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1. Electric Circuit:- ​The interconnection of various active and passive components

in a prescribed manner to form a closed path is called an electric circuit. The
system in which electric current can flow from the source to the load and then
back to the other terminal of the source is referred to as an electric circuit. The
main parts of an ideal electric circuit are:
1) Electrical sources for delivering electricity to the circuit and these are mainly
electric generators and batteries
2) Controlling devices for controlling electricity and these are mainly switches,
circuit breakers, MCBs, and potentiometer like devices etc.
3) Protection devices for protecting the circuit from abnormal conditions and these
are mainly electric fuses, MCBs, switchgear systems.
4) Conducting path to carry electric current from one point to other in the circuit and
these are mainly wires or conductors.

2. Electric Current:- ​Electric current is a stream of charged particles—such as

electrons or ions—moving through an electrical conductor or space. It is the flow
rate of electric charge through a conducting medium with respect to time.
Direct Current​ When current flows in one direction either in a constant or
fluctuating manner, the current is called direct current.
Alternating Current​ When current flows in either direction alternatingly in a
frequency is called alternating current. The average value of an alternating
current is zero.

3. Magnetic Effect of Current:- ​When current flows through a conductor there will
be a magnetic field surrounding the conductor.
The direction of the lines of force of the magnetic field can be determined by
right-hand grip rule. If we imagine that we have held the current-carrying
conductor with our right hand with the extended thumb along the direction of the
current then four fingers of our right hand indicate the direction of lines of force of
the magnetic field.

4. Active and Passive Circuit Elements:- ​Active and passive components form
the two main types of electronic circuit elements. An active component supplies
energy to an electric circuit, and hence has the ability to electrically control the
flow of charge. A passive component can only receive energy, which it can either
dissipate or absorb.
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5. Inductor:- ​An inductor is an energy storage device which stores energy in form
of magnetic field. If a time varying current flowing through a coil there is an emf
induced in it. The induced emf across the coil is directly proportional to the rate of
change of current with respect to time. Due to the property inducing emf, all types
of electrical coil can be referred as inductor. As we already told, the induced emf
across a coil is directly proportional to the rate of change of current through it.
The proportionality constant in that relation is known as inductance.

6. Coulomb’s Law Definition:- ​Coulomb's law states that the magnitude of the
electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two electrically charged
bodies is directly proportional to the product of the charge of the charged bodies
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the center of the
charged bodies.

The value of εo = 8.854 × 10^-12 C^2/Nm^2

1. Diode:- ​A diode is defined as a two-terminal electronic component that only

conducts current in one direction (so long as it is operated within a specified
voltage level). An ideal diode will have zero resistance in one direction, and
infinite resistance in the reverse direction.
These diodes begin conducting electricity only if a certain threshold voltage is
present in the forward direction (i.e. the “low resistance” direction). The diode is
said to be “forward biased” when conducting current in this direction. When
connected within a circuit in the reverse direction (i.e. the “high resistance”
direction), the diode is said to be “reverse biased”.
A diode only blocks current in the reverse direction (i.e. when it is reverse biased)
while the reverse voltage is within a specified range. Above this range, the
reverse barrier breaks. The voltage at which this breakdown occurs is called the
“reverse breakdown voltage”.
When the voltage of the circuit is higher than the reverse breakdown voltage, the
diode is able to conduct electricity in the reverse direction (i.e. the “high
resistance” direction). This is why in practice we say diodes have a high
resistance in the reverse direction – not an infinite resistance.
A PN junction is the simplest form of the semiconductor diode. In ideal
conditions, this PN junction behaves as a short circuit when it is forward biased,
 and as an open circuit when it is in the reverse biased. The name diode is
derived from “di–ode” which means a device that has two electrodes.

