D3.

P Section 1
Human and Animal Reproduction
Section 2
Plant Reproduction

L A Asexual Reproduction
Page 1

1Flower Structure
Page 12

4 Seed Dispersal
A B Sexual Reproduction
1Male Reproductive System 4 The Menstrual Cycle
2Pollination
3 Fertilization and seed Formation
5 Seed Germination

N 2 Female Reproductive System 5 Fertilization

3 Sperm vs. Egg Structure 6 Meiosis and Variation
Reproduction – refers to the biological process by which organisms produce new individuals of the same species.
It ensures the continuation of a species and the transfer of genetic information from one generation to the next.

Section 1
Human and Animal Reproduction
A multitude of methods may be employed by organisms to pass on their genetic material to their offspring, and we can
categorize them into two main ways: asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction which differ in their mechanisms.

Sexual reproduction
A process that aims to pass genetic information A process that aims to pass genetic information
What onto the offspring without gametes (sex cells) onto the offspring with gametes (sex cells) and
and fertilization (see page 9). fertilization (see page 9).

Parents Only one parent required. Two parents required (sperm and egg).

Offspring Genetically identical to parent. Genetically unique compared to both parents.

Variation Relatively little genetic variation. Promotes genetic variation.

Allows little adaptation (good in non-changing
Adaptation Allows adaptations for a changing environment.
area).
Binary fission, mitosis, budding, fragmentation,
Examples vegetative propagation, parthenogenesis.
Human with human. Mantis with Mantis.

Notice!
Asexual reproduction is not any
FAST less important (or inferior) of a
x1 x1 x1 form of reproduction.

Sexual reproduction diagram:

Dad Mom (Meiosis)

46
23 46 Mitosis
Refer to the detailed process 46
of meiosis in D2.1 page 4

SLOW
Dad Mom Zygote Embryo
Chromosome pair 3
46 Sexual reproduction (meiosis) creates
23
For simplicity we only use the gametes to form a zygote which
one chromosome pair, but then undergoes asexual reproduction
humans have 23 pairs of (Meiosis) (mitosis) to form an embryo.
chromosomes (46).
Chromosome pair 3

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Asexual Reproduction
Various ways may be undertaken for a cell to undergo asexual reproduction, the method by which it does so depends
mainly on the cell type.

1. Mitosis What – Cell division in

2. Budding
What – Production of two genetically
identical cells. Applies to eukaryotic cells fungi (yeast) and in some animals (hydra).
(plants or animals.) 46 How –
(details in D2.1) Bud
Why – Repair and growth Nucleus
Daughter yeast cell
Replicated Nucleus
How – Replication of organelles and genetic
Bud scar
material followed by spitting of the cell. 46 46
Vacule

What – Cell division in

3. Binary Fission Parent yeast cell
Unequal cytoplasm

prokaryotic cells (like bacteria). Very fast process.

How – process learned in A2.2 (Only a single
chromosome) 4. Fragmentation
1. What – A piece (fragment) of the body of an existing
Original cell
organism breaks off; each develops into an individual
offspring.
Original DNA
DNA copy Examples – Sea stars, annelid worms
2.
Duplication of bacteria’s
DNA.

3. Cell splitting and

separation of the two
copies of DNA.
5. Parthenogenesis
4. 4. What – Growth and development of an egg cell without
Creation of two
identical cells. the involvement of a male gamete (only female). No
New cell with copy of DNA New cell with original DNA fertilization.
Examples – Bees, ants, wasps, some reptiles and fish

6. Vegetative propagation
What – A new plant grows from a fragment of the parent plant or grows from
a specialized reproductive structure (roots, bulbs, tubers or shoots).
Runners grow into clones of the parent plant.

Runner – a slender stem that grows horizontally along

the ground, giving rise to roots and aerial (vertical)
branches at specialized points called nodes

Runner
Examples – Strawberries (runners), potatoes (tubers).

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Sexual Reproduction
The process of sexual reproduction includes two main stages: Meiosis and Fertilization. In females, oogenesis is the
process by which gametes (the egg) are produced by the process of meiosis. In males, spermatogenesis is the production
of gametes (sperm) also by meiosis.

