Physics for Scientists and Engineers

with Modern Physics

Fifth Edition, Global Edition

Chapter 6
Gravitation and Newton’s
Synthesis

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Units of Chapter 6 (1 of 2)

• Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation

• Vector Form of Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation
• Gravity Near the Earth’s Surface
• Satellites and “Weightlessness”
• Planets, Kepler’s Laws, and Newton’s Synthesis

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6-1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation (1 of 8)

• If the force of gravity is being exerted on objects on Earth, what is the

origin of that force?
• Newton’s realization was that the force must come from the Earth.
• He further realized that this force must be what keeps the Moon in its
orbit.

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6-1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation (2 of 8)

• The gravitational force on you is one-half of a third law pair: the Earth
exerts a downward force on you, and you exert an upward force on the
Earth.
• When there is such a disparity in masses, the reaction force is
undetectable, but for bodies more equal in mass it can be significant.

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6-1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation (3 of 8)

• Therefore, the gravitational force must be proportional to both masses.

• By observing planetary orbits, Newton also concluded that the gravitational
force must decrease as the inverse of the square of the distance between
the masses.
• In its final form, the law of universal gravitation reads:
m 1m
FG  G 2
,
r2

where G  6.67  1011 N  m 2 /kg 2 .

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6-1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation (4 of 8)

• The magnitude of the gravitational

constant G can be measured in
the laboratory.

• This is the Cavendish experiment.

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6-1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation (5 of 8)

Example 6-1: Can you attract another person gravitationally?

A 50 kg person and a 70 kg person are sitting on a bench close to each
other. Estimate the magnitude of the gravitational force each exerts on
the other. Assume 𝑟 = 0.5 𝑚.

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6-1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation (6 of 8)

Example 6-2: Spacecraft at 𝟐𝒓𝑬

What is the force of gravity acting on a 2000 kg spacecraft when it orbits
two Earth radii from the Earth’s center (that is, it stays a distance 𝑟 =
6 380 𝑘𝑚 above the Earth’s surface)?
The mass is of the Earth is 𝑚 = 5.98 × 10 kg. Assume a circular orbit.
Answer 𝐹 = 4 900 𝑁.

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6-1 Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation (7 of 8)

Example 6-3: Force on the Moon.

Find the net force on the Moon (𝑚 = 7.35 × 10 kg) due to the
gravitational attraction of both the Earth (𝑚 = 5.98 × 10 𝑘𝑔) and the
Sun (𝑚 = 1.99 × 10 𝑘𝑔) assuming they are at right angles to each
other.

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6-2 Vector Form of Newton’s Law of Universal
Gravitation (1 of 2)

In vector form, force exerted b 𝑚 on 𝑚 is

𝑚 𝑚
F = −𝐺 𝒓 .
𝑟

This figure gives the directions of

the displacement and force
vectors.

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6-2 Vector Form of Newton’s Law of Universal
Gravitation (2 of 2)

• If there are many particles, the total gravitational force on a

given particle is the vector sum of the forces exerted by
each of the others.

𝑭 = 𝑭12 + 𝑭13 + 𝑭14 + ⋯ + 𝑭 = 𝑭 .

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6-3 Gravity Near the Earth’s Surface (1 of 4)
• Now we can relate the gravitational constant to the local acceleration
of gravity. We know that, on the surface of the Earth:
mmE
mg  G 2 .
rE
• Solving for g gives:
mE
g G 2 .
rE
• Now, knowing g and the radius of the Earth, the mass of the Earth can
be calculated:

grE2
mE   5.98  1024 kg.
G

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6-3 Gravity Near the Earth’s Surface (2 of 4)

Example 6-4: Gravity on Everest.

Estimate the effective value of g on the
top of Mt. Everest, 8850 m (29,035 ft)
above sea level. That is, what is the
acceleration due to gravity of objects
allowed to fall freely at this altitude?

𝑚
𝑔=𝐺 .
𝑟 +ℎ

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6-3 Gravity Near the Earth’s Surface (3 of 4)

The acceleration due to gravity

varies over the Earth’s surface
due to altitude, local geology, and
the shape of the Earth, which is
not quite spherical.

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6-3 Gravity Near the Earth’s Surface (4 of 4)

Example 6-5: Effect of Earth’s rotation on g.

