. These are completely
different operations.

✗ Inverse of y = x³+3 has domain x ≥ 3

✓ Domain is all ℝ — cube roots are defined for all real numbers
The domain of f⁻¹ equals the range of f. Since y=x³+3 can output any real number (all ℝ), its
inverse is defined for all ℝ.

📋 PAST EXAM QUESTIONS — LESSON 2.3: MONOTONICITY & INVERSE

Dec 2025 · Q9

The inverse function of y = x³ is:

A y = x/3

B y = 3x

C y = x³

D y = ³√x

Dec 2025 · Q10

Which of the following functions is monotonically increasing?

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A y = (1/3)ˣ

B y = log₀.₅x

C y = 2x+1

D y = sin x

Jan 2026 · Q9

The inverse of y = x³ + 3 (x ∈ ℝ) is:

A y = ³√(x−3), x ∈ ℝ

B y = ³√(x+3), x ≥ −3

C y = ³√(x+3), x ∈ ℝ

D y = ³√(x−3), x ≥ 3

Jan 2026 · Q11

Given y = |x|, which conclusion is correct?

A When x<0, the function is increasing

B When x>0, the function is increasing

C When x∈ℝ, the function is decreasing

D When x∈ℝ, the function is increasing

Apr 2026 · Q10

The inverse function of y = 10x + 3 is:

A y = (x+10)/3

B y = (x−10)/3

C y = (x+3)/10

D y = (x−3)/10

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Apr 2026 · Q11

Which function is decreasing on (−∞,+∞)?

A y = −x+5

B y = x³

C y = x²+1

D y = −1/x

Lesson 2.4 Exponential & Logarithmic Functions

Exponential Function y = aˣ (a > 0, a ≠ 1)

Property a > 1 (e.g., 2 ˣ , e ˣ ) 0 < a < 1 (e.g., (½) ˣ )

Domain All real numbers ℝ

Range (0, +∞) — always positive, never zero

Fixed point Always passes through (0, 1) since a⁰=1

Monotonicity Increasing ↗ Decreasing ↘

As x → +∞ → +∞ → 0⁺

As x → −∞ → 0⁺ → +∞

Symmetry NOT symmetric about origin or y-axis (neither odd nor even)

EXAM TRAP — "THE FUNCTION IS ALWAYS INCREASING"

This is INCORRECT as a general statement about y=aˣ. It is only true when a>1. When
0<a<1, the function is DECREASING. Jan 2026 Q23 directly asks you to find the
INCORRECT statement — and this is it.

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Logarithmic Function y = log_a(x) (a > 0, a ≠ 1)

Property a > 1 (e.g., log ₂ , ln) 0 < a < 1 (e.g., log ₀ . ₅ )

Domain (0, +∞) — argument must be STRICTLY positive

Range All real numbers ℝ

Fixed point Always passes through (1, 0) since log_a(1)=0

Monotonicity Increasing ↗ Decreasing ↘

log_a(a) = ? Always equals 1

When is log_a(x) > 1? When x > a (base >1) When 0 < x < a (base <1)

Logarithm Laws — Must Know All Six

log_a(xy) = log_a(x) + log_a(y) (product rule)

log_a(x/y) = log_a(x) − log_a(y) (quotient rule)
log_a(xⁿ) = n · log_a(x) (power rule)
log_a(b) = ln(b) / ln(a) (change of base — numerator is the argument,
denominator is the BASE)
log_a(1) = 0 log_a(a) = 1 (special values)
log_{aᵏ}(bⁿ) = (n/k) · log_a(b) (power in base and argument)

MOST COMMON EXAM ERROR — CHANGE OF BASE FORMULA

The correct formula is: log_a(b) = ln(b) / ln(a)

NOT: ln(a) / ln(b) ← this is inverted and WRONG

Memory trick: the argument b goes on top, the base a goes on the bottom. "The base
goes to the bottom."