The egg is created in the ovaries by oogenesis while sperm is Big Brain Tip!
created in the testis by spermatogenesis. The joining of the Oogenesis & Spermatogenesis
egg and sperm called fertilization forms a zygote which processes are learned in D3.1 HL
develops into an infant.

Infant

Female
Zygote Male
[46 chromosomes]
OOGENESIS
(Meiosis)
SPERMATOGENESIS
FERTILIZATION
Sperm (Meiosis)
Egg/Ova/Ovum
(gamete)
(gamete)
[23 chromosomes] [23 chromosomes]

Meiosis allows the formation of a haploid cell (cell which only contains half of
the genetic material) from a diploid cell. Each gamete containing only half of Diploid (2n) Haploid (n)
the genetic material allows for the zygote to contain half of the father’s and Reduction
Division
half of the mother’s DNA. Meiosis is known as a type of reductive division.

Male Reproductive System

In males, the reproductive tract and urinary system are intricately connected (see page 4).

Spermatozoa (sperm) forms in the testis, and in the epididymis they develop the ability to swim. The seminal vesicles produce
a sugar-rich fluid and the prostate produces a fluid with high pH. The combination of these form semen: sugar-rich to fuel
the spermatozoa’s potentially long journey and high pH to overcome they highly acidic vaginal fluids.

Composition of semen

Big Brain Tip!

Seminal vesicle - Sugars
Prostate - pH

70% of semen is from the

seminal vesicle: semen can
also be called seminal fluid.

Remainder made up of
prostatic fluid and sperm

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D3.1
The structure of the male reproductive tract is best understood when combining a front and a side view to accurately
depict the relationship and position of each organ and structure:

Ureter A muscular tube that transports urine from kidneys to the bladder.

Bladder (cut) A bag-like structure that stores urine.

Vas deferens Pipe that carries mature sperm from the

urine epididymis to the urethra during an ejaculation.

Seminal vesicle Gland that makes fructose (energy), and mucous

that will join the sperm.

Prostate (cut) Gland that makes alkaline solution to aid sperm in

defense against the acidic environment of the vagina.

Epididymis Where sperm is received, then become mature and

become capable of swimming.

Testis Male gonads. Where sperm is made (more specifically within

the seminiferous tubules).

Urethra (cut) Where the urine, sperm and all other contents (from glands) exit the
male reproductive system.

Penis (cut) A pipe-like organ that becomes erect because of blood engorgement to
[Front view] facilitate ejaculation.

Semen

2systems share1opening!
Ureter Pathway of Sperm
Spermatozoa move from the testis into the
Bladder epididymis, and into the vas deferens. Here
the fluids from the seminal vesicle and
the prostate join in to form semen.
Vas deferens Finally, semen is ejaculated by the penis
Seminal vesicle (sperm duct) through the urethra.

Penis (cut)
Prostate (cut) Pathway of Urine
Urethra (cut) Urine, created in the kidneys (chapter
D3.3 HL), travels into the ureters and is
Epididymis stored into the bladder. During
urination, urine makes its way out via
the penis through the urethra.
Testis

Scrotum Why are testis held outside the body in the scrotum?
[Side view] Scrotum is a sac in which the testis are held outside
the body. Sperm production and maturation requires
temperature cooler than internal body temperature.
Sound-a-like words
Ureter (two: one right, one left) – urine from kidney to bladder
Urethra (one only) – semen and urine

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Female Reproductive System

Oocytes (egg) form in the ovaries, during ovulation (page 8) an egg is released and travels through the Fallopian tube. If the
egg gets fertilized by sperm, this embryo will implant in the uterus to grow into a fetus. If fertilization does not occur, the
unfertilized egg will continue its journey through the uterus and will be excreted during menstruation through the cervix
and out the vagina.
Fallopian tube (oviduct)
Duct that carry the egg (or early embryo to the uterus).

