Comprehensive Mathematics Reviewer

Advanced Reference Guide: Measurement & Geometry, Number & Algebra, Data & Probability

MODULE 1: Measurement and Geometry (Oblique Triangles & Bearings)

The Law of Cosines

The Law of Cosines generalizes the Pythagorean Theorem for any oblique triangle. It is applicable when given: Side-
Angle-Side (SAS) or Side-Side-Side (SSS) frameworks.

a² = b² + c² - 2bc · \cos(A)
b² = a² + c² - 2ac · \cos(B)
c² = a² + b² - 2ab · \cos(C)
For finding angles (SSS): \cos(A) = rac{b² + c² - a²}{2bc}

Exemplar (SSS Case): Solve for Angle A if a = 7, b = 8, and c = 9.

\cos(A) = rac{8² + 9² - 7²}{2(8)(9)} = rac{64 + 81 - 49}{144} = rac{96}{144} pprox 0.6667
A = rccos(0.6667) pprox \mathbf{48.19^\circ}

Applications Involving Bearings

Navigational directions are expressed in two specific notation styles:

• True Bearings: Measured clockwise from True North (000^\circ). Always written as a 3-digit number (e.g., East is
090^\circ, South is 180^\circ, West is 270^\circ).
• Compass/Quadrant Bearings: Specifies an acute angle measured east or west from a north-south baseline axis
(e.g., N35^\circ E, S70^\circ W).

Exemplar (Bearings Problem): Ship A leaves port traveling on a true bearing of 060^\circ at 15 knots.
Simultaneously, Ship B leaves traveling on a bearing of 130^\circ at 20 knots. Find the distance between them after
2 hours.
Solution:
1. Distances: Side b = 15 imes 2 = 30 nautical miles; Side a = 20 imes 2 = 40 nautical miles.
2. Included Angle C = 130^\circ - 60^\circ = 70^\circ.
3. Apply Law of Cosines: c² = 30² + 40² - 2(30)(40) · \cos(70^\circ) = 900 + 1600 - 2400(0.3420) = 2500 - 820.8 = 1679.2
4. c = \sqrt{1679.2} pprox \mathbf{40.98} nautical miles apart.

MODULE 2: Coordinate Geometry & Transformations

Cartesian Plane Coordinates

Points are designated as an ordered pair (x, y) across four infinite quadrants:

• Quadrant I: (+, +) | Quadrant II: (-, +) | Quadrant III: (-, -) | Quadrant IV: (+, -)

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Geometric Transformations Matrix

Transformation Type Verbal Description / Parameters Mapping Rule Form

Translation Shifting a point horizontally by h units and vertically by k units. (x, y) ightarrow (x + h, y + k)

Flipping across the x-axis. (x, y) ightarrow (x, -y)

Reflection Flipping across the y-axis. (x, y) ightarrow (-x, y)
Flipping across the line y = x. (x, y) ightarrow (y, x)

90° counter-clockwise (or 270° clockwise). (x, y) ightarrow (-y, x)

Rotation (about Origin) 180° counter-clockwise/clockwise. (x, y) ightarrow (-x, -y)
270° counter-clockwise (or 90° clockwise). (x, y) ightarrow (y, -x)

MODULE 3: Algebra (Quadratic & Absolute Value Inequalities)

Quadratic Inequalities in One Variable

Standard structures follow: ax² + bx + c < 0, ≤ 0, > 0, or ≥ 0.

Solving Protocol Exemplar: Solve x² - 2x - 3 ≥ 0.

1. Find critical points by factoring: (x - 3)(x + 1) = 0 \Rightarrow x = 3, x = -1.
2. Establish test intervals on a number line: (-\infty, -1), (-1, 3), and (3, \infty).
3. Evaluate sign behavior via test values:
• Choose x = -2: (-2 - 3)(-2 + 1) = (-5)(-1) = 5 ≥ 0 (True).
• Choose x = 0: (0 - 3)(0 + 1) = -3 ≥ 0 (False).
• Choose x = 4: (4 - 3)(4 + 1) = (1)(5) = 5 ≥ 0 (True).
Solutions Notations:
• Inequality Notation: x ≤ -1 ext{ or } x ≥ 3
• Interval Notation: (-\infty, -1] \cup [3, \infty)
• Set Notation: \{x \in \mathbb{R} \mid x ≤ -1 \lor x ≥ 3\}

