INORGANIC CHEMISTRY MATTER

 Study of synthesis,  Physical material of the

structure, and reactions, as universe
well as properties of  Anything that has mass and
inorganic components. volume

INORGANIC COMPOUND ATOM

 Refer to materials not  Smallest unit of matter that

containing carbon-hydrogen retains all of the chemical
bonds. properties of a substance.
 Including: metals, salts, and
minerals.
1. STRUCTURE

MODULE 1: Atom
FOUNDATIONS OF
CHEMISTRY Nucleus Cloud

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION:
MATTER Proton Neutron Electron

CHEMISTRY
2. STATES OF MATTER
 Study of the properties of  Solid
materials and the changes  Liquid
they undergo.  Gas
PUBLIC CONCERN: SHAPE SIZE
 Improvement of health care Solid / /
 Conservation of natural Liquid X /
resources Gas X X
 Protection of the
environment
 Provision of our everyday
needs for food, clothing,
and shelter.
 3. CLASSIFICATION OF TYPES OF CHANGE
MATTER
PHYSICAL
Mixture Pure  Change in physical
appearance but not in
Physical Elements composition.
combiniation
of 2 or more CHEMICAL
substances
Compounds
 Transformation of a
substance into a chemically
4. PROPERTIES different substance.
a. PHYSICAL
 Can be perceived by the five
senses.
 Color, odor, density,
melting point, blood
pressure
b. CHEMICAL
 Describe the way a
substance may change/react
to form other substance.
 Flammability
a. INTENSIVE
 Do not depend on the
amount of the sample
 Melting point, density,
temperature
b. EXTENSIVE
 Depends on the quality of
the samples and includes
measurements of mass and
volume.
 UNIT 2: ENERGY 6. ELASTIC
 Energy from being
ENERGY
stretched/compresse
 Enable power d
 A fundamental entity of 7. GRAVITATIONAL
matter that is transferred  Energy that pulls
between parts or a system in objects towards
the production of physical each other
change within the system, 8. ELECTRICAL
and usually regarded as the  Caused by moving
capacity for doing work electrons

FORM

1. POTENTIAL ENERGY LAW OF ENERGY

 Energy at rest
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF
 Stored energy
ENERGY
2. KINETIC ENERGY
 Energy in motion  Energy can neither
be created nor
destroyed.
TYPES  Only converted
from one form to
1. THERMAL another.
 Aka heat
 Use on temperature
2. RADIANT
 Forms of
electromagnetic
energy
3. CHEMICAL
 Energy stored in
bonds
4. NUCLEAR
 Energy from
nucleus
5. SOUND
 Energy caused by
vibration
 UNIT 3: CHEMICAL NAMING
SYMBOLS, NOTATIONS, AND
PART A: Elements
NOMENCLATURE
 Represented by a symbol,
CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE
usually one or two letters
 Naming of substance
PART B: Isotopes
ELEMENTS
 Same chemical elements but
 Substances that cannot be different in atomic mass
broken down into new
PART C: Positive Ions (Cation)
substances
a. Cations formed from metal
ISTOPES
atoms have the same name as
 Elements that differ in the the metal:
number of Newton, and  Na+ sodium ion
consequently in mass  Zn2+ zinc ion
 Atomic Number- number of  Al3+ aluminiom ion
protons b. If a metal can form cation of
 Mass Number- (P+) + (No) differing charges, use Roman
Numerals enclosed in
COMPOUNDS
parentheses, aka stock method
 Chemical combination of 2  Fe2+ iron (II) ion
or more elements  Fe3+ iron (III) ion
 Cu+ copper (I) ion
IONS  Cu2+ copper (II) ion
 Changed particles Old method (classical method) uses
CATION different endings such as: -ous or -ic

 Positively charged ion  Fe2+ ferrous ion

 Fe3+ ferric ion
ANION  Cu+ cuprous ion
 Negatively charged ion  Cu2+ cupric ion

POLYATOMIC ION PART D: Negative Ions (Anions)

