YEAR 8 SCIENCE

Chapter 7
Sedimentary, Igneous and
Metamorphic Rocks
Full Lecture Notes | Victorian Curriculum AC9S8U04

LEARNING INTENTIONS
1. Describe the key processes of the rock cycle and the timescales involved
2. Identify the three main rock types and explain how each forms
3. Explain how rock properties reflect their formation
4. Connect rock properties to their practical uses in technology and construction
5. Use geological evidence to interpret Earth's history, including the extinction of
dinosaurs
7.1 Overview — The Rock Cycle
Earth's crust is made of rock. Rocks are constantly being formed, broken down, and re-formed
through a series of geological processes that operate over millions of years. This ongoing system
is known as the rock cycle.

What is the Rock Cycle?

The rock cycle is a continuous set of natural processes by which rocks are created, transformed
from one type to another, and eventually recycled. No rock is permanent — given enough time,
any rock can be changed into any other type of rock.

📌 Key Idea
The rock cycle is driven by two energy sources: heat from Earth's interior (geothermal
energy) and energy from the Sun (which drives the water cycle and erosion).

The Three Rock Types

Rocks are classified into three main types based on how they form:
• Igneous rocks — formed from the cooling and solidification of molten rock (magma
or lava)
• Sedimentary rocks — formed from the compaction and cementation of sediments
(fragments of other rocks, minerals, or organic material)
• Metamorphic rocks — formed when existing rocks are transformed by heat,
pressure, or chemically reactive fluids

Timescales of the Rock Cycle

Most rock cycle processes occur over geological time — millions to billions of years. However,
some processes can be rapid:
Process Approximate Timescale
Volcanic eruption (lava cooling) Days to years
Weathering and erosion of surface rock Thousands to millions of years
Sediment compaction into sedimentary rock Millions of years
Metamorphism (heat/pressure transformation) Millions of years
Tectonic uplift of buried rock Tens of millions of years
Complete rock cycle (all stages) Hundreds of millions of years

📌 Real World Connection

The oldest known rocks on Earth (Acasta Gneiss, Canada) are about 4 billion years old.
They give scientists clues about conditions on early Earth.
Processes in the Rock Cycle
Several key processes drive the transformation of rocks:
• Weathering: the breakdown of rock at or near Earth's surface by physical, chemical, or
biological agents
• Erosion: the transport of weathered rock fragments (sediment) by wind, water, or ice
• Deposition: the settling of sediment in a new location
• Compaction and cementation: sediment layers are compressed and minerals cement
particles together to form sedimentary rock
• Melting: rock melts under extreme heat to form magma
• Solidification (crystallisation): magma or lava cools and hardens into igneous rock
• Metamorphism: heat and/or pressure transforms one rock type into metamorphic rock
without melting
• Uplift: tectonic forces push buried rock back towards the surface
7.2 Rocks and Minerals
What is a Mineral?
A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical composition and a
crystalline structure. Each mineral has unique physical properties that can be used to identify it.

Properties Used to Identify Minerals

Property Description Example
Colour The visible colour — but can be Quartz can be clear, white,
misleading as impurities can change pink or purple
it
Lustre How light reflects off the surface — Pyrite has metallic lustre; talc
metallic or non-metallic has waxy lustre
Hardness Resistance to scratching — Diamond (10) scratches
measured on Mohs scale (1–10) glass; talc (1) scratched by
fingernail
Cleavage Tendency to split along flat planes of Mica splits into thin flat sheets
weakness
Fracture How a mineral breaks when it does Quartz shows conchoidal
NOT cleave (shell-like) fracture
Streak Colour of the mineral's powder on a Haematite has a red-brown
porcelain tile streak despite grey colour
Crystal shape The geometric form of the mineral's Halite (table salt) forms cubic
crystals crystals
Density Mass per unit volume — felt as Gold is noticeably dense
'heaviness'

What is a Rock?
A rock is a naturally occurring solid mixture of one or more minerals, or other organic material.
Unlike a pure mineral, rocks do not have a definite chemical composition — they vary in their
mineral content.

📌 Minerals vs Rocks
All rocks are made of minerals, but not all minerals form rocks. For example, granite (a rock)
is made of the minerals quartz, feldspar, and mica.