CALCULATION: LG4 + 2·LG5 — MAR 2026 Q29

1 a+2b = lg4 + 2·lg5 = lg4 + lg(5²) = lg4 + lg25

2 = lg(4 × 25) = lg(100) = lg(10²) = 2

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3 Answer: 2

CALCULATION: LOG ₂ 32 + LOG_{½}32 — DEC 2025 Q30

1 log₂32 = log₂(2⁵) = 5
2 log_{½}32 = log_{2⁻¹}(2⁵) = 5 × (−1) = −5 (since log_{a⁻¹}(x) = −log_a(x))
3 Sum = 5 + (−5) = 0

CALCULATION: (LOG ₃ 27)(LOG ₆ ₄ 16) — APR 2026 Q30

1 log₃27 = log₃(3³) = 3
2 log₆₄16 = log_{2⁶}(2⁴) = 4/6 = 2/3
3 Product = 3 × 2/3 = 2

📋 PAST EXAM QUESTIONS — LESSON 2.4: EXPONENTIAL & LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Mar 2026 · Q25

If y = aˣ is monotonically INCREASING on ℝ, the range of a is:

A a < 0 or a > 1

B a>1

C 0<a<1

D a>0

Apr 2026 · Q25

If y = aˣ is monotonically DECREASING, the range of a is:

A a>0

B 0<a<1

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C a>1

D a<1

Dec 2025 · Q26

Which statement about y = (½)ˣ is correct?

A Symmetric about the origin

B Symmetric about the x-axis

C Monotonically increasing

D Monotonically decreasing

Jan 2026 · Q23

About y = aˣ (a>0, a≠1), which statement is INCORRECT?

A Range is (0,+∞)

B Passes through (0,1)

C The function is increasing over the domain

D Domain is ℝ

Dec 2025 · Q41

Regarding y = log_a(x), which statement is correct?

A Domain is (−∞,+∞)

B When a>1, it is monotonically decreasing

C When a>1, log_a(x)>1 for all x>0

D When 0<a<1, it is monotonically decreasing

Jan 2026 · Q29

About logarithms (a,b>0), which statement is INCORRECT?

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A ln(aᵇ) = b·ln a

B log_a(b) = ln(a)/ln(b)

C ln(a/b) = ln a − ln b

D ln(ab) = ln a + ln b

Mar 2026 · Q29

Let a = lg4, b = lg5. Then a + 2b = ?

A 100

B 4

C 2

D 5

Dec 2025 · Q30

log₂32 + log_{½}32 = ?

A −5

B 10

C 0

D 5

Apr 2026 · Q30

(log₃27)(log₆₄16) = ?

A 1/6

B 2

C 6

D 5

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Mar 2026 · Q42

Let f(x) = log₅(2x+1). Solution set of f(x) ≥ 0:

A {x | x ≥ 1}

B {x | x > 0}

C {x | x > 1}

D {x | x ≥ 0}

Lesson 2.5 Trigonometric Functions — Deep Coverage

Definitions, Signs by Quadrant & Key Values

For a point P(x, y) on a circle of radius r with angle α from positive x-axis:

sin α = y/r cos α = x/r tan α = y/x (x≠0)

Angle 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180°

sin 0 ½ √2/2 √3/2 1 √3/2 ½ 0

cos 1 √3/2 √2/2 ½ 0 −½ −√3/2 −1

tan 0 √3/3 1 √3 undef −√3 −√3/3 0

ASTC RULE — SIGNS BY QUADRANT

Q1: All positive | Q2: Sine positive (cos−, tan−)

Q3: Tangent positive (sin−, cos−) | Q4: Cosine positive (sin−, tan−)

Memory: "All Students Take Calculus"

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6/10/26, 12:00 AM CSCA Math — Unit 2: Functions

Essential Identities — Every One Tested

Fundamental: sin²α + cos²α = 1 tan α = sin α / cos α

Negative angle (parity): sin(−α) = −sin α cos(−α) = cos α tan(−α)

= −tan α

Shift by π (180°): sin(π+α) = −sin α cos(π+α) = −cos α tan(π+α) =

tan α

Shift by π/2 (90°): sin(π/2+α) = cos α cos(π/2+α) = −sin α

Double angle: cos 2α = 1 − 2sin²α = 2cos²α − 1 = cos²α − sin²α

sin 2α = 2 sin α cos α

Addition formulas: sin(α±β) = sinα cosβ ± cosα sinβ

cos(α±β) = cosα cosβ ∓ sinα sinβ

Half-Angle Formulas — Very Heavily Tested

sin(α/2) = ±√((1 − cos α)/2)

cos(α/2) = ±√((1 + cos α)/2)
tan(α/2) = sin α / (1 + cos α) = (1 − cos α) / sin α

THE SIGN DETERMINATION — 3-STEP PROCESS

Step 1: Find the range of α (given in the problem)

Step 2: Divide the range by 2 to find the range of α/2
Step 3: Determine which quadrant α/2 is in → use ASTC to determine the sign