 Held together possessing a a. Drop ending of name and

common charge charge with -ide
 H- hydride ion
 O2 oxide ion
  N3 nitride ion ACIDS
 OH- hydroxide ion
 Substances whose
 CN- cyanide ion
molecules yield hydrogen
b. Polyatomic anions containing
ions (H+) when dissolved in
oxygen have names ending in -
water
ate or -ite (oxyanion)
 HCl
 NO3- nitrate
 H2SO4
 NO2- nitrite
a. Acids based on anions whose
 ClO4- perchlorate
names end in -ide
 ClO3- chlorate ion
 ClO2- chlorite ion Anions Corresponding Acid
 ClO- hypochlorite Cl (chloride) HCl (hydrochloric
acid)
c. Anions derived by adding H+ to
an oxyanion are named by S2- (sulphide) H2S (hydrosulfuric
acid)
adding as a prefix the word
b. Acids based on anions whose
hydrogen, or dihydrogen, as
names end in -ate or -ite
appropriate:
 CO32- carbonate ion Anions Corresponding Acid
 HCO3- hydrogen ClO- HClO
(hypochlorite) (hypochlorous
carbonate ion
acid)
 PO43- phosphate ion
ClO2- (chlorite) HClO2 (chlorous
 H2PO4- dihydrogen acid)
phosphate ion ClO3- (chlorate) HClO3 (chloric
acid)
PART E: Ionic Compounds ClO4- (perchlorate) HClO4 (perchloric
acid)
 Names of ionic compounds
are the cation name
followed by the anion name: PART G: Binary Molecular
 BaBr2 barium bromide Compounds
 Al(NO3)3 aluminium
nitrate Procedures:
 Cu(ClO4)2 copper (II) 1. Name 1st element on the farthest
perchlorate (cupric left. If both elements are on the
perchlorate) same group, the lower one is
named 1st.
2. Name the 2nd element with -ide
PART F: Inorganic Acids ending.
3. Use Greek prefixes to indicate
the number of atoms of each
element.
 Cl2O dichlorine
monoxide
 N2O4 dinitrogen
tetroxide
 NF3 nitrogen trifluoride
 P4S10 tatraphosphorus
decasulfide
 MODULE 2: e.g.
MEASUREMENTS IN
CHEMISTRY

UNIT 1: ACCURACY AND

PRECISION

TWO KINDS OF NUMBER A: Good accuracy

Good Precision
1. EXACT
B: Poor accuracy
 Have defined values or are
Good Precision
integers that result from
C: Poor accuracy
counting numbers of
Poor Precision
objects.

e.g.

1 dozen = 12
1 kg = 1000g
1 in = 2/54 cm
1m = 100 cm

2. INEXACT
 Numbers obtained by
measurement.

e.g.

Measurement taken by 10 students

PRECISION

 Measure of how closely

individual measurements
agree with one another.

ACCURACY

 Refers to how closely

individual measurements
agree with the correct or
“true” value.
 UNIT 2: UNITS OF CONVERSION OF UNITS
MEASUREMENT
TEMPERATURE
SI UNITS
K = ℃ + 273.15
 1960 an international
agreement was reached
specifying a particular
choice of metric units for
use in scientific
measurements.
 Preferred units
DERIVED SI UNITS
SI BASE UNITS
Physical Name of Unit Abbre
1. VOLUME
Quantity
Mass Kilogram kg m3 1L = 1000mL
Length Meter m
cm3 1mL = 1 cm3
Time Second s/sec
Electric Ampere A
dm3
current L
Temperature Kelvin K
Luminous Candela cd 2. DENSITY
intensity  Mass/volume
Amount of Mole mol
substance g/cm3

SELECTED PREFIXES USED

IN THE METRIC SYSTEM
Prefix Abbre Meaning
Giga- G 109
Mega- M 106
Kilo- k 103
Deci- d 10-1
Centi- c 10-2
Milli- m 10-3
Micro- µ 10-6
Nano- n 10-9
Pico- p 10-12
Femto- f 10-15
 UNIT 3: SCIENTIFIC
NOTATION

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

 Way of expressing
numbers that are too big
or too small to the
conveniently written in
decimal form

RULES:

A. NUMBERS GREATER
THAN 10

e.g.

604, 000
6.04 x 105

B. NUMBERS LESS THAN 1

e.g.