2. Working of diode:- ​A diode’s working principle depends on the interaction of

n-type and p-type semiconductors. An n-type semiconductor has plenty of free
electrons and very few numbers of holes. Free electrons in the n-type
semiconductor are referred to as majority charge carriers, and holes in the n-type
semiconductor are referred to as minority charge carriers.
A p-type semiconductor has a high concentration of holes and a low
concentration of free electrons. Holes in the p-type semiconductor are majority
charge carriers, and free electrons in the p-type semiconductor are minority
charge carriers.
Here due to concentration differences, the majority of carriers diffuse from one
side to another. As the concentration of holes is high in the p-type region and it is
low in the n-type region, the holes start diffusing from the p-type region to the
n-type region.
Again the concentration of free electrons is high in the n-type region and it is low
in the p-type region and due to this reason, free electrons start diffusing from the
n-type region to the p-type region.
The free electrons diffusing into the p-type region from the n-type region would
recombine with holes available there and create uncovered negative ions in the
p-type region. In the same way, the holes diffusing into the n-type region from the
p-type region would recombine with free electrons available there and create
uncovered positive ions in the n-type region.
In this way, there would a layer of negative ions on the p-type side and a layer of
positive ions in the n-type region appear along the junction line of these two
types of semiconductors. The layers of uncovered positive ions and uncovered
negative ions form a region in the middle of the diode where no charge carrier
exists since all the charge carriers get recombined here in this region. Due to the
lack of charge carriers, this region is called the depletion region.
After the formation of the depletion region, there is no more diffusion of charge
carriers from one side to another in the diode. This is due to the electric field
appeared across the depletion region will prevent further migration of charge
carriers from one side to another.
The potential of the layer of uncovered positive ions in the n-type side would
repeal the holes in the p-type side and the potential of the layer of uncovered
negative ions in the p-type side would repeal the free electrons in the n-type side.
That means a potential barrier is created across the junction to prevent further
diffusion of charge carriers.
3. Forward Bias:- ​Positive terminal of a source is connected to the p-type side and
the negative terminal of the source is connected to the n-type side of the diode.
In the beginning, there is no current flowing through the diode. This is because
although there is an external electrical field applied across the diode, the majority
charge carriers still do not get sufficient influence of the external field to cross the
depletion region. As the depletion region acts as a potential barrier against the
majority charge carriers.
The majority charge carriers start crossing the forward potential barrier only when
the value of externally applied voltage across the junction is more than the
potential of the forward barrier. For silicon diodes, the forward barrier potential is
0.7 volt and for germanium diodes, it is 0.3 volt. When the externally applied
forward voltage across the diode becomes more than the forward barrier
potential, the free majority charge carriers start crossing the barrier and
contribute the forward diode current. In that situation, the diode would behave as
a short-circuited path, and the forward current gets limited by only externally
connected resistors to the diode.
4. Reverse Bias:- ​we connect the negative terminal of the voltage source to the
p-type side and the positive terminal of the voltage source to the n-type side of
the diode. At that condition, due to electrostatic attraction of the negative
potential of the source, the holes in the p-type region would be shifted more away
from the junction leaving more uncovered negative ions at the junction.
In the same way, the free electrons in the n-type region would be shifted more
away from the junction towards the positive terminal of the voltage source leaving
more uncovered positive ions in the junction.
As a result of this phenomenon, the depletion region becomes wider. This
condition of a diode is called the reverse biased condition. At that condition, no
majority carriers cross the junction, and they instead move away from the
junction. In this way, a diode blocks the flow of current when it is reverse biased.
In the reverse biased condition, the holes find themselves in the n-type side
would easily cross the reverse-biased depletion region as the field across the
depletion region does not present rather it helps minority charge carriers to cross
the depletion region.
As a result, there is a tiny current flowing through the diode from positive to the
negative side. The amplitude of this current is very small as the number of
minority charge carriers in the diode is very small. This current is called ​reverse
saturation current.
If the reverse voltage across a diode gets increased beyond a safe value, due to
higher electrostatic force and due to higher kinetic energy of minority charge
carriers colliding with atoms, a number of covalent bonds get broken to contribute
 a huge number of free electron-hole pairs in the diode and the process is
cumulative.
The huge number of such generated charge carriers would contribute a huge
reverse current in the diode. If this current is not limited by an external resistance
connected to the diode circuit, the diode may permanently be destroyed.