Example: α ∈ (π/2, π) → divide by 2 → α/2 ∈ (π/4, π/2) → Q1 → sin(α/2) > 0, cos(α/2) > 0
Example: α ∈ (π, 3π/2) → α/2 ∈ (π/2, 3π/4) → Q2 → sin(α/2) > 0, cos(α/2) < 0

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6/10/26, 12:00 AM CSCA Math — Unit 2: Functions

HALF-ANGLE EXAMPLE: COSΑ=−½, Α ∈ (Π/2,Π) — FIND SIN(Α/2) [MAR/DEC/JAN/APR ALL

TEST THIS]

1 α ∈ (π/2, π) → α/2 ∈ (π/4, π/2) → Q1 → sin(α/2) > 0

2 sin(α/2) = +√((1 − cos α)/2) = √((1 − (−½))/2) = √((3/2)/2) = √(3/4)
3 Answer: √(3/4) = √3/2

Function Properties — Period, Domain, Range

Function Domain Range Period Parity Monotone Increasing

sin x ℝ [−1,1] 2π Odd [−π/2+2kπ, π/2+2kπ]

cos x ℝ [−1,1] 2π Even [−π+2kπ, 2kπ]

tan x x≠π/2+kπ ℝ π Odd (−π/2+kπ, π/2+kπ)

PERIOD FORMULA

For y = A·sin(Bx+C) or y = A·cos(Bx+C): Period T = 2π / |B|

For y = A·tan(Bx+C): Period T = π / |B|

Example: y = 3cos(4x−π/3) → T = 2π/4 = π/2

Example: y = 2tan(3x+π/4) → T = π/3

📋 PAST EXAM QUESTIONS — LESSON 2.5: TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Apr 2026 · Q7

sin 120° = ?

A √3/2

B −√3/2

C −½

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D ½

Mar 2026 · Q6

Let α = 5π/6. Then cos α = ?

A −½

B √3/2

C ½

D −√3/2

Mar 2026 · Q9

f(x) = sin x is monotonically increasing over:

A [−π, π]

B [0, π]

C (−∞,+∞)

D [−π/2, π/2]

Mar 2026 · Q21

Which of the following is correct?

A tan x = sin x / cos x (cos x≠0)

B tan x = 1/cos x

C tan x = cos x / sin x

D tan x = 1/sin x

Mar 2026 · Q26

If sin α = √5/3, then cos 2α = ?

A −2/9

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B 1/9

C −1/9

D 2/9

Apr 2026 · Q26

If sin α = 3/4, then cos 2α = ?

A 7/16

B −7/8

C 1/8

D −1/8

Mar 2026 · Q31

Minimum positive period of f(x) = 3cos(4x−π/3):

A π/3

B π/2

C π/4

D 2π

Apr 2026 · Q39

Minimum positive period of y = 2tan(3x+π/4):

A π/3

B 2π

C π/4

D π

Apr 2026 · Q31

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6/10/26, 12:00 AM CSCA Math — Unit 2: Functions

Minimum value of y = cos5x + 4:

A 5

B 3

C 4

D 2

Mar 2026 · Q34 / Dec 2025 · Q34 / Jan 2026 · Q37 / Apr 2026 · Q34

Given cosα = −½, α ∈ (π/2, π), find sin(α/2):

A −½

B √3/2

C −√3/2

D ½

Mar 2026 · Q39

If sinα = 1/3, then cos(π/2 + α) = ?

A −2√2/3

B 2√2/3

C 1/3

D −1/3

Jan 2026 · Q38

Which statement is correct?

A sin(π+α) = sin α

B cos(π+α) = cos α

C sin(−α) = sin α

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D cos(−α) = cos α

Apr 2026 · Q38

Which equation is correct?

A cos(π/2+α) = sin α

B sin(π/2+α) = cos α

C cos(π+α) = cos α

D sin(π+α) = sin α

Jan 2026 · Q30

About y = sinx, which statement is INCORRECT?

A Maximum and minimum are 1 and −1

B The function is periodic

C The function is even

D Domain is ℝ

Jan 2026 · Q39

About y = tanx, which statement is correct?

A Range is [−1,1]

B Domain is ℝ

C Even function

D Minimum positive period is π

Apr 2026 · Q35

cos 75° = ?

A −(√6+√2)/4

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B (√2−√6)/4

C (√6+√2)/4

D (√6−√2)/4

Dec 2025 · Q16

If P(1,y) is on the terminal side of α and tanα = 2, then y = ?

A 1

B ½

C √3

D 2

Dec 2025 · Q19

Given sinα = 3/5 in Q2, then cosα = ?