0.0058
5.8 x 10-3
 UNIT 4: SIGNIFICANT Ex. 0.0200 g – 3 significant figures
FIGURES 3.0 – 2 significant figures

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 5. When a number ends in zeros

but contains no decimal point, the
 Any of the digits of a
zeros may or may not be
number beginning with
significant.
the digit farthest to the
left that is not zero and Ex. 130 cm – 2 or 3 significant
ending with the last figures
digit farthest to the right 10 300 g 3, 4 or 5 significant figures
that is either not zero or
that is zero but is
considered to be exact. SIGNIFICANT FIGURES IN
CALCULATIONS
GUIDELINE FOR 1. In multiplication and division,
DETERMINING THE NUMBER the result must be reported with
OF SIGNIFICANT NUMBER the same number of significant
figures as the measurement with
1. Nonzero digits are always
the fewest significant figures.
significant

Ex. 457 cm – 3 significant figures

2.5 g – 2 significant figures 2. In addition and subtraction the
result cannot have more digits to
2. Zeros between nonzero digits are
always significant the right of the decimal point
than any of the original
Ex. 1005 kg – 4 significant figures numbers.
1.03 cm – 3 significant figures
3. Zeros at the beginning of a number
are never significant; they merely
indicate the position of the decimal
point.

Ex. 0.02 g – 1 significant figure

0.0026 – 2 significant figures

4. Zeros that fall both at the end

of a number and after the decimal
point are always significant.
 UNIT 5: UNIT FACTORS AND
UNIT CONVERSIONS

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

 Carry units through all

calculations
 Will help ensure that the
solution to problems
yields the proper units
 Provides a systematic
way of solving many
numerical problems and
of checking our
solutions for possible
errors

KEY: Use the correct conversion

factor

CONVERSION FACTOR

 a fraction whose numerator

and denominator are the
same quantity expressed in
different units.
 MODULE 3: CHEMICAL
REACTIONS

UNIT 1: TYPES OF CHEMICAL

REACTIONS

CHEMICAL REACTION
 govern by the Law of
Conservation of Mass
CHEMICAL EQUATION
 concise representation of a
chemical reaction

2H2+ O2 → 2H2O

2 (coefficient)
 numbers in front of the
formula
HO (reactants)
 chemical formulas on the
left of the arrow represent
the starting substances
2H2O (product)
 substances produced in the
chemical reaction

BALANCING CHEMICAL
EQUATION STEPS:

 atoms are neither created

nor destroyed in any
reaction
Balance the following equations:
1. Count the atoms of each 1.) Na+ H2O →NaOH+ H2
element in the reactants and 2.) C2H4+ O2 → CO2+ H2O
the products. 3.) Al+HCl →AlCl3+ H2
2. Use coefficients; place them in
front of the compounds as
needed.
 TYPES OF CHEMICAL 4. DOUBLE REPLACEMENT /
REACTIONS: METATHESIS REACTION
 reaction in which the
1. COMBINATION /
positive and negative ions
SYNTHESIS REACTION
of two ionic compounds
 reaction in which two or
exchange places to form
more substances combine to
two new compounds.
form a single new
substance. AB + CD →AC + BD

A + B →AB A and C are positively-charged

cations, while B and D are
2Na + Cl2 → 2NaCl
negatively-charged anions.
2. DECOMPOSITION /
2KI + Pb(NO3)2 →2KNO3 + PbI2
ANALYSIS REACTION
 reaction in which a 5. COMBUSTION
compound breaks down into  reaction in which a
two or more simpler substance reacts with
substances oxygen gas, releasing
energy in the form of light
AB →A + B
and heat.
CaCO3 →CaO + CO2  reactions must involve O2
as one reactant
3. SINGLE-REPLACEMENT
REACTION 2H2 + O2 → 2H2O
 reaction in which one
C3H8 + 5O2 →3CO2 + 4H2O
element replaces a similar
element in a compound.

A + BC →AC + B

Y + XZ →XY + Z

Y is a non-metal and replaces the

non-metal Z in the compound with
X.