5. PN Junction:- ​We can create a PN junction by connecting face to face one

p-type and one n-type semiconductor crystal block via special techniques. More
practically, we can form a p n junction by doping one side of a semiconductor
crystal by trivalent impurity and another side by pentavalent impurity.
The side of semiconductor crystal where we doped trivalent impurity, is formed
p-type semiconductor and the side of semiconductor crystal where we doped
pentavalent impurity formed an n-type semiconductor.
The middle portion of the crystal where these p-type and n-type semiconductors
meet a typical junction formed which is known as P-N junction.

6. N-type semiconductor:- ​The most commonly used semiconductors are silicon

and germanium. The Silicon has 14 electrons which have been configured as 2,
8, 4. Germanium has 32 electrons which have been configured as 2, 8, 18, 4.
There is a method of increasing conductivity of semiconductors at any
temperature greater than absolute zero. This method is called doping. In this
method is pure or intrinsic semiconductor is doped with pentavalent impurities
like antimony, arsenic and phosphorus. These impurity atoms replace some of
 the semiconductor atoms in the crystal and occupy their positions. As the
impurity atoms have five valence electrons in the outermost orbit 4 of them will
create the covalent bond with four adjacent semiconductor atoms.
In an n-type semiconductor there will be both free electrons and holes. But the
number of holes is quite smaller than that of electrons because holes are created
only due to the breakdown of the semiconductor to semiconductor covalent bond
whereas free electrons are created both due to loosely bounded non-bonded fifth
valence electron of impurity atoms and breakdown of the semiconductor to
semiconductor covalent bonds. Hence, number of free electrons >> number of
holes in n-type semiconductor. That is why free electrons are called majority
carriers, and holes are called minority carriers in the n-type semiconductor.

7. P-type semiconductor:- ​The trivalent impurities used for doping purpose of a

p-type semiconductor are boron, gallium, and indium.

8. Zener Diode:- ​A Zener diode is a specially designed, highly doped PN junction

diode normally operated in reverse biased condition.
When a PN junction diode is reverse biased, the depletion layer becomes wider.
If this reverse biased voltage across the diode is increased continually, the
depletion layer becomes more and more wider. At the same time, there will be a
constant reverse saturation current due to minority carriers.
After certain reverse voltage across the junction, the minority carriers get
sufficient kinetic energy due to the strong electric field. Free electrons with
sufficient kinetic energy collide with stationary ions of the depletion layer and
knock out more free electrons. These newly created free electrons also get
sufficient kinetic energy due to the same electric field, and they create more free
electrons by collision cumulatively. Due to this commutative phenomenon, very
soon, huge free electrons get created in the depletion layer, and the entire diode
will become conductive. This type of breakdown of the depletion layer is known
as ​avalanche breakdown​, but this breakdown is not quite sharp. There is
another type of breakdown in depletion layer which is sharper compared to
avalanche breakdown, and this is called ​Zener breakdown​. When a PN junction
is diode is highly doped, the concentration of impurity atoms will be high in the
crystal. This higher concentration of impurity atoms causes the higher
concentration of ions in the depletion layer hence for same applied reverse
biased voltage, the width of the depletion layer becomes thinner than that in a
normally doped diode. Due to this thinner depletion layer, voltage gradient or
electric field strength across the depletion layer is quite high. If the reverse
voltage is continued to increase, after a certain applied voltage, the electrons
from the covalent bonds within the depletion region come out and make the
 depletion region conductive. This breakdown is called Zener breakdown. The
voltage at which this breakdown occurs is called Zener voltage. If the applied
reverse voltage across the diode is more than Zener voltage, the diode provides
a conductive path to the current through it hence, there is no chance of further
avalanche breakdown in it.