A 4/5

B −4/5

C 3/4

D −3/4

Jan 2026 · Q24

If sinα = 3/5 in Q1, then sin2α = ?

A 12/25

B 24/25

C 18/25

D 7/25

Mar 2026 · Q40

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Which description about f(x) = tanx is INCORRECT?

A f(−x) = −f(x) on its domain

B Has exactly one zero on (−π/2,π/2)

C Monotonically increasing on (−π/2,π/2)

D f(x) is even

Lesson 2.6 Sequences — Arithmetic, Geometric & Advanced Types

Arithmetic Sequences — Everything You Need

General term: aₙ = a₁ + (n−1)d

Sum of first n terms: Sₙ = n/2 · (a₁ + aₙ) = na₁ + n(n−1)d/2
Middle term property: a, b, c in A.P. → b = (a+c)/2
Symmetry property: aₘ + aₙ = aₚ + aᵩ when m+n = p+q

A₁₀₀ WITH A₁=2, D=3 — APPEARS IN 3 DIFFERENT EXAMS!

a₁₀₀ = a₁ + (100−1)×d = 2 + 99×3 = 2 + 297 = 299

Common wrong answers:
298 → uses wrong formula a₁+(n)d instead of a₁+(n−1)d
302 → calculates a₁₀₁ (101st term, not 100th)
305 → adds 101×3 to a₁
Always use (n−1)d, not nd.

ADVANCED: 3(A ₂ +A ₆ )+2(A ₆ +A ₁ ₀ +A ₁ ₄ )=24, FIND S ₁ ₃ — DEC 2025 Q47

1 In A.P., symmetric sums: a₂+a₆ = 2a₄; a₆+a₁₀+a₁₄ = 3a₁₀

2 Equation: 3(2a₄) + 2(3a₁₀) = 24 → 6a₄ + 6a₁₀ = 24 → a₄+a₁₀ = 4
3 Since a₄+a₁₀ = 2a₇ (they are symmetric about a₇): 2a₇ = 4 → a₇ = 2

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6/10/26, 12:00 AM CSCA Math — Unit 2: Functions

4 S₁₃ = 13a₇ = 13×2 = 26 (sum of odd-numbered terms centers on the middle term)

Geometric Sequences — Everything You Need

General term: aₙ = a₁ · rⁿ⁻¹

Sum: Sₙ = a₁(1−rⁿ)/(1−r) if r≠1; Sₙ = na₁ if r=1
Geometric mean: a,b,c in G.P. → b² = ac → b = ±√(ac)

FINDING COMMON RATIO R FROM NON-CONSECUTIVE TERMS

Given a₁=4, a₄=32: a₄ = a₁·r³ → 32 = 4r³ → r³ = 8 → r = 2

Then: a₂ = 4×2 = 8; a₃ = 4×4 = 16; a₄ = 4×8 = 32 ✓

Advanced Sequence Problems — Recursive & Mixed

RECURSIVE: A ₁ =½, 1/A ₙ ₊ ₁ = 1/A ₙ + 1 → FIND A ₆ — MAR 2026 Q41

1 Rewrite: the sequence {1/aₙ} is arithmetic with first term 1/a₁=2 and common
difference 1
2 So: 1/aₙ = 2 + (n−1)×1 = n+1
3 a₆ = 1/(6+1) = 1/7

MIXED: A ₙ = 2 ⁿ ⁺ ¹ − 3N → FIND S ₙ — MAR 2026 Q47

1 Split: Sₙ = Σ(2ⁿ⁺¹) − Σ(3n) = Σ(2ⁿ⁺¹) − 3Σn

2 Σ(2ⁿ⁺¹) from n=1 to n = 2²+2³+…+2ⁿ⁺¹ = geometric sum = 4(2ⁿ−1)/(2−1) = 2ⁿ⁺² − 4
3 3Σn = 3×n(n+1)/2 = 3n(n+1)/2
4 Sₙ = 2ⁿ⁺² − 3n(n+1)/2 − 4

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📋 PAST EXAM QUESTIONS — LESSON 2.6: SEQUENCES

Mar 2026 Q10 / Dec 2025 Q5 / Jan 2026 Q4

Arithmetic sequence: a₁=2, d=3. Find a₁₀₀:

A 298

B 302

C 305

D 299

Mar 2026 · Q12

The geometric mean of 3 and 12 is:

A ±6

B ±4

C ±10

D ±8

Mar 2026 · Q15

Geometric sequence: a₁=4, a₄=32. Find a₃:

A 8

B −8

C 16

D −16

Mar 2026 · Q22

Arithmetic sequence: a₁=1, d=2. Find a₁₀:

A 15

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B 19

C 21

D 17

Mar 2026 · Q41

a₁=½, 1/aₙ₊₁=1/aₙ+1. Find a₆:

A 1/7

B 1/8

C 1/6

D 1/9

Mar 2026 · Q47

aₙ=2ⁿ⁺¹−3n. Find Sₙ:

A 2ⁿ⁺² − 3n(n+1)/2 + 4

B 2ⁿ⁺² − 3n(n+1)/2 − 4

C 2ⁿ⁺² − 3n − 4

D 2ⁿ⁺² + 3n(n+1)/2 − 4

Dec 2025 · Q13

a, b, c form A.P. and a+c=20. Find b:

A 10

B 5

C 20

D 0

Dec 2025 · Q17

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Arithmetic: a₁=1, a₂=2. Find a₂₀₂₅:

A 2

B 2025

C 2024

D 20

Dec 2025 · Q23

Geometric: first three terms 1, 2, 4. General formula?

A aₙ = 2n

B aₙ = 8

C aₙ = 2ⁿ⁻¹

D aₙ = 2ⁿ

Dec 2025 · Q47

Arithmetic: 3(a₂+a₆)+2(a₆+a₁₀+a₁₄)=24. Find S₁₃:

A 104

B 52

C 39

D 26

Apr 2026 · Q13

−1, a, 15 is arithmetic. Find a:

A 9

B 5

C 7

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D 11

Apr 2026 · Q15

Arithmetic: a₁=1, a₂=3. Find a₅:

A 9

B 5

C 7

D 11

Apr 2026 · Q17

aₙ=2n−1. Which statement is correct?

A Both arithmetic and geometric

B Neither arithmetic nor geometric

C Arithmetic sequence

D Geometric sequence

Apr 2026 · Q22

Geometric sequence: a₁=−48, a₄=6. Find common ratio q:

A −½

B −2

C ½

D 2

Jan 2026 · Q16

Among (1)7,13,19,25 (2)2,4,7,11 (3)−1,−3,−5,−7 (4)2,4,8,16, how many are arithmetic?

A 2

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B 3

C 1

D 4

✓ Unit 2 Complete Summary — Functions

✓ Domain restrictions: even roots → ≥0; denominator → ≠0; 1/√(expr) → >0 (strict); log →
>0.

✓ Odd roots (³√, ⁵√, …) have no restriction — defined for all real numbers.

✓ For composite domain f(g(x)): substitute g(x) into the domain condition of f and solve
for x.

✓ Even function: f(−x)=f(x) — symmetric about y-axis. Examples: x², cos x, |x|, x·sin x.

✓ Odd function: f(−x)=−f(x) — symmetric about origin. Examples: x, x³, sin x, tan x, x+x³.

✓ Odd×Odd=Even. A constant added to an odd function destroys parity. Domain must be

symmetric about 0.

✓ Two functions are identical only if they have the same rule AND same domain.

✓ Inverse: swap x and y, solve for y. Domain of f⁻¹ = Range of f.

✓ y=aˣ is increasing when a>1; decreasing when 0<a<1. Range is always (0,+∞).

✓ y=log_a(x) is increasing when a>1; decreasing when 0<a<1. Domain is always (0,+∞).

✓ Change of base: log_a(b) = ln(b)/ln(a) — argument on top, base on bottom.

✓ Period formula: y=A·sin(Bx+C) → T=2π/|B|; y=A·tan(Bx+C) → T=π/|B|.

✓ Half-angle sign: determine the quadrant of α/2, then use ASTC for the correct ± sign.

✓ cos(2α) = 1−2sin²α. sin(π/2+α)=cosα. cos(−α)=cosα. sin(−α)=−sinα.

✓ Arithmetic: aₙ=a₁+(n−1)d. Use n−1 not n. Middle term b=(a+c)/2.

✓ Geometric: aₙ=a₁·rⁿ⁻¹. Geometric mean b²=ac → b=±√(ac).

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✓ For Sₙ formulas of mixed sequences: separate into geometric sum + arithmetic sum and
compute each.

ENDOFFILE echo "Done" wc -c /home/claude/[Link] Output Command argument is 116_209 bytes,

exceeding the 100_000-byte per-argument limit. For large content, pipe via stdin or use a file-write API
instead of embedding the content inline in the command. Argument preview: 'cat >
/home/claude/[Link] << \'ENDOFFILE\'\n\n\n\n\n\n

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