Mg + Cu(NO3)2 → Mg(NO3)2+Cu

Zn + 2HCl →ZnCl2 + H2
UNIT 2: HEATS OF REACTION

PRESSURE

 force exerted per unit area

HEATS OF REACTIONS:
The higher the elevation, the lower
the atmospheric pressure exerted ΔH=H(products) −H(reactants)
because there is less air pressing
down on the object.
ΔHO = change in enthalpy
ENTHALPHY
= change in heat
 heat absorbed or released
under constant pressure *considering the standard
condition, kJ/mol

Σ = ‘the sum of’

ΔH = change in enthalpy
ΔHfo = heat of formation at standard
= qp condition, kJ/mol

ΔH = qp

VALUES AND MEANINGS:

+ΔH

 endothermic process
 gained heat from the
surroundings

-ΔH

 exothermic process
 released heat to the
surroundings
Example: STEP 4:

STEP 1: Try to analyse the final answer.

List the known quantities together If you notice, the answer is negative
with their corresponding ΔHfo (use showing that the process is
the table provided). exothermic.

Take note of the unit to be used

(kJ/mol). If you notice under the
chemical formula, the symbols are STEP 1:
accompanied with “(g)”. This
entails that the substance is a gas
because some substances can exist
as a solid (s), liquid (l) or gas (g).
STEP 2:
STEP 2:

Write the balanced equation of the

reaction STEP 3:
2NO(g)+ O2(g) →2NO2(g)

STEP 3:

Solve for ΔHO using the given

equation

ΔHO = −681.08 kJ, exothermic

STEP 4:

The answer is negative showing that

the process is exothermic

ΔHO = −114.1 kJ, exothermic

UNIT 3: HEATS OF REACTION DETERMINING THE
SPONTANEITY OF A PROCESS
SPONTANEOUS PROCESS
a.) The spontaneity of a reaction
 occurs without the addition involves an increase in the
of external energy entropy of the universe
(covering the system and
ex.
surrounding)
process of carbon in the form of a
diamond turning into graphite.

 Can be exothermic or b.) Generally, reactions for which

endothermic ΔH is large and negative tend to
occur spontaneously.
NONSPONTANEOUS PROCESS
ΔG= ΔH−TΔS
 needs external energy
ΔG = free energy
ex. ΔH = change in enthalpy
T = temperature
Photosynthesis
ΔS = change in entropy
Decomposition of H20 into H2 and
O2 gases CONDITIONS:

GIBS FREE ENERGY a. If ΔG is negative, the reaction is

spontaneous in the forward
 one way to assess the direction.
spontaneity of a process b. If ΔG is zero, the reaction is at
equilibrium.
 covers two properties:
c. If ΔG is positive, the reaction in
enthalpy and entropy the forward direction is
ENTROPY (denoted by S) nonspontaneous; work must be
supplied from the surroundings
 randomness or disorder to make it occur. However, the
reverse reaction will be
ex. spontaneous.

Melting of ice

The more disordered or random a

system, the larger its entropy.
Example
Statement Problem 1 Statement Problem 2
1N2(g)+3H2(g) ↔2NH3(g) 1CH4(g)+1O2(g) → 1CO2(g) + 1H2O(g)

STEP 1: STEP 1:

Take note of the unit to be used

(kJ/mol). If you notice under the STEP 2:
chemical formula, the symbols are
accompanied with “(g)”. This
STEP 3:
entails that the substance is a gas
because some substances can exist
as a solid (s), liquid (l) or gas (g).
STEP 2:

Write the balanced equation of the

reaction. ΔGo = -801.04 kJ, spontaneous
N2(g)+3H2(g) ↔2NH3(g) STEP 4:
STEP 3:
The answer is negative showing that
o
Solve for ΔG using the given the process is spontaneous for the
equation. forward reaction. As a result, higher
amount of the products will be
produced consuming the reactants.

ΔGo = -33kJ, spontaneous

STEP 4:

Try to analyse the final answer.

If you notice, the answer is negative
showing that the process is
spontaneous in the forward reaction.
As a result, higher amount of NH3
will be produced.
Statement Problem 3
1SO2(g)+1O2(g) → 1SO3(g)

STEP 1:

STEP 2:

STEP 3:

ΔGo = -143kJ, spontaneous

STEP 4:

The answer is negative showing that

the process for the forward reaction
is spontaneous. Thus, higher amount
of SO3 is produced.
 COMBUSTION (non- COMBUSTION (hydrocarbon)
hydrocarbon)
 If other reactant is a
Model: hydrocarbon, then
A + O2 → AxOy products are CO2 and
H2O.
Identifying feature:
One reactant must be oxygen Two forms:

1. Metals + O2 CxHy

Al + O2 → Al2O3

Fe + O2 → Fe2O3
CxHyOz
Balanced: 4Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3

2. Non-metals + O2

C + O2 → CO2

C + O2 → CO

S + O2 → SO2

S + O2 → SO3
 MODULE 4: CHEMICAL BOHR MODEL OF THE
PERIODICITY ATOM
ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND
BOHR MODEL

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
PROTONS, ELECTRONS,
AND ATOMIC NUMBER
 The number of protons in
an atom determines its
atomic number, which
distinguishes one element
from another.
 In a neutral atom, the Proposed by Niels Bohr in 1913.
number of protons equals
The Bohr model shows the atom
the number of electrons.
as having:
 Therefore, each element,
when electrically neutral, has  A central nucleus
a number of electrons equal (containing protons and
to its atomic number. neutrons)
 Electrons orbiting around
Example:
the nucleus in specific
Hydrogen (H) → Atomic number circular paths or energy
= 1 → 1 proton and 1 electron levels (shells)
Example:
Carbon (C) → Atomic number = Hydrogen atom: 1 electron
6 → 6 protons and 6 electrons orbiting the nucleus in the first
energy level (n = 1).
ENERGY LEVELS (Electron VALENCE SHELL AND
Shells) STABILITY
Electrons exist in principal Atoms gain or lose electrons to
energy levels or shells, achieve a full valence shell (the
represented by the symbol “n.” outermost energy level).
 1n = first energy level A full valence shell represents
(closest to nucleus) the most stable electron
 2n = second energy level, configuration.
and so on
The periodic table is arranged
Electrons occupy the lowest based on electron distribution
available energy level (ground and helps predict how atoms will
state). react.
When an electron absorbs energy
from a photon of light, it can
NOBLE GAS (Group 18)
move to a higher energy level
(excited state).
The excited electron quickly
returns to its ground state,
releasing a photon of light.
Example:
When hydrogen gas is excited by
electricity, it emits light as Elements: Helium (He), Neon
electrons return to lower energy (Ne), Argon (Ar)
levels.
Have filled outer electron
shells, making them stable and
non-reactive.
They do not need to gain or lose
electrons to attain stability.
Called inert gases or noble
gases.
Example: When they gain an electron, they
become negatively charged ions
Neon (Ne): 2 electrons in first
(anions).
shell, 8 electrons in second shell
→ full outer shell Example:
Fluorine (F) → gains one
electron → F⁻
ALKALI METALS (Group 1)
Elements: Hydrogen (H),
Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na) ELECTRON ORBITALS

Have one electron in their FROM BOHR MODEL TO

outermost shell. ELECTRON ORBITALS

Tend to lose one electron to The Bohr model is useful in

achieve a stable configuration. explaining reactivity and
chemical bonding, but it does
When they lose an electron, they
not accurately represent how
become positively charged ions electrons are distributed around
(cations). the nucleus.
Example:
Electrons do not circle the
Sodium (Na) → loses one nucleus like planets orbiting the
electron → Na⁺ sun.

Instead, they are found in

electron orbitals, which describe
HALOGENS (Group 17) where electrons are most likely
to be found.
Elements: Fluorine (F),
Chlorine (Cl) These orbitals have complex
shapes because electrons behave
Have seven electrons in their
both as particles and waves.
outermost shell.
Tend to gain one electron to The area where an electron is
most likely to be found is called
complete their outer shell.
its orbital.
 FIRST ELECTRON SHELL (1st electrons).After the 1s
Orbital) orbital is filled, electrons
begin filling the 2s
 The closest orbital to the orbital, then the 2p
nucleus is called the 1s orbitals.
orbital.
 It can hold up to two When filling the p orbitals, each
electrons. orbital gets one electron first,
 The 1s orbital is and then the second electrons are
spherical around the added.
nucleus.
 It is always filled before Examples:
any other orbital.
Lithium (Li) → 3 electrons →
Examples: 1s² 2s¹