9. Tunnel Diode:- ​A tunnel diode (also known as a Esaki diode) is a type of

semiconductor diode that has effectively “negative resistance” due to the
quantum mechanical effect called tunneling. Tunnel diodes have a heavily doped
pn junction that is about 10 nm wide. The heavy doping results in a broken band
gap, where conduction band electron states on the N-side are more or less
aligned with valence band hole states on the P-side.
The application of transistors in a very high in frequency range are hampered
due to the transit time and other effects. Many devices use the negative
conductance property of semiconductors for these high frequency applications. A
tunnel diode is one of the most commonly used negative conductance devices.
The concentration of dopants in both p and n regions is very high, at around
1024 – 1025 m-3. The pn junction is also abrupt. For these reasons, the
 depletion layer width is very small. In the current voltage characteristics of tunnel
diodes, we can find a negative slope region when a forward bias is applied.
The name “tunnel diode” is due to the fact that quantum mechanical tunneling is
responsible for the phenomenon that occurs within the diode. The doping is very
high so at absolute zero temperature the Fermi level lies within the bias of the
semiconductors.
Oscillator Circuits: ​Tunnel diodes can be used as high frequency oscillators as
the transition between the high electrical conductivity is very rapid. They can be
used to create oscillation as high as 5GHz. Even they are capable of creativity
oscillation up to 100 GHz in appropriate digital circuits.
Used in Microwave Circuits:​ Normal diode transistors do not perform well in
microwave operation. So, for microwave generators and amplifiers tunnel diode
are used. In microwave waves and satellite communication equipments they
were used widely, but lately their usage is decreasing rapidly, as transistors
which operate in this frequency range are becoming available.

When forward bias is applied the Fermi level of n-side becomes higher that the
Fermi level of p-side, thus the tunneling of electrons from the n-side to p-side
takes place. The amount of the tunnel current is very large than the normal
junction current. When the forward bias is increased, the tunnel current is
increased up to certain limit.
When the band edge of n-side is the same as the Fermi level in p-side, the tunnel
current is maximum with the further increment in the forward bias the tunnel
current decreases and we get the desired negative conduction region. When the
forward bias is raised further, normal pn junction current is obtained which is
exponentially proportional to the applied voltage.

10. Varactor Diode:- ​Varactor Diode is a reverse biased p-n junction diode, whose
capacitance can be varied electrically. The capacitance of the varactor diode can
be varied by varying the magnitude of the reverse bias voltage as it varies the
width of the depletion region, d. Also it is evident from the capacitance equation
that d is inversely proportional to C. These varactor diodes are advantageous as
 they are compact in size, economical, reliable and less prone to noise when
compared to other diodes.

11. LED:- ​A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a special type of PN junction diode. The
light emitting diode is specially doped and made of a special type of
semiconductor. This diode can emit light when it is in the forward biased state.
Aluminum indium gallium phosphide (AlInGaP) and indium gallium nitride
(InGaN) are two of the most commonly used semiconductors for LED
technologies.
When the forward biased current IF is applied through the p-n junction of the
diode, minority carrier electrons are injected into the p-region and corresponding
minority carrier electrons are injected into the n-region. Photon emission occurs
due to electron-hole recombination in the p-region.
Electron energy transitions across the energy gap, called radiative
recombinations, produce photons (i.e., light), while shunt energy transitions,
called non-radiative recombinations, produce phonons (i.e., heat).

​ hotodiode:- ​The photodiode is a kind of pn junction semiconductor diode

12. P
which works with the intensity of light falling on it at the reverse biased condition.
the pn junction gets exposed in the light. Depending on the intensity of the light,
the covalent bonds in the crystal get broken and generate free electron-hole pairs
across and nearby the pn junction. As a result, the reverse current in the diode
gets increased or in other words the conductivity of the device increases.

13. Laser Diode:- ​Laser diodes are the semiconductor lasers which generate highly
intense coherent beam of light. Laser Diodes are usually made of three layers
(sometimes even two) where Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) like materials are doped
with aluminium or silicon or selenium to produce p and n layers while the central,
undoped, active layer is intrinsic in nature. When a large forward bias is applied
for such an arrangement, heavy current flows through the junction due to which
electrons will gain more energy when compared to holes. This extra energy is
released in the form of photons when electrons combine with the holes (during
recombination process).
All these photons oscillate with a particular frequency and bounce back and forth
between the reflective walls of the active layer. During this process, a few of
them collide with the other atoms to produce more number of photons. This
process continues and thus there will be an increase in the number of excited
electrons when compared with those in the non-excited state.
This phenomenon is termed as population inversion and at this instant a constant
highly coherent beam of light will be emitted from the central layer, in the
 direction parallel to it, through the partially reflecting surface. Further it is to be
noted that inorder to obtain laser light, the end surfaces of the semiconductor
material should be parallel to each other, and are to be cut and polished
carefully.
The applications of laser diodes include:
CD and DVD players, Barcode scanners, Cable and High Definition (HD) TV
transmission, Printing.