Assuming the Earth is a perfect sphere, determine how the Earth’s rotation
affects the value of g at the equator compared to its value at the poles.
• At the North pole: 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑤 = 0, 𝑚𝑔 = 𝑤

• At the equator, 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑤 = 𝑚 and 𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔

𝑣
𝑤 =𝑚 𝑔−
𝑟
• Therefore,
𝑤
𝑔 =
𝑚
𝑣
𝑔 =𝑔−
𝑟

• Hence Δ𝑔 = 𝑔 − 𝑔 =

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6-4 Satellites and “Weightlessness” (1 of 5)

• Satellites are routinely put into orbit around the Earth.

• The tangential speed must be high enough so that the satellite does
not return to Earth, but not so high that it escapes Earth’s gravity
altogether.

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6-4 Satellites and “Weightlessness” (2 of 5)
• The satellite is kept in orbit by its speed—it is continually falling, but
the Earth curves from underneath it.
𝑚𝑚 𝑣
𝐺 =𝑚
𝑟 𝑟

𝐺𝑚
𝑣=
𝑟

• Where 𝑟 = 𝑟 + ℎ.

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6-4 Satellites and “Weightlessness” (3 of 5)
Example 6-6: Geostationary satellite.
A geostationary satellite is one that stays above the same point on the Earth,
which is possible only if it is above a point on the equator. Such satellites are
used for TV and radio transmission, for weather forecasting, and as
communication relays. Determine (a) the height (ℎ) above the Earth’s surface
such a satellite must orbit, and (b) such a satellite’s speed. (c) Compare to the
speed of a satellite orbiting 200 km above Earth’s surface. Note: 𝑟 = 𝑟 + ℎ.
𝑚 𝑚 𝑣
𝐺 =𝑚
𝑟 𝑟
• We have 𝑣 = , 𝑇 = 1 𝑑𝑎𝑦 = 86 400 𝑠. Substitute into the above
equation and solve for 𝑟:
𝐺𝑚 𝑇
𝑟 =
4𝜋
• After substituting 𝑟 = 4.22 × 10 𝑚, then ℎ = 𝑟 − 𝑟 = 36 000 𝑘𝑚.

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6-4 Satellites and “Weightlessness” (4 of 5)
• Objects in orbit are said to experience weightlessness. They do have a
gravitational force acting on them, though!
• The satellite and all its contents are in free fall, so there is no normal
force. This is what leads to the experience of weightlessness.

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6-5 Planets, Kepler’s Laws, and Newton’s Synthesis
(1 of 8)

Kepler’s laws describe planetary motion.

1. The orbit of each planet about the Sun is an ellipse, with the Sun at
one focus.
• An ellipse is a closed curve such that the sum of the distances from
any point 𝑃 on the curve to two fixed points (called the foci, 𝐹 and 𝐹 )
remains constant - 𝐹 𝑃 + 𝐹 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
• 𝑠 – semimajor axis.
• 𝑏 – semiminor axis.
• 𝑒 – is the ratio of the distance from
the center to either focus divided by 𝑠.

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6-5 Planets, Kepler’s Laws, and Newton’s Synthesis
(2 of 8)

2. An imaginary line drawn from each planet to the Sun sweeps out
equal areas in equal periods of time.

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6-5 Planets, Kepler’s Laws, and Newton’s Synthesis
(3 of 8)
3. The ratio of the squares of the periods
of any two planets revolving about the
sun is equal to the ratio of the cubes of
their semimajor axes.

𝑇 𝑠
=
𝑇 𝑠

𝑠 𝑠
=
𝑇 𝑇
†Pluto, since its discovery in 1930, was considered a ninth
planet. But its small mass and the recent discovery of other
objects beyond Neptune with similar masses has led to calling
these smaller objects, including Pluto, “dwarf planets.” We
keep it in the Table to indicate its great distance, and its
consistency with Kepler’s third law.

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6-5 Planets, Kepler’s Laws, and Newton’s Synthesis
(4 of 8)
• Kepler’s laws can be derived from Newton’s laws. In particular, Kepler’s third law follows
directly from the law of universal gravitation—equating the gravitational force with the
centripetal force shows that, for any two planets (assuming circular orbits, and that the only
gravitational influence is the Sun).
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

𝑚 𝑀 𝑣
𝐺 =𝑚
𝑟 𝑟

• But 𝑣 = , therefore

• 𝐺 =𝑚 → =

• For planet 2 (or any other planet): =

• The RHS of the above equations are equal, therefore

= rearranging gives =

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6-5 Planets, Kepler’s Laws, and Newton’s Synthesis
(5 of 8)

Example 6-7: Where is Mars?