Hydrogen (H) → 1 electron → Neon (Ne) → 10 electrons → 1s²

1s¹ 2s² 2p⁶

Helium (He) → 2 electrons →  Neon has a filled second

1s² (completely filled) shell and is inert and
stable, rarely forming
On the periodic table, hydrogen bonds.
and helium are the only two
elements in the first period
(row) because they have
electrons only in the 1s orbital. THIRD ELECTRON SHELL (3s,
3p, 3d Orbitals)
SECOND ELECTRON SHELL
(2s and 2p Orbitals)  Larger elements have
additional orbitals that
 The second shell can form the third electron
hold up to 8 electrons shell.
 The third shell (n = 3)
It contains: includes the s, p, and d
subshells.
 One spherical 2s orbital,  It can hold up to 18
and electrons.
 Three dumbbell-shaped  The fourth shell (n = 4)
2p orbitals (each holds 2 includes s, p, d, and f
 orbitals and can hold up PERIODIC TABLE
to 32 electrons.
 As the distance from the  Most significant tool
nucleus increases, both chemists use for
the number of orbitals organizing and
and electrons per level remembering chemical
increase. facts.
 It is based on periodic
BUILDING ELECTRON patterns in the electron
CONFIGURATIONS configurations of
elements.
Moving across the periodic table  Elements in the same
from one element to the next, column (group) have the
each new element adds one same number of
more electron to the next electrons in their outer-
available orbital. shell (valence) orbitals,
which gives them similar
Electron shells and orbitals are properties.
closely related, but:
Example:
 Shells describe energy
levels, while Oxygen (O): [He] 2s² 2p⁴
 Orbitals give a more
accurate picture of Sulfur (S): [Ne] 3s² 3p⁴
shapes and orientations
where electrons can be Both belong to Group 6A and
found. have similar valence orbital
occupancies, leading to similar
chemical behavior.

However, they differ in the shells

their outermost electrons occupy
(O in 2nd shell, S in 3rd shell).
TRENDS IN THE PERIODIC distance between their
TABLE nuclei during collisions is
called the non-bonding
As we move across a row radius.
(period) or down a column
(group), element properties BONDING ATOMIC RADIUS
change in patterns.
 When two atoms
These patterns help in predicting chemically bond, they
chemical properties and are closer together than
reactivity of elements in non-bonding situations
due to attractive forces
A. ATOMIC SIZES between them.
 The distance between the
nuclei of two bonded
atoms is the bonding
atomic radius.

TRENDS IN ATOMIC
RADIUS

1. Within a column
(group):

Atomic radius increases

from top to bottom.

2. Within a row (period):

Atomic radius decreases

NON-BONDING RADIUS from left to right

 In gases, atoms like

argon bounce off one
another when they collide
because their electron
clouds repel each other.
 The apparent radius
determined by the closest
 B. IONIZATION ENERGY 3 TRENDS IN IONIZATION
ENERGY
 Ionization energy (IE) is
the minimum energy 1. Across a row (period):
required to remove an
electron from the ground Ionization energy increases as
state of an isolated atomic number increases.
gaseous atom or ion.
 It indicates how easily an Alkali metals (Group 1) have the
atom loses an electron, lowest IE, while noble gases
which reflects its (Group 18) have the highest IE.
chemical behavior.
There are slight irregularities in
TYPES OF IONIZATION this trend.
ENERGY
2. Down a column (group):
First Ionization Energy (I1)
Ionization energy decreases
 Energy needed to remove with increasing atomic number.
the first electron from a
neutral atom. Example trend (noble gases):
He > Ne > Ar > Kr > Xe
Example:
Na(g) → Na⁺(g) + e⁻ 3. Range of Ionization Energy:

Second Ionization Energy (I2) Representative elements show a

wider range of ionization
 Energy needed to remove energies compared to transition
the second electron from metals.
a positively charged ion.
For transition metals, IE
Example: changes more gradually across
Na⁺(g) → Na²⁺(g) + e⁻ the period.