Common Rock-Forming Minerals

• Quartz — very hard (Mohs 7), glassy, found in many rock types
• Feldspar — most abundant mineral in Earth's crust; pink or white
• Mica — splits into thin sheets; found in granite and schist
• Calcite — main mineral in limestone and marble; reacts with acid
• Olivine — green mineral found in basalt and other mafic rocks
 • Clay minerals — fine-grained, formed by weathering; found in shale

The Mohs Hardness Scale

Friedrich Mohs developed this scale in 1812 to rank minerals by their ability to scratch each other.
A harder mineral will always scratch a softer one.
Hardness Mineral Common Test
1 Talc Scratched by fingernail
2 Gypsum Scratched by fingernail
3 Calcite Scratched by copper coin
4 Fluorite Scratched by iron nail
5 Apatite Scratched by a steel knife
6 Feldspar Scratches glass
7 Quartz Scratches glass easily
8 Topaz Scratched only by corundum or diamond
9 Corundum Scratched only by diamond
10 Diamond The hardest natural substance — scratches
everything
7.3 Mining for Metals
Ores and Minerals
Metals are rarely found in pure form in nature. Most metals exist as ores — rocks that contain a
high enough concentration of a mineral to make mining economically worthwhile.

• Ore: a rock or mineral from which a useful substance (usually a metal) can be profitably
extracted
• Ore mineral: the specific mineral in the rock that contains the valuable metal
• Gangue: the waste rock surrounding the ore mineral

Common Metal Ores

Metal Common Ore Mineral Chemical Formula
Iron Haematite Fe₂ O₃
Iron Magnetite Fe₃ O₄
Aluminium Bauxite Al(OH)₃ / AlO(OH)
Copper Chalcopyrite CuFeS₂
Gold Native gold / Gold ore Au
Lead Galena PbS
Zinc Sphalerite ZnS
Titanium Ilmenite FeTiO₃

Methods of Mining
1. Open-cut (Surface) Mining
Used when ore is close to the surface. Layers of rock (overburden) are removed to expose the
ore. This is the most common method in Australia.
• Advantages: cheaper, safer, can extract large quantities
• Disadvantages: large land disturbance, habitat destruction, visual impact
– Example: Pilbara iron ore mines in Western Australia

2. Underground Mining
Used when ore deposits are deep below the surface. Tunnels (shafts and drives) are dug to
reach the ore.
• Advantages: less surface disturbance
• Disadvantages: expensive, more dangerous for workers
– Example: gold mines in Kalgoorlie, WA

3. Placer Mining
Valuable minerals (such as gold or gemstones) that have been eroded and concentrated in
stream beds are collected by washing gravel with water.
• Example: gold panning during the Victorian Gold Rush (1850s)

Processing Ore
Once ore is extracted, it must be processed to obtain the pure metal:
6. Crushing and grinding — ore is broken into small pieces
7. Concentration — gangue is separated from ore minerals (e.g. by flotation or magnetic
separation)
8. Smelting — ore is heated with chemicals in a furnace to extract the metal
9. Refining — the metal is purified to remove remaining impurities

📌 Environmental Impact
Mining disturbs large areas of land, produces waste rock (tailings), can contaminate water,
and releases greenhouse gases. Modern Australian mines must have rehabilitation plans to
restore land after mining is complete.
7.4 Igneous Rocks — The 'Hot' Rocks
Formation of Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks (from the Latin word ignis meaning 'fire') form when magma (molten rock beneath
Earth's surface) or lava (molten rock above the surface) cools and solidifies.

• Magma: molten rock found beneath Earth's surface in the mantle or lower crust
• Lava: magma that has reached Earth's surface through volcanic activity
• Crystallisation: the process by which atoms arrange themselves into crystal structures
as molten rock cools

Two Types of Igneous Rock

Feature Intrusive (Plutonic) Extrusive (Volcanic)
Where formed Deep underground — inside At or near Earth's surface
Earth's crust
Cooling rate Very slow (millions of years) Fast (days to years)
Crystal size Large, visible crystals Small or no crystals (glassy)
Texture Coarse-grained (phaneritic) Fine-grained (aphanitic) or
glassy
Examples Granite, diorite, gabbro Basalt, rhyolite, obsidian, pumice
Common location Found exposed after uplift and Lava flows, volcanic ash, lava
erosion tubes

📌 Crystal Size Rule

The slower magma cools, the larger the crystals that form. This is because slow cooling
gives atoms more time to arrange into large, well-formed crystal structures.