Ovary
The female gonads. (1) Where the female egg
will be created. (2) Ovulation occurs here. (3)
Corpus luteum formation occurs here. (4)
estrogen & progesterone production.
Uterus
Endometrium Muscular structure where the embryo implants and develops if a
A layer lining the inside of the pregnancy occurs.
uterus (highly vascular).

Cervix Segment between the vagina and the uterus. Lower portion of
the uterus, which has an opening to the vagina that allows the sperm to
enter for fertilization and provides a pathway for childbirth

Vagina Muscular tube that leads from the external genitals to the cervix.
Where penis will enter (and ejaculate).

[Front view]

Fallopian tube (oviduct)

Ovary

Endometrium Uterus

Cervix Bladder
(ureters are not shown)
urine Part of the
Urinary system
Vagina
Urethra

Big Brain Tip!

Notice the female reproductive
system is separate from the
urinary system - unlike in males.
[Side view]

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Sperm vs. Egg Structure

Some animals produce large numbers of eggs, especially if the fertilization process is external – such as frogs.
However human females typically release one egg during the menstrual cycle (although two or more is possible). This egg
provides all the nutrients needed to sustain the growth of the embryo. Eventually, when the embryo implants into the
uterus, the uterus and placenta will continue providing nutrients.

Sperm structure Egg structure

Sperm is very small Egg is very large

Motile Sessile (non-motile)

Millions of sperm each day One egg each month

Contributes nothing towards the food serves, merely to Contains all the nutrients needed for early embryonic
deliver DNA to the egg growth

The structure of sperm and egg was also learned in chapter B2.3 (HL)

Acrosome Nucleus
A vacuole (or sac like thing) that contains enzymes useful in Organelle that contains the genetic material (DNA). Egg cells
destruction of the egg membrane to allow the sperm to (sex cells) only carry half the DNA.
Head penetrate the egg.
Zona pellucida
Nucleus A layer inner to the corona radiata to prevent
Contains the DNA. Gametes (like sperm & egg), only contains polyspermy and only allows species-specific
half the number of DNA. fertilization.
Centriole Corona radiata
Neck A layer of cells surrounding the egg (protective
(1) Links the head and the tail. (2) Cell division role. (3) layer) also supplies the egg cell with vital
Controls beating (swimming). (4) Plays a role in forming things (proteins).
the zygote cell structure (cytoskeleton).
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria The jelly-like liquid
Help make ATP (cell energy). There are a lot of them in the in which everything
sperm because “swimming” takes lots of energy. is floating.

Filament (flagellum)
Tail This structure is responsible for allowing swimming
to happen. It is like the fins of a fish.

Did you know?

In humans, sperm is the smallest
cell and the egg is the largest!
Have you Noticed…?
The mitochondria found in the sperm are only
used to provide energy for sperm to move
towards the egg. The zygote will use the egg’s
mitochondria (fertilization – page 9).

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The Menstrual Cycle

What is the menstrual cycle?
Menstrual The menstrual cycle is a hormonal cycle which lasts approximately 28 days. This cycle times the release
=
monthly
of an egg for possible fertilization (see more details on page 8) and implantation into the endometrium.
This cycle begins at puberty. It is characterized by menstruation (menstrual bleeding) which is the
shedding of the endometrium in the absence of fertilization.

Menstrual cycle
= Ovarian cycle
+ Uterine cycle

The menstrual cycle comprises the ovarian cycle: the monthly preparation and the release of an egg cell from the ovary.
As well as the uterine cycle: the build-up of the uterine lining (the endometrium).

On Page 8, find the detailed steps of the menstrual cycle, follow along with the numbers on this diagram:

1st The first day of menstruation marks the first

Thickening of
day of the cycle (as it is simple to record).
the endometrium

DAY 1
menstruation
Uterine Cycle
Hypothalamus Ne
ga
↪ GnRH tiv
e or
po
sit
ive
Anterior pituitary f ee
db
1
↪ FSH & LH a ck
9

3 7

6
2

5 Corpus
Oocyte luteum
8

Ovaries

Follicular 4
cells
Ovarian Cycle Graafian Ovulation
follicle

Big Brain Tip! GnRH (Gonadotropin-releasing hormone)

LH (luteinizing hormone)
LH – Let Her go (egg) FSH (Follicle stimulating hormone)
Progesterone
Estrogen

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1 GnRH (from hypothalamus) stimulates production of FSH & LH (by pituitary).