14. Optical Fiber:- ​Fiber optic cables (also known as optical fiber cable) are network
cables that contain many strands of fine glass fibers known as optical fibers,
which are kept well-insulated within the body of the cable. These cables are
created for the use of long-distance, high-performance data networking, and
telecommunications. Signals are transmitted through these cables by firing
pulses of light through these optical fibers.
In comparison to a copper-wired cable, fiber optic cables transmit data over a
much longer distance easily in lesser time than a wired cable does this is
because they have higher bandwidth. Fiber optic cable is much reliable for data
traveling than any other cable. Although they have a high upfront cost, they have
a lower maintenance cost than copper-wired cables due to their high reliability.
These cables resist heat well and hence can keep itself relatively cool. As fiber
optic cables do not carry the electrical charge (it uses light instead), optical fiber
cables are not affected by Electro-Magnetic Interference (EMI) or Radio
Frequency Interference (RFI). This means the data can move through the wire
without distortion and disturbance, or the need for any wire connectors.
There are three basic elements of a fiber optic cable

1. Core: Starting with the core, it is the area light transmission that occurs in
the fiber, being either glass or plastic. With a large core, more light will be
transmitted within the cable.
 2. Cladding: It is used to provide a reflection within the core of the cable, this
will help the light waves transmit through the fiber.
3. Coating: Like any other coating, it is used to be multi-layers on the cables
to help preserve the strength of the fiber, as well as absorb shock and
extra fiber protections needed.

15. Integrated circuit:- ​An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit is a set
of electronic circuits on one small flat piece of semiconductor material that is
normally silicon. The circuit is made up of a number of diodes, transistors(BJT
and MOSFET), and capacitors. IC is also popularly known as chip or microchip.
This technology was invented in the year of 1950 by Jack Kilby of Texas
Instruments USA and Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor USA. The first
costumer to this new invention was the US Air Force. In the year 2000 Jack Kilby
won the Nobel Prize in Physics for miniaturized electronic circuits.
There are two main types of integrated circuits: digital ICs or analog ICs.
Analog IC
In this type of ICs, the input and output both signals are continuous. The output
signal level depends upon the input signal level and the output signal level is a
linear function of input signal level. Linear ICs or analog ICs are most commonly
used as audio frequency amplifier and radio frequency amplifier. Op amps,
voltage regulators, comparators and timers are also well-known examples of
linear ICs or analog ICs.
Digital IC
The logic Gates, such as AND gate, OR gate, NAND gate, XOR gate, flip flops,
counters; microprocessors are some well-known examples of digital ICs. These
ICs operate with binary data such as either 0 or 1. Normally in digital circuit, 0
indicates 0 V and one indicate +5 V.
The main components of an IC are transistors. These transistors may be bipolar
or field effect depending upon the applications of ICs.

Depending upon the number of transistors incorporated in a single chip, the ICs are
categorized in five groups. Namely,

i) Small Scale Integration (SSI) where the number of transistors incorporated in a

single IC chip is up to 100.
ii) Medium Scale Integration (MSI) where the number of transistors incorporated in
a single IC chip is from 100 to 1000.
iii) Large Scale Integration (LSI) where the number of transistors incorporated in a
single IC chip is from 1000 to 20,000.
iv) Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) where the number of transistors incorporated
in a single IC chip is from 20,000 to 10,00,000.
v) Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI) where the number of transistors
incorporated in a single IC chip is from 10,00,000 to 1,00,00,000.