Common Igneous Rocks

Granite
• Intrusive igneous rock
• Large interlocking crystals of quartz (grey/clear), feldspar (pink/white), and mica
(black/silver)
• Hard (Mohs 6–7), durable, resistant to weathering
• Used in: kitchen benchtops, building foundations, road base, gravestones

Basalt
• Extrusive igneous rock — most common volcanic rock on Earth
• Fine-grained; dark grey to black in colour
• Often has vesicles (small holes) from trapped gas bubbles in lava
• Forms the ocean floor (oceanic crust)
 • Used in: road construction (blue-metal), concrete aggregate, building stone

Obsidian
• Extrusive igneous rock — formed when lava cools extremely rapidly
• No crystal structure — a natural volcanic glass
• Shiny, black, conchoidal fracture producing extremely sharp edges
• Used historically by Aboriginal and Indigenous peoples for cutting tools; now used in
surgical scalpel blades

Pumice
• Extrusive igneous rock — formed from frothy, gas-rich lava
• Very porous and light — can float on water
• Low density due to thousands of tiny gas bubble holes
• Used in: abrasives, cosmetics, construction (lightweight concrete)

The Bowen's Reaction Series

As magma cools, different minerals crystallise at different temperatures. N.L. Bowen (1922)
described this sequence:
• First to crystallise (highest temperature): olivine, pyroxene, calcium-rich feldspar
• Last to crystallise (lowest temperature): quartz, potassium feldspar, muscovite mica
This explains why different igneous rock compositions exist depending on when and where
cooling occurs.

Volcanoes and Plate Tectonics

Most igneous rocks form at tectonic plate boundaries or hot spots:
• Divergent boundaries — plates pull apart; basaltic magma erupts to form new oceanic
crust (e.g. Mid-Atlantic Ridge)
• Convergent boundaries — one plate subducts under another; water lowers melting point
of rock, producing magma (e.g. the Ring of Fire)
• Hot spots — plumes of hot mantle rock rise and melt through the crust (e.g. Hawaiian
Islands)
7.5 Sedimentary Rocks — The 'Deposited' Rocks
Formation of Sedimentary Rocks
Sedimentary rocks form at or near Earth's surface through the accumulation and lithification of
sediment. The process occurs in distinct stages:

10. Weathering — existing rocks are broken down into smaller fragments (sediment)
11. Erosion and transport — sediment is moved by water, wind, ice or gravity
12. Deposition — sediment settles in layers (strata) in a low-energy environment
13. Compaction — the weight of overlying sediment squeezes water out and
compresses layers
14. Cementation — minerals precipitate from groundwater and bind particles together
Compaction + Cementation = Lithification (turning sediment into rock)

• Lithification: the process by which sediment is converted into sedimentary rock

• Strata (singular: stratum): distinct layers of sedimentary rock
• Stratification: the layered structure of sedimentary rock

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

1. Clastic (Detrital) Sedimentary Rocks
Made from fragments (clasts) of pre-existing rocks. Classified by particle size:
Rock Particle Size How it Forms Example Uses
Shale Very fine (clay/silt) Fine particles deposited in Oil/gas reservoir;
calm water — lakes, deep ceramics
ocean
Sandstone Medium (sand) Sand deposited by rivers, Building stone; glass-
beaches, deserts making
Conglomerate Coarse Large rounded fragments Decorative stone
(pebbles/gravel) deposited by fast-moving
water
Breccia Coarse (angular Fragments deposited close Decorative stone
fragments) to source — no time to
round

2. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Formed when minerals dissolved in water precipitate (come out of solution) and accumulate:
• Rock salt (halite) — formed by evaporation of salty water in basins
• Travertine/limestone — formed by precipitation of calcium carbonate from water
• Chert — formed from the precipitation of silica

3. Organic (Biochemical) Sedimentary Rocks

Formed from the remains of living organisms:
 • Limestone — made from shells and skeletons of marine organisms (coral, molluscs)
• Coal — formed from compressed plant material in ancient swamps over millions of years
• Chalk — formed from microscopic shells of marine plankton

📌 Important: Fossils
Sedimentary rocks are the ONLY type of rock that contains fossils. Fossils form when
organisms are buried in sediment before they decompose. They provide evidence of past
life and are crucial for understanding Earth's history.