2 LH & FSH Stimulates ovary to produce Graafian follicles (mature eggs).
Ovarian
Increase the production & secretion of Oestradiol by follicle cells. &
3 Oestradiol At low concentrations, negative feedback (reduce GnRH, LH & FSH). Uterine
Increase blood vessel density in the endometrium (highly vascular).
cycle
4 At high concentrations, positive feedback (increases GnRH, FSH & LH).

4 Positive feedback of Oestradiol leads to LH surge (spike), which leads to ovulation. corpus luteum
Body Yellow
5 Graafian follicle’s outer ring of follicle cells remains within the ovary to becomes corpus luteum.
6 These follicle cells produce and secrete progesterone. Active for 10-12 days after ovulation.
7 Progesterone Maintains the thickened highly vascular endometrium.
High levels provide a negative feedback signal to hypothalamus and prevent
production of GnRH.

8 FSH and LH will be low, another graafian follicle will NOT be made.

9 Pregnancy: 9 No Pregnancy:
After fertilization, a special hormones is made. Without fertilization, the special hormone isn’t made to
maintain the corpus luteum.
This hormone keeps the corpus luteum alive.
Corpus luteum will break down, leads to decline in progesterone.
Endometrium can be maintained.
Vascular endometrium no longer maintained. Blood vessels
of the endometrium rupture and menstruation begins.
The drop in progesterone also signals the hypothalamus to
begin secreting GnRH, and thus another menstrual cycle begins.

Ovulation (Day 14)

This graph summerizes the
Negative feedback Positive feedback changes in hormone levels
throughout the mentrual
Gonadotropin FSH LH cycle as well as the
levels relationship between the
ovarian and uterine cycle.
Developing follicles Developing corpus
Degenerating corpus
luteum
Ovarian luteum

cycle

progesterone
progesterone
Estrogen Estrogen
Steroid
levels FSH
LH

menses
Uterine
cycle
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 Cycle repeats
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Fertilization
The process of fertilization occurs when the gametes (sperm and egg) fuse into a single cell. The purpose of it is to
restore the diploid (2n) number of chromosomes. This process may occur internally (e.g. humans) or externally (e.g. frog).

Internal Fertilization
1 Firstly, millions of sperm are ejaculated into the female’s 4
vagina. 3

2 Some sperm pass through the cervical opening and enters

the uterus.
3 Some sperm swim up the endometrial lining and enter the
fallopian tubes.
4 Some sperm may (or NOT) encounter an egg. Usually around 200.
2

Typical location for fertilization: Fallopian tubes

1 Sperm approaches n
2 Upon meeting the egg, the sperm first must
the egg. n traverse the corona radiata.

6 The two pronuclei then come

together and the temporary
2n n
nuclear membranes dissolve,
forming a zygote (2n). 3 Several sperm release enzymes (from
their acrosome). This helps them
pronuclei n penetrate the egg’s zona pellucida.
n
5 Cortical granules are released from 4 A sperm will gain entry to the egg.
vesicles in the egg that hardens zona Releasing the haploid DNA (n).
pellucida. At first, paternal & maternal
chromosomes are separate. In a haploid
structures called a pronucleus.

Notice how no single spermatozoon can accomplish the entire act of fertilization because it takes many sperm to
penetrate the follicle cell layer and the gel-like coating: the zona pellucida.
The zygotes first mitotic cell division occurs 30 hours after the completion of fertilization.
The subsequent divisions increase in frequency
– by the end of day three, 16 cells have been formed. 30h

External Fertilization
Animals including reptiles, birds and mammals use internal fertilisation but aquatic species including invertebrates
and fish, and also frogs and toads (which return to the water to breed) employ external fertilization. Whereby
spawning (egg and sperm get released) occurs and fertilization happens in the water.

vantage
AdHigher probability of egg & sperm meeting.

tage
dvanzygote
DisaOnce formed it is nor safe nor protected.