Inequalities in Two Variables & Region of Solutions

To find the solution region for a linear or quadratic inequality in two variables (e.g., y > ax + b or y ≤ ax² + bx + c):

1. Graph the boundary curve. Use a solid line for inclusive barriers (≥, ≤) and a dashed line for strict barriers (>, <).
2. Select a test point not on the boundary—ideally (0,0)—and substitute its values into the original inequality.
3. If the statement is true, shade the region containing that test point. If false, shade the opposite region.

Absolute Value Equations and Inequalities

Fundamental Geometric Definition: |x| measures distance from zero.

• If |x| \le c \Rightarrow -c \le x \le c (Bounded "AND" Intersection Loop)
• If |x| \ge c \Rightarrow x \le -c ext{ or } x \ge c (Divergent "OR" Union Loop)

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 Exemplar (Absolute Value Inequality): Solve |2x - 5| < 3.
Set up the compound compound expression: -3 < 2x - 5 < 3
Add 5 to all parts: 2 < 2x < 8
Divide all parts by 2: 1 < x < 4
Notations: Interval: (1, 4) | Set: \{x \in \mathbb{R} \mid 1 < x < 4\}

MODULE 4: Data and Probability (Measures of Position & Summary Plots)

Measures of Position: Quantifying Ranks

• Quartiles (Q): Split sorted data into 4 equal segments. Q_1 (25th percentile), Q_2 (Median / 50th percentile), Q_3
(75th percentile).
• Deciles (D): Split data into 10 equal parts (D_1 to D_9).
• Percentiles (P): Split data into 100 equal parts (P_1 to P_{99}).

To locate a specific metric position index (L) for ungrouped data containing n elements sorted in ascending order, apply: L
= rac{k}{100}(n + 1). If L is an integer, choose that data item. If L contains a fraction, use linear interpolation between the
surrounding values.

Statistical Summary Computations & Outliers

• Interquartile Range (IQR): Measures the spread of the middle 50% of data. Formula: IQR = Q_3 - Q_1.
• Tukey Outlier Fences: Values outside these thresholds are statistically flagged as outliers:
• Lower Boundary Fence: LF = Q_1 - 1.5 imes IQR
• Upper Boundary Fence: UF = Q_3 + 1.5 imes IQR

Exemplar (Ungrouped Dataset Analysis): Given the dataset: 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 24 (n = 8).
1. Find Median (Q_2): Average of 4th and 5th items = (8 + 9) / 2 = 8.5.
2. Lower Half (3, 5, 7, 8) $ ightarrow$ Median Q_1 = (5 + 7) / 2 = \mathbf{6}.
3. Upper Half (9, 11, 13, 24) $ ightarrow$ Median Q_3 = (11 + 13) / 2 = \mathbf{12}.
4. Compute Interquartile Range: IQR = 12 - 6 = \mathbf{6}.
5. Outlier Check:
• LF = 6 - 1.5(6) = -3 (No data items sit below -3).
• UF = 12 + 1.5(6) = 21. Since 24 > 21, the value 24 is a confirmed outlier.

Box-and-Whisker Graphical Layout

A Box-and-Whisker Plot visually graphs a dataset's distribution using its Five-Number Summary:

1. Minimum non-outlier value (left whisker baseline)

2. First Quartile (Q_1, left vertical edge of box box)
3. Median (Q_2, internal vertical division line)
4. Third Quartile (Q_3, right vertical edge of box box)
5. Maximum non-outlier value (right whisker baseline). Outliers are plotted as independent dots beyond the fences.

Cumulative Frequency Visualizations

• Cumulative Frequency Histogram: A vertical bar graph where the height of each successive bar represents the
running sum of frequencies up to the current upper class boundary.
• Cumulative Frequency Polygon (Ogive): A continuous line graph created by plotting upper class boundaries against
their running cumulative frequencies. It is an excellent tool for visually estimating medians, quartiles, and percentiles.

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