Features of Sedimentary Rocks

• Visible layers (strata) — each layer represents a period of deposition
• Fossils — preserved remains of organisms
• Cross-bedding — angled layers indicating ancient currents (wind or water)
• Ripple marks — preserved ripples from water or wind movement
• Mud cracks — desiccation cracks from exposed mud drying out

Sedimentary Environments
Sedimentary rocks form in many different environments, each producing characteristic rock types:
Environment Rock Type Formed Key Features
River floodplain Sandstone, shale Cross-bedding, ripple marks
Desert (aeolian) Sandstone Large-scale cross-bedding, well-
rounded grains
Shallow ocean Limestone, sandstone Fossils, wave ripples
Deep ocean Shale, chert Fine-grained, few fossils
Swamp/coal forest Coal, shale Plant fossils, carbonaceous material
Evaporite basin Rock salt, gypsum Crystal structure, no fossils
7.6 Metamorphic Rocks — The 'Changed' Rocks
Formation of Metamorphic Rocks
Metamorphic rocks (from the Greek word metamorphosis meaning 'change in form') form when
existing rocks — called parent rocks or protoliths — are subjected to intense heat, pressure, or
chemically reactive fluids. Crucially, metamorphism occurs in the SOLID STATE — the rock does
NOT melt.

• Metamorphism: the transformation of one rock type into another through heat, pressure,
or fluids without melting
• Protolith: the original rock before metamorphism (the 'parent rock')
• Recrystallisation: the process by which minerals grow into new, larger crystals under
heat/pressure

Agents of Metamorphism
1. Heat
Heat can come from nearby magma intrusions (contact metamorphism) or from burial deep in the
Earth's crust (regional metamorphism). Heat provides energy for chemical reactions that form
new minerals.

2. Pressure
Deep burial under thick layers of rock creates confining pressure. Tectonic forces at plate
boundaries create directed pressure (stress). Pressure causes minerals to recrystallise and align
in preferred orientations.

3. Chemically Active Fluids

Hot water and other fluids can transport ions and trigger chemical reactions that form new
minerals, even without extreme heat or pressure. This is called metasomatism.

Types of Metamorphism
Type Main Agent Scale Example Rock
Contact (thermal) Heat from magma Local — near intrusion Hornfels, marble (from
limestone)
Regional Heat + pressure from Large-scale — Schist, gneiss,
plate tectonics mountain belts quartzite, slate
Dynamic Extreme pressure along Along fault zones Mylonite
faults
Hydrothermal Hot fluids Around volcanic vents Greenstone,
serpentinite

Common Metamorphic Rocks

Slate
• Protolith: shale
• Low-grade metamorphism (low heat + pressure)
• Fine-grained; splits into thin, flat sheets (foliation)
• Used in: roofing tiles, flooring, pool tables, school writing slates (historically)

Schist
• Protolith: shale or igneous rock
• Medium-grade metamorphism
• Shiny, platy minerals (micas) visibly aligned — shows foliation
• Contains distinctive minerals like garnets, chlorite, hornblende

Gneiss
• Protolith: granite, shale or other rocks
• High-grade metamorphism
• Alternating light and dark banded layers (compositional banding)
• One of the most common rocks in Earth's ancient cratons (stable continental cores)

Marble
• Protolith: limestone or dolostone
• Recrystallised calcite or dolomite crystals
• Non-foliated; smooth; can be white, pink, grey, or veined
• Used in: sculptures, building facades, benchtops (e.g. Carrara marble in Michelangelo's
David)

Quartzite
• Protolith: sandstone
• Quartz grains recrystallise and fuse together — very hard and durable
• Non-foliated; often white or grey
• Used in: road construction, railway ballast, roofing tiles

Hornfels
• Formed by contact metamorphism near igneous intrusions
• Hard, fine-grained, no foliation
• Often dark in colour

Foliation
Many metamorphic rocks have a foliated texture — minerals are aligned in parallel layers or
bands due to directed pressure. This gives the rock a layered or flaky appearance.
• Slaty cleavage — very fine foliation in slate
 • Schistosity — coarser foliation with visible mica flakes in schist
• Gneissic banding — alternating light and dark bands in gneiss
Non-foliated metamorphic rocks (marble, quartzite, hornfels) form when pressure is equal in all
directions (confining) rather than directed.