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In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)

In vitro fertilization (IVF) is a technique which involves an egg being removed from the woman's ovaries and fertilized
with sperm in a laboratory (artificial, not natural). The embryo is then returned to the woman’s uterus to grow and
develop. The main purpose of IVF is to help people who experience infertility (inability of conceiving).

Infertility may be due to Inability to ovulate normally

either the male or the
female, for either case, Infertility is considered if
Blocked fallopian tubes in females
IVF is a viable treatment. conception was not acheived
for multiple attempts of
Low sperm count in males unprotected intercourse!
o c c u r?
rtilit y Structurally abnormal sperm
inf e
does
Why Impotence (failure to achieve an erection)

Pregnancy 7

1 Hormone therapy
Start artificial menstrual cycle (FSH)
(to maximize the number of available eggs)
Embryo transfer 6
Between one and three healthy Superovulation –
embryos introduced into uterus production of many more eggs than
for implantation. normal menstrual cycle

2 Egg extraction
When the time is right

Embryo development 5
Process of IVF

3 Sperm collection and preparation

Fertilization 4

Meiosis and Variation

Have you ever noticed that even though siblings share the same parents, they are not identical to each other (except
for identical twins). This difference is due to variation provided by meiosis and fertilization.
Meiosis allows for variation in the gametes produced by the mom and dad while fertilization randomizes the joining of a
unique sperm to a unique egg.
II. Independent
Assortment
sis) 46
(M e io
Dad Mom 23
46
I. Crossing over 46
III. Random
Fertilization

Dad Mom Refer to the process of

Chromosome pair 3
23 meiosis in D2.1 page 4
46 [Link] over
(Meiosis) Independent
II. Assortment
Chromosome pair 3

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I. Crossing over During Prophase I *Allele – Version of a gene

A process where two non sister chromatids (from a bivalent) exchange (swap) DNA, allowing mixing of alleles*.
Recombinant chromatids Homologous chromosomes
Bivalent (pairs of the same chromosomes)

‸ e.g. these are both

chromosome 3

Chiasma

Sister Non-Sister
II. Independent assortment During Metaphase I chromatids chromatids

At the metaphase plate in metaphase I, the homologous chromosomes line up in a random fashion (in a random orientation)
which allows them to be sorted into separate cells randomly, allowing for a multitude of possible combinations.

Example (if crossing over does not occur)

1 homologous chromosomes can yield 2 homologous chromosomes can yield 4 homologous chromosomes can yield
2genetically unique gametes 4 genetically unique gametes 8 genetically unique gametes

‸ ‸ ‸
‸ ‸
Diploid (2n)
Diploid (2n)
Diploid (2n)

‸ ‸ ‸ ‸
‸ ‸ ‸ ‸

‸ ‸ ‸
‸ ‸ ‸
Haploid (n)
Haploid (n) ‸ ‸ ‸
‸
Promotes genetic variation
Number of chromosomes
‸ ‸ ‸ ‸
Humans have 23 chromosomes
2n = unique gametes 223 = 8,388,608 unique gametes Haploid (n)
‸ ‸ ‸
‸

III. Random Fertilization ‸ ‸

‸
‸

Each egg and sperm is highly variable due to crossing over and independent assortment.
Fertilization of such unique gametes creates a highly variable outcome for a zygote. The combination of a unique egg
with a unique sperm leads to millions of zygote possibilities between two parents only.

Imagine combining crossing over, independent assortment and fertilization how many
different combinations of genetic material we can get?

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D3.1

Section 2
Plant Reproduction
Some plants have only male OR female flowers. Some plants have both male flowers AND female flowers.
MOST plants have flowers that are hermaphroditic.
Containing both female & male
parts (within a single flower).