The greater the ionization

energy, the harder it is to
remove an electron.
EXPLANATION OF TRENDS

The energy needed to remove

an electron depends on two
factors:

 Effective nuclear charge

(Zeff): Strength of
attraction between
nucleus and electron.
C. ELECTRON AFFINITIES
 Distance of electron
from nucleus.
 Ionization energy
Increasing effective nuclear measures the energy
charge or decreasing distance required to remove an
makes it harder to remove an electron from an atom to
electron, so ionization energy form a positively
increases. charged ion.
Trends explained: Example:
Cl(g) → Cl⁺(g) + e⁻ ΔE =
Across a period:
+1251 kJ/mol
 Effective nuclear charge
increases and atomic The positive value means
radius decreases → energy is absorbed to remove
Ionization energy the electron.
increases.
 Electron affinity, on the
Down a group: other hand, measures the
energy change when an
 Atomic radius increases, atom gains an electron
while effective nuclear to form a negatively
charge stays nearly charged ion.
constant → Ionization  It indicates the affinity
energy decreases. (attraction) of an atom
for the added electron.
 For most atoms, energy
is released when an
electron is added.
Example: 2. Down a group (top →
Cl(g) + e⁻ → Cl⁻(g) ΔE = – bottom):
349 kJ/mol
 Electron affinity
The negative sign means energy decreases (becomes less
is released during the process. negative).

COMPARISON 3. General observation:

PROPERTY IONIZATION
ENERGY
ELECTRON
AFFINITY
 Nonmetals have higher
electron affinities than
Meaning Electron Energy metals.
required to released or  Noble gases are
remove an absorbed exceptions — they have
electron when an filled valence shells and
electron is
electron affinity values
added
near zero.
Ion Positive ion Negative  Despite some exceptions,
formed (cation) ion (anion) periodic behavior
remains consistent within
Energy Positive (+) Usually each group.
sign negative
(-)

Example Na(g)→ Cl(g)+ e⁻

Na⁺(g) + e⁻ → Cl⁻(g)

3 TRENDS IN ELECTRON
AFFINITY

1. Across a period (left →

right):

 Electron affinity
increases (becomes more
negative).
 TRENDS
Across a period (left → right)
D. ELECTRONEGATIVITY
 Electronegativity
 Electronegativity increases.
measures an atom’s  Atoms with nearly full
tendency to attract and valence shells attract
form bonds with electrons more strongly.
electrons.
 It is based on the Down a group (top → bottom)
electronic configuration
of atoms.  Electronegativity
 Most atoms follow the decreases.
octet rule (8 valence  Atomic number increases
electrons = stability). → valence electrons
farther from nucleus →
BEHAVIOR ACROSS THE weaker attraction.
PERIODIC TABLE
EXCEPTIONS
Elements on the left side
Noble gases:
(metals):
Have complete valence
 Have less than half-filled shells → do not attract
valence shells. electrons → no
 Lose electrons more electronegativity values.
easily than gaining them.
Lanthanides and Actinides:
Elements on the right side
(nonmetals):  Have complex electron
configurations → no
 Have more than half- consistent trend.
filled valence shells.
 Gain electrons easily to Transition metals:
complete their octet.
 Have electronegativity
Thus, the greater the tendency values but show little
to gain electrons, the higher the variation across periods
electronegativity. and groups due to
metallic bonding.
 As atomic size increases:

 Principal quantum
number increases.
 Electron density moves
farther from the nucleus.
 Electron shielding
reduces attraction
between nucleus and
valence electrons.
E. METALLIC CHARACTER  Result: Easier loss of
electrons → increased
metallic character.
 Metallic character refers
to how easily an atom can
SUMMARY OF METALLIC
lose electrons.
AND NONMETALLIC
 It indicates the “metal-
CHARACTERISTICS
like” behavior of an
element.
Metallic Nonmetallic
Trend
Character Character
TRENDS Across a
Period Decreases Increases
Across a period (left → right): (→)
Down a
Increases Decreases
 Metallic character Group (↓)
Lose
decreases. Gain electrons
Tendency electrons
 Smaller atomic radius = easily
easily
stronger attraction Increases
between nucleus and Position Increases
toward
on toward upper-
electrons → harder to Periodic
bottom-left
right
lose electrons. (Groups 1 &
Table (Nonmetals)
2)
Down a group (top → bottom):

 Metallic character
increases.
 Atomic size increases →
valence electrons farther
from nucleus → easier to
lose electrons. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
METALS AND NONMETALS
 METALS NONMETALS
Have a shiny
luster; most are Do not have luster;
silvery (various various colors
colors)
Malleable and
Solids are usually
ductile (can be
brittle; may be hard
shaped or drawn
or soft
into wires)
Good
conductors of Poor conductors of
heat and heat and electricity
electricity
Nonmetal oxides are
Metal oxides are
molecular
ionic solids and
substances and
basic
acidic