Grade of Metamorphism
As temperature and pressure increase, the grade of metamorphism increases and different
minerals form:
Grade Conditions Typical Rock Indicator Minerals
Very low Low T, low P (near Slate Chlorite, clay minerals
surface)
Low Moderate T and P Phyllite Chlorite, muscovite
Medium Higher T and P Schist Garnet, biotite, staurolite
High Very high T and P Gneiss Kyanite, sillimanite, K-
feldspar
7.7 Rock Technology — Rocks in Human Use
Overview
The properties of rocks directly determine their suitability for different uses. Understanding rock
properties allows engineers and scientists to select the right material for each application.

Properties That Determine Use

Property Definition Example Application
Hardness Resistance to scratching Hard rocks (granite, quartzite) used in road
and abrasion surfaces and cutting tools
Strength/Durability Ability to withstand stress Strong rocks used in construction
without breaking foundations
Porosity Proportion of empty space Porous sandstone used as oil/gas reservoir;
(pores) in rock pumice used as lightweight aggregate
Permeability Ability to allow fluid to pass Permeable limestone forms aquifers
through (underground water stores)
Cleavage/Splitting Tendency to split along flat Slate and flagstone split into flat tiles for
planes roofing and paving
Thermal properties How rock responds to heat Soapstone and granite used for cooking
stones and benchtops
Aesthetic properties Colour, pattern, texture for Marble and granite used in decorative
visual appeal building stone

Uses of Specific Rock Types

Construction and Building
• Granite: used in benchtops, building facades, flooring, kerbing — hard and durable
• Sandstone: Sydney Harbour Bridge pylons, many historic buildings — weathers to warm
tones
• Limestone: cement production (heated to make calcium oxide/quicklime); also building
stone
• Slate: roofing tiles, paving, floor tiles — splits into flat sheets
• Marble: decorative facades, floor tiles, sculptures — attractive veined appearance

Infrastructure and Engineering

• Basalt: crushed into blue-metal for road base and concrete aggregate — very hard
• Quartzite: railway ballast, road construction — very hard and durable
• Granite: used as aggregate and in bridge construction

Industrial and Manufacturing Uses

• Limestone: used to make cement, glass, and as a flux in iron smelting
• Gypsum (from evaporite rock): used to make plaster of Paris and plasterboard (gyprock)
 • Coal: fuel for electricity generation; also used in steel-making
• Pumice: abrasive in cleaning products and cosmetics; also used in lightweight concrete
• Clay minerals (from shale): ceramics, bricks, tiles, pottery

Tools and Technology

• Obsidian: extremely sharp edges used historically for cutting tools; modern surgical
blades
• Flint (a form of chert): used by early humans for cutting tools and fire-making
• Diamond: industrial cutting, drilling, and grinding

📌 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Technology

Aboriginal Australians have used rocks as tools for over 65,000 years. Silcrete, chert, and
quartzite were knapped (shaped by striking) to make cutting tools, scrapers, axes, and
spear points. The Madjedbebe rock shelter in Arnhem Land contains some of the oldest
stone tool evidence in Australia.

Rock in Agriculture
• Limestone is used to reduce soil acidity (liming of farmland)
• Rock phosphate is mined for fertiliser production
• Potassium-rich minerals from rock weathering improve soil fertility
7.8 Geologic History
Reading the Rock Record
Rocks record the history of Earth over billions of years. By studying the properties, sequence, and
content of rock layers, geologists can reconstruct past environments, climates, and events.

Relative Dating
Relative dating determines the order of geological events without giving an exact age. It is based
on several key principles:

Key Principles of Relative Dating

• Principle of Superposition: In undisturbed rock layers, the oldest layer is at the bottom
and the youngest layer is at the top
• Principle of Original Horizontality: Sedimentary layers are originally deposited
horizontally; tilted or folded layers indicate later disturbance
• Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships: A geological feature (e.g. a fault or intrusion)
that cuts across another feature is younger than what it cuts
• Principle of Inclusions: Rock fragments (inclusions) found within another rock are older
than the rock that contains them
• Principle of Faunal Succession: Fossil organisms succeed one another in a definite
order; the same fossil assemblage always indicates the same age

Absolute Dating
Absolute dating gives an actual numerical age (in years) for a rock or fossil. The most common
method is radiometric dating.