Plant reproduction includes multiple steps that we cover in this section:

[Link]
(page 13)
[Link]
(page 13)

3. Seed [Link] Dispersal

formation (page 15)
(page 13)

[Link]
(page 15)

Flower Structure
To understand how plants reproduce, we must first analyze the anatomy of a flower – the reproductive structures of a
flowering plant. In this instance, we look at a hermaphroditic flower with its male parts in blue and female parts in pink.

Stamen Carpel
“male parts” “female parts”
Pollen Petal
Contain the male nuclei used for Often colorful, to attract pollinators.
fertilization. (Plant sperm).
Stigma
Anther
The part that makes pollen Sticky top of a carpel (female part)
Stamen (carries male gamete). on which pollen lands.

Filament Style
The stalk (pipe) The part of the carpal
that holds the that holds up the stigma.
Carpel
anther upright. Ovary
Sepal Base of the carpel, containing
This is a structure that fold over the one or more ovules.
bud to protect the developing flower. Ovule
Chamber within an ovary where the
Nectar female nuclei develop. Female gamete.
A sugary sap produced by the
flower, to attract pollinators.

flower stalk
The single ovule of this flower indicates that the

Big Brain BOMB

resulting fruit that develops from its ovary will only
contain one seed. Different species may have a
Petal for Pretty varying number of ovules.
Stigma is Sticky
Anthers: Ain’t hers
Women have style
staMEN is male

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Pollination
Pollination – The transfer of pollen produced in one plant’s anther to another (or same) plant’s stigma. This process
is carried out by pollinators.

Pollinators are organisms that carry out the transferring process. Different pollinators for different
flower species, including insects, birds, bats, and even some mammals.

Stamens are often found deep inside, so that insects (while drinking the nectar) will brush up against the pollen grains,
letting the pollen be placed on the plant’s stigma.

Plants therefore have developed some adaptations to attract pollinators:

Large & brightly colored petals – Attract pollinators.
Strong scent – Attract pollinators.
Mutualistic relationship
Anther positioning – Easy to contact pollinators.
When everyone involved in a
Pollen is sticky – Easy to adhere to insect.
relationship benefits from it.
Stigma is sticky – Easy to adhere to pollen.
Pollinators (e.g. bee) feeds on the
Nectar – A reward to the pollinator flower base). nutritious nectar while the plant gets
pollinated.

There are two ways pollination may occur:

Self pollination Cross pollination

Pollen travels from the anther of one plant to the Pollen travels from the anther of one plant to the
stigma of the same plant. stigma of another plant.

Advantage – Preserve good genes

(good for stable environment). Advantage – Genetic variation.
Disadvantage – Reduction in genetic Good in changing environment.
variation (bad for changing environment) Disadvantage – Element of chance.

Fertilization and seed Formation

Fertilization is the process of when the male and female gametes come together to form a zygote.
1 Pollen that adheres to a stigma will begin to grow into pollen tube.
Big Brain Tip!
2 The pollen tube will continue to grow all the way to an ovule.
Male gamete Pollen grain
? The male and female gametes in plants
are haploid just like for humans.
(sperm – n)

1
Style Male gamete
(sperm)
Pollen tube

Ovule
Gamete Ovary 2

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D3.1
Big Brain Tip!

!
3 Within the ovule there are three haploid nuclei (n). One Embryo shoot This seed is a type
pollen nucleus fertilizes one ovule nucleus to create a which contains two
zygote. The other pollen nucleus fertilizes the other Embryo Root cotyledons (therefore
two nuclei within the ovule to create endosperm. This called dicot seed).
is double fertilization.
Cotyledons (food reserves)
4 The zygote will grow into the plant. Endosperm will
grow to produce nutrition within the seed to nourish
the early plant embryo. SEED Seed coat

Embryo
Endosperm
4
As the plant embryo grows larger, the
reserves of endosperm tissue become
depleted, and cotyledons will dominate. Once Endosperm (food reserves)
leaves start to erupt during germination. [3n triploid]
Pollen tube The cotyledons will no longer be useful.

3 Zygote
[2n diploid]

Ovule
[2n] Big Brain Tip!
[n] Egg You may be asked to
draw the structures
of a seed on your
exam.