Mars’ period (its “year”) was noted by Kepler to be about 𝑇 = 687 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
(Earth days), which is (687 𝑑/365 𝑑/𝑦𝑟) = 1.88 𝑦𝑟 (Earth years). 𝑇 =
365 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠, Earth-Sun distance 𝑠 = 1.50 × 10 𝑚.
Determine the mean distance of Mars from the Sun (𝑠 ) using the Earth
as a reference.

𝑠 𝑠
=
𝑇 𝑇
𝑠 𝑇
=
𝑠 𝑇
𝑇
𝑠 =𝑠
𝑇
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6-5 Planets, Kepler’s Laws, and Newton’s Synthesis
(6 of 8)

Example 6-8: The Sun’s mass determined.

Determine the mass of the Sun given the Earth’s distance from the Sun
as 𝑟ES = 1.5 × 1011 m.
𝑇 4𝜋
=
𝑟 𝐺𝑀

4𝜋 𝑟
𝑀 =
𝐺𝑇
𝑀 = 2.0 × 10 𝑘𝑔

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6-5 Planets, Kepler’s Laws, and Newton’s Synthesis
(7 of 8)

• Irregularities in planetary motion led to the discovery of

Neptune, and irregularities in stellar motion have led to the
discovery of many planets outside our solar system.

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6-5 Planets, Kepler’s Laws, and Newton’s Synthesis
(8 of 8)

Example 6-9: Lagrange point.

The mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange discovered five
special points in the vicinity of the Earth’s orbit about the Sun
where a small satellite (mass m) can orbit the Sun with the same
period T as Earth’s ( 1 year ).
One of these “Lagrange Points,” called
L1, lies between the Earth (mass M E )
and Sun (mass M S ). on the line
connecting them. That is, the Earth and
the satellite are always separated by a
distance d. If the Earth’s orbital radius is
RES , then the satellite’s orbital radius is
(RES  d ) Determine d.
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6-6 Moon Rises an Hour Later Each Day – Self Study

From the Earth’s reference frame, our Moon revolves in 24 h,

50 min, and so the Moon rises nearly an hour later each day;
and it is at its highest point in the sky about an hour later each
day. From one Full moon to the next is 29.53 days.
In the Sun’s frame of reference, the Moon revolves around the
earth in 27.32 days because when the Moon has made on
complete revolution around the Earth, the Earth itself has
moved in its orbit relative to the Sun.

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6-7 Types of Forces in Nature (1 of 2) - Self Study

Modern physics now recognizes four fundamental

forces:
1. Gravity
2. Electromagnetism
3. Strong nuclear force (binds protons and neutrons
together in the nucleus)
4. Weak nuclear force (responsible for some types of
radioactive decay)

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6-7 Types of Forces in Nature (2 of 2) - Self Study

So, what about friction, the normal force, tension, and

so on?
Except for gravity, the forces we experience every day
are due to electromagnetic forces acting at the atomic
level.

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6-8 Gravitational Field - Self Study

The gravitational field is the gravitational force per unit mass:

F
g .
m

The gravitational field due to a single mass M is given by:

1 mM M
g  G 2 G 2 .
m r r

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6-9 Principle of Equivalence; Curvature of Space;
Black Holes (1 of 4) - Self Study

Inertial mass: the mass that appears in Newton’s

second law
Gravitational mass: the mass that appears in the
universal law of gravitation
Principle of equivalence: inertial mass and gravitational
mass are the same

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6-9 Principle of Equivalence; Curvature of Space;
Black Holes (2 of 4) - Self Study

Therefore, light should be deflected by a massive

object:

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6-9 Principle of Equivalence; Curvature of Space;
Black Holes (3 of 4) - Self Study

This bending has been

measured during total
solar eclipses:

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6-9 Principle of Equivalence; Curvature of Space;
Black Holes (4 of 4) - Self Study

One way to visualize

the curvature of space
(a two-dimensional
analogy):

If the gravitational field is strong enough, even light

cannot escape, and we have a black hole.

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Summary of Chapter 6 (1 of 2)

• Newton’s law of universal gravitation:

m1 m2
F G 2
r
• Total gravitational force is the vector sum of individual
forces exerted by all other objects.
• Satellites are able to stay in Earth orbit because of
their large tangential speed.
• Newton’s laws provide a theoretical base for Kepler’s
laws.
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Summary of Chapter 6 (2 of 2) - Self Study

• Gravitational field is force per unit mass.

• Fundamental forces of nature: gravitational force,
electromagnetic force, strong nuclear force, and weak
nuclear force.

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