Radiometric (Radioactive) Dating

Radioactive isotopes decay at a known, constant rate. By measuring the ratio of parent isotope to
daughter isotope in a rock, scientists can calculate how long decay has been occurring.
• Half-life: the time it takes for half of a radioactive isotope to decay into its daughter
product

Isotope Pair Half-life Used For

Carbon-14 / Nitrogen-14 5,730 years Dating organic material up to
~50,000 years
Potassium-40 / Argon-40 1.25 billion years Dating volcanic rocks millions to
billions of years old
Uranium-238 / Lead-206 4.47 billion years Dating very old rocks and meteorites
Rubidium-87 / Strontium-87 48.8 billion years Dating ancient crustal rocks

📌 Age of Earth
 Isotope Pair Half-life Used For

Using radiometric dating of the oldest terrestrial rocks and meteorites, scientists have
determined that Earth is approximately 4.54 billion years old.

The Geological Time Scale

The geological time scale (GTS) divides Earth's 4.54 billion year history into units based on major
geological and biological events:
Eon Era Approximate Age Major Events
Hadean — 4,540–4,000 Ma Formation of Earth; heavy
bombardment; no life
Archean — 4,000–2,500 Ma Oldest rocks; first life (single-
celled organisms)
Proterozoic — 2,500–541 Ma First complex cells; first
multicellular organisms;
'Snowball Earth'
Phanerozoic Palaeozoic 541–252 Ma Cambrian explosion; fish,
amphibians, early plants;
Permian extinction
Phanerozoic Mesozoic 252–66 Ma Age of dinosaurs; first birds and
flowering plants; K-Pg extinction
Phanerozoic Cenozoic 66 Ma–present Age of mammals; grasslands;
ice ages; evolution of humans

Note: Ma = millions of years ago

Unconformities
An unconformity is a gap in the geological record — a surface representing a period of erosion or
non-deposition. Three types:
• Disconformity — erosion surface between parallel sedimentary layers
• Angular unconformity — tilted/folded rocks beneath horizontal layers (e.g. Siccar Point,
Scotland, described by James Hutton 1788)
• Nonconformity — sedimentary rocks sitting on top of igneous or metamorphic rocks
7.9 Questioning and Predicting — The Extinction of
Dinosaurs
Background: The K-Pg Extinction Event
Approximately 66 million years ago, at the boundary between the Cretaceous (K) and
Palaeogene (Pg) periods, approximately 75% of all species on Earth — including all non-avian
dinosaurs — became extinct in a geologically brief period of time.

Evidence in the Rock Record

The Cretaceous-Palaeogene (K-Pg) boundary is preserved as a thin layer in sedimentary rock
sequences around the world. Key evidence includes:
• Iridium anomaly — an unusual concentration of the element iridium (rare in Earth's crust
but common in asteroids) found in the K-Pg boundary layer worldwide
• Shocked quartz — quartz grains showing microscopic fractures that can only form under
extreme impact pressure
• Tektites — small glassy spherules formed from molten rock thrown into the atmosphere
by a massive impact
• Soot layer — evidence of widespread global wildfires
• Chicxulub crater — a 180 km wide impact crater found beneath the Gulf of Mexico, dating
to exactly 66 Ma

The Alvarez Hypothesis (Impact Theory)

In 1980, physicist Luis Alvarez and his geologist son Walter Alvarez proposed that the K-Pg
extinction was caused by the impact of a large asteroid or comet. The sequence of events:
15. A large asteroid (~10 km diameter) struck what is now Mexico's Yucatan Peninsula
16. The impact released energy equivalent to billions of nuclear bombs, triggering massive
earthquakes, tsunamis, and wildfires
17. Billions of tonnes of dust, soot, and debris were blasted into the upper atmosphere
18. Sunlight was blocked for months to years — temperatures plummeted ('impact winter')
19. Photosynthesis collapsed → food chains collapsed → mass extinction

Alternative and Contributing Hypotheses

Deccan Traps Volcanism
Massive volcanic eruptions in what is now India (the Deccan Traps) were occurring before and
during the K-Pg boundary. These eruptions released vast quantities of CO₂ and SO₂ , causing:
• Acid rain — sulfur dioxide reacting with water vapour
• Global cooling from sulfur aerosols blocking sunlight
• Long-term global warming from CO₂ build-up

Sea Level Changes

Evidence suggests sea levels were falling during the late Cretaceous, reducing shallow marine
habitats and affecting marine ecosystems before the impact.