Plants benefit from genetic variation within populations just as much as animals do. Even in plant species where
flowers are hermaphroditic, a variety of mechanisms have evolved to promote cross-pollination such mechanisms
include the following:
Pure flowers Pure plants Stigma & anther at Maturation times
Wind pollination (only male/female) (only male/female) different heights (Different maturation times for
the pollen and ovules of the
Chemical self-incompatibility same flower)

A mechanism which promotes cross-pollination – When the pollen of a

plant lands on the stigma of a flower of the same plant, protein
interactions occur that reduce or stop growth of the pollen tube.

pollen grain fails to germinate

(into a pollen tube)

Germinated pollen grain

does not enter the style

The most successful pollination occurs when the pollen is

from one plant and the stigma is in the flower of a
plant embryo degenerates completely different plant of the same species.
during early growth
This promotes genetic variation in and healthy
growth of the new plant (called vigour). Self-
pollen nuclei degenerates pollination leads to inbreeding and a decrease
before fertilization in genetic diversity and vigour.

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Seed Dispersal
Successful seeds dispersal depends on various factors.
Seeds can be dispersed by way of fruit (see next). Consumed and ingested by
animals. Seeds may still be protected (within seed coats). Deposited in animal
feces away from the parent plant.
Some seeds: Use water to float to a new location (coconut).
Some seeds: Have structures that allow them to be easily carried by the wind
for dispersal (dandelion).
Some seeds: Develop pods that dry out (during ripening). When the pod is dry
enough, it pops open explosively, releasing the seed away from the parent plant.

Where do fruit come from?

Most fruits are green when they start their development and then become a (1) bright (less camouflaged) color as they
ripen. Most fruits also become (2) sweeter, and (3) softer as they ripen.

Did you know?

The ovary itself grows (ripens)
and becomes a fruit. the
number of seeds inside a fruit
is an indication of how many
ovules the ovary contained.

Ovary Seed

Purpose of this mechanism? Fruit

To attract herbivores that eat the fruit and disperse the seed when
they deposit their feces. A display of colorful, soft, and sweet fruit is
intended to be a beautiful advertisement, helpful to attract animals.

Seed Germination

Embryo shoot
Seed germination is the early growth of a
seed as it develops into a plant.
Embryo Root

Glucose
4 Summary of Steps:
Starch
1 Absorb water in a process called imbibition.
3 2 Embryo produces gibberellin, which goes to food stores
to activate enzymes.
3 Enzymes: amylase (starch into glucose) & proteases
(protein into amino acids).
Cotyledons
4 These nutrients are moved to the embryo to help with
Gibberellin growth.
2
Water 5 Once leaves have formed these food stores will no
1 longer be required. Photosynthesis.

Inbibition
(absorption of water)

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Which are required for seed germination?

O2 Oxygen is needed, to allow
Factors which do not affect germination

aerobic respiration to produce

adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Dormancy (variable period)
Oxygen
Soil Is an adaptation feature to overcome
An appropriate temperature for the harsh, but potentially temporary,
seed is necessary. For its enzymes environmental conditions. It allows the
CO2 to start working (amylase). seed to wait until conditions are
Temperature suitable for growth by maintaining a
Carbon
very low metabolism without any growth
dioxide
Water is needed, to rehydrate the or development.
dried seed tissues. Imbibition.
Water

Once above ground, the early shoot will straighten IVAll plant growth from this point
III
Sunlight

orientating the growing young plant perpendicular on will occur at areas called
to the ground. the first real leaves then develop meristem tissue located at the
and begin photosynthesis as a new source of tips of shoot and roots.
energy rather than cotyledons.

II above
First structure to appear
ground is hypocotyl

I Portion of the embryo that

(curved portion below the
cotyledons), they grow in the
emerges first is the radicle opposite direction to the force
(initial root structure). of gravity (out of the ground).
It grows toward gravity
(towards soil)
Hypocotyl

Radicle

II The roots structures during

this time continue to develop.
forming secondary roots as
well as root hairs.

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 Notes
notes

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