Scientific Consensus
Today, most scientists accept that the asteroid impact was the primary cause of the K-Pg mass
extinction, with Deccan Traps volcanism possibly acting as a contributing stressor that had
already weakened some ecosystems.

📌 Survivors
Not all life was wiped out. Small mammals, birds (avian dinosaurs), crocodilians, turtles, and
many marine invertebrates survived. The recovery of ecosystems took millions of years —
and those survivors were the ancestors of modern life, including humans.

Science Inquiry Skills: Evaluating Evidence

This topic is an excellent example of how scientific explanations are developed and tested:
• The impact hypothesis was supported by multiple lines of independent evidence (iridium,
shocked quartz, crater)
• Evidence is gathered from rocks around the world — reproducibility and consistency
strengthen the hypothesis
• Alternative explanations (volcanism) are considered and tested — science is an ongoing
process
• The K-Pg boundary is a 'golden spike' — a globally recognised reference point in the
geological record
7.10 Thinking Tools — Fishbone Diagrams and Tree
Maps
Fishbone Diagrams (Cause and Effect Diagrams)
A fishbone diagram (also called an Ishikawa diagram or cause-and-effect diagram) is a visual tool
used to identify and organise the possible causes of a problem or event. It looks like the skeleton
of a fish — hence the name.

Structure of a Fishbone Diagram

• The 'head' of the fish = the problem or effect you are investigating
• The 'spine' = the main arrow pointing to the head
• The 'bones' = main categories of causes branching off the spine
• The 'smaller bones' = specific causes within each category

Example: Causes of the K-Pg Mass Extinction

Head (Effect): Mass extinction of dinosaurs and 75% of species 66 million years ago
Main bones (categories of causes):
• Asteroid Impact → iridium anomaly, shocked quartz, impact winter, wildfires
• Volcanism → Deccan Traps, acid rain, CO₂ release, cooling
• Climate Change → falling sea levels, temperature fluctuations
• Ecological Collapse → food chain disruption, photosynthesis failure

📌 When to Use a Fishbone Diagram

Use this tool when a question asks you to analyse causes of an event or phenomenon — for
example: 'What factors contributed to the formation of a particular rock?' or 'What processes
drive the rock cycle?'

Tree Maps (Classification Maps)

A tree map is a hierarchical diagram used to organise and classify information. It shows how
broad categories branch into subcategories and specific examples — like a family tree for
concepts.

Structure of a Tree Map

• The top node = the main topic or category
• Second level = main subtypes or subcategories
• Lower levels = specific examples, properties, or details

Example: Tree Map of Rock Types

Top node: Rocks
 • Branch 1: Igneous → Intrusive (Granite, Diorite) / Extrusive (Basalt, Obsidian, Pumice)
• Branch 2: Sedimentary → Clastic (Shale, Sandstone, Conglomerate) / Chemical (Rock
salt) / Organic (Limestone, Coal)
• Branch 3: Metamorphic → Foliated (Slate, Schist, Gneiss) / Non-foliated (Marble,
Quartzite)

📌 When to Use a Tree Map

Use this tool when a question asks you to classify or organise different types of something
— for example, classifying rocks by formation type, or organising the stages of the rock
cycle into categories.
7.11 Review — Summary and Key Vocabulary
Complete Summary: Key Concepts
Topic Key Points
Rock Cycle Continuous process driven by geothermal energy and solar energy;
transforms rocks between igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
types over millions of years
Minerals Naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solids with definite chemical
composition; identified by colour, lustre, hardness, cleavage, streak,
and crystal form
Igneous Rocks Formed from cooling magma/lava; intrusive = slow cooling = large
crystals (granite); extrusive = fast cooling = small crystals (basalt) or
glassy (obsidian)
Sedimentary Rocks Formed from compaction and cementation of sediment; types =
clastic, chemical, organic; only rock type containing fossils
Metamorphic Rocks Formed from existing rocks changed by heat, pressure, or fluids;
foliated (slate, schist, gneiss) or non-foliated (marble, quartzite)
Mining Extraction of ore minerals containing valuable metals; open-cut,
underground, or placer methods; processing involves crushing,
concentration, smelting, refining
Rock Technology Rock properties (hardness, porosity, splitting) determine uses in
construction, industry, tools, agriculture
Geologic History Relative dating uses superposition, cross-cutting; absolute dating
uses radiometric decay; geological time scale divides Earth's 4.54
Ga history
K-Pg Extinction 66 Ma — asteroid impact (evidence: iridium, shocked quartz,
Chicxulub crater) caused mass extinction; volcanism may have
contributed

Complete Glossary
• Absolute dating: dating method that gives an actual numerical age
• Cementation: binding of sediment particles by precipitated minerals
• Clast: a fragment of pre-existing rock
• Compaction: compression of sediment layers by overlying weight
• Contact metamorphism: metamorphism caused by heat from a nearby magma body
• Cross-cutting relationship: geological principle that a feature cutting through another is
younger
• Crystal: a solid with atoms arranged in a regular, repeating structure
• Erosion: transport of weathered rock material by water, wind, or ice
• Extrusive igneous rock: igneous rock that forms from lava on the surface
• Foliation: parallel alignment of minerals in a metamorphic rock
• Fossil: preserved remains or trace of an ancient organism
• Gangue: the waste rock surrounding ore minerals
• Geological time scale: a system of chronological dating that divides Earth's history
• Half-life: time for half of a radioactive isotope to decay
• Igneous rock: rock formed from the solidification of magma or lava
 • Intrusive igneous rock: igneous rock that forms underground from cooling magma
• Lava: molten rock at Earth's surface
• Lithification: conversion of sediment into sedimentary rock
• Magma: molten rock beneath Earth's surface
• Metamorphic rock: rock formed from the transformation of existing rock by heat,
pressure, or fluids
• Metamorphism: transformation of rock in the solid state by heat, pressure, or fluids
• Mineral: naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid with a definite chemical
composition
• Mohs hardness scale: scale rating mineral hardness from 1 (softest) to 10 (hardest)
• Ore: rock containing a valuable mineral in economically extractable quantities
• Protolith: the parent rock before metamorphism
• Radiometric dating: method of dating rocks using decay of radioactive isotopes
• Regional metamorphism: large-scale metamorphism driven by heat and pressure from
tectonic activity
• Relative dating: determining the order of geological events without giving absolute ages
• Rock: naturally occurring solid mixture of minerals or organic material
• Rock cycle: continuous system of processes by which rocks are formed, transformed,
and recycled
• Sediment: fragments of rock, minerals, or organic material deposited by water, wind, or
ice
• Sedimentary rock: rock formed from the compaction and cementation of sediment
• Smelting: heating ore to extract metal
• Strata: distinct horizontal layers of sedimentary rock
• Superposition: principle that in undisturbed strata, older layers are below younger layers
• Unconformity: a gap in the geological record representing missing time
• Weathering: breakdown of rock at or near the surface

Practice Questions
20. Explain why granite has large crystals but basalt has very small crystals, even though
both are igneous rocks.
21. Describe the four processes that convert sediment into sedimentary rock.
22. A geologist finds marble near a granite intrusion. Explain how the marble formed.
23. Why are fossils only found in sedimentary rocks and not in igneous or metamorphic
rocks?
24. Using the Principle of Superposition and Cross-Cutting Relationships, determine which
event (A, B, or C) is oldest in a rock sequence where: a granite intrusion (A) cuts across
sandstone layers (B), and the sandstone layers are tilted beneath horizontal limestone
layers (C).
25. Describe three pieces of evidence scientists use to support the hypothesis that an
asteroid impact caused the K-Pg mass extinction.
26. Explain why obsidian is used in surgical scalpel blades. Link your answer to how it forms.
27. Shale undergoes increasing metamorphism. Describe the sequence of metamorphic rocks
that form and explain what changes at each stage.

Year 8 Science | Chapter 7 | Sedimentary, Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks | Victorian Curriculum AC9S8U04