There are two types of IC manufacturing technologies one is monolithic technology and
other is hybrid technology. In monolithic technique, all electronic component and their
interconnections are manufactured together into a single chip of silicon. This technology
is applied when identical ICs to be produced in large scale. Monolithic ICs are cheap but
reliable.
In hybrid ICs, separate components are attached on a ceramic substance and
interconnected by wire or metallization pattern.

The advantages of integrated circuits (ICs) include:

I. It is quite small in size practically around 20,000 electronic components can be
incorporated in a single square inch of IC chip.
II. Many complex circuits are fabricated in a single chip and hence this simplifies the
designing of a complex electronic circuit. Also it improves the performance.
III. Reliability of ICs is high
IV. These are available at low cost due to bulk production.
V. ICs consume very tiny power.
VI. Higher operating speed due to absence of parasitic capacitance effect.
VII. Very easily replaceable from the mother circuit.

The disadvantages of integrated circuits (ICs) include:

I. Because of its small size, IC is unable to dissipate heat in required rate when
current in it increased. That is why ICs are often damaged due to over current
flowing through them.
II. Inductors and Transformers cannot be incorporated in ICs.

16. Op-Amp:- ​An operational amplifier or op amp is a DC coupled voltage amplifier

with a very high voltage gain. The term Op Amp is used to denote an amplifier
which can be configured to perform various operations like amplification,
subtraction, differentiation, addition, integration etc. An example is the very
popular IC 741.
An op-amp has two input terminals and one output terminal. The op-amp also
has two voltage supply terminals as seen above. Two input terminals form the
differential input. We call the terminal, marked with negative (-) sign as the
 inverting terminal and the terminal marked with positive (+) sign as the
non-inverting terminal of the operational amplifier. If we apply an input signal at
the inverting terminal (-) than the amplified output signal is 180o out of phase
concerning the applied input signal. If we apply an input signal to the
non-inverting terminal (+) then the output signal obtained will be in phase, i.e. it
will have no phase shift concerning the input signal. it has two input power
supply terminals +VCC and –VCC. For the operation of an op-amp a dual polarity
DC supply is essential. In the dual polarity supply, we connect the +VCC to the
positive DC supply and the –VCC terminal to the negative DC supply.
An ideal op-amp should have the following characteristics:

I. Infinite voltage gain (So that maximum output is obtained)

II. Infinite input resistance (Due to this almost any source can drive it)
III. Zero output resistance (So that there is no change in output due to change
in load current)
IV. Infinite bandwidth
V. Zero noise
VI. Zero power supply rejection ratio (PSSR = 0)
VII. Infinite common mode rejection ratio (CMMR = ∞)

The integrated op-amps offer all the advantages of ICs such as high reliability,
small size, cheap, less power consumption. They are used in variety of
applications such as inverting amplifier and non inverting amplifiers, unity gain
buffer, summing amplifier, differentiator, integrator, adder, instrumentation
amplifier, Wien bridge oscillator, Filters etc.
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17. Transistor:- ​A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch

electronic signals and electrical power. Transistors are one of the basic building blocks
of modern electronics. It is composed of semiconductor material usually with at least
three terminals for connection to an external circuit.
The main differences when comparing PNP transistors vs NPN transistors have been
summarized in the table below:
How Does a PNP Transistor Work
1. The positive terminal of a voltage source (VEB) is connected with Emitter
(P-type) and the negative terminal is connected with the Base terminal (N-type).
Therefore, the Emitter-Base junction is connected in forward bias.
2. And the positive terminal of a voltage source (VCB) is connected with the Base
terminal (N-type) and the negative terminal is connected with the Collector
terminal (P-type). Hence, the Collector-Base junction is connected in reverse
bias.
3. Due to this type of bias, the depletion region at Emitter-Base junction is narrow,
because it is connected in forward bias. While the Collector-Base junction is in
reverse bias and hence the depletion region at Collector-Base junction is wide.
4. The Emitter-base junction is in forward bias. Therefore, a very large number of
holes from emitter cross the depletion region and enter the Base.
Simultaneously, very few electrons enter in Emitter from the base and recombine
with the holes.
5. The loss of holes in the emitter is equal to the number of electrons present in the
Base layer. But The number of electrons in the Base is very small because it is a
very lightly doped and thin region. Therefore, almost all holes of Emitter will cross
the depletion region and enter into the Base layer.
6. Because of the movement of holes, the current will flow through the Emitter-Base
junction. This current is known as Emitter current (IE). The holes are majority
charge carriers to flow the Emitter current.
7. The remaining holes which do not recombine with electrons in Base, that holes
will further travel to the Collector. The Collector current (IC) flows through the
Collector-Base region due to holes.
How Does an NPN Transistor Work
1. The base-emitter junction is connected in the forward bias condition by supply
voltage VEE. And the collector-base junction is connected in the reverse bias
condition by supply voltage VCC.
2. In forward bias condition, the negative terminal of supply source (VEE) is
connected to the N-type semiconductor (Emitter). Similarly, in a reverse bias
condition, the positive terminal of the supply source (VCC) is connected to the
N-type semiconductor (Collector).
3. The depletion region of the emitter-base region is thin compared to the depletion
region of the collector-base junction (Note that the depletion region is a region
where no mobile charge carriers are present and it behaves like a barrier that
opposes the flow of the current).
4. In N-type emitter, the majority charge carrier is electrons. Therefore, electrons
start flowing from N-type emitter to a P-type base. And because of electrons, the
current will start flowing the emitter-base junction. This current is known as
emitter current IE.
5. These electrons move further to the base. The base is a P-type semiconductor.
Therefore, it has holes. But the base region is very thin and lightly doped. So, it
has a few holes to recombine with the electrons. Hence, most of the electrons
will pass the base region and few of them will recombine with the holes.
6. Because of the recombination, the current will flow through the circuit and this
current is known as base current IB. The base current is very small compared to
the emitter current. Typically, it is 2-5% of the total emitter current.
7. Most of the electrons pass the depletion region of a collector-base junction and
pass through the collector region. The current flowing by the remaining electrons
is known as the collector current IC. The collector current is large compared to
the base current.
Operating Mode of Transistor
The transistor operates on different modes or regions depends on the biasing of
junctions. It has three modes of operation.

Cut-off Mode:-​ In cur-off mode, both junctions are in reverse bias. In this mode, the
transistor behaves as an open circuit. And it will not allow the current to flow through the
device.

Saturation Mode:- ​In the saturation mode of a transistor, both junctions are connected
in forward bias. The transistor behaves as a close circuit and current flow from collector
to emitter when the base-emitter voltage is high.

Active Mode:- ​In this mode of a transistor, the base-emitter junction is forward bias and
collector-base junction is reverse biased. In this mode, the transistor operates as a
current amplifier. The current flows between emitter and collector and the amount of
current are proportional to the base current.
18. JFET:- ​Junction Field Effect Transistor is a semiconductor device in the family of
field effect transistor. The field effect transistor is the type of transistor which being
operated by the electric field applied across the junction of the device.
JFET is a voltage control device whereas BJT is a current control device. The current
through JFET is caused due to the flow of majority carriers whereas in BJT flow of
current is due to both majority and minority carriers. Since only majority carriers are
involved in creations of current in JFET, it is a unipolar device. The input impedance of
a JFET is very high.
N Channel JFET:-​ An n channel JFET is made of Si or GaAs bar. The bar is doped with
n-type impurities. One metallic terminal is attached to each of both ends of the bar. One
of the terminals is called drain terminal, and the other is called the source terminal. Two
sides of the bar are highly doped with p-type impurities. The region which doped with
p-type impurities is called gate region. A metallic terminal is connected to the gate
region, and the terminal is called the gate terminal.

P Channel JFET:- ​Similarly, a p channel JFET is made of Si or GaAs bar doped with
p-type impurities. The sides of the bar are highly doped with n-type impurities. Here also
the drain, and the source terminal are connected to two ends of the bar. The terminal
attached to the side n-type region is the gate terminal.

If a voltage is applied between drain and source terminal, a current starts flowing
through the device. The space between two oppositely doped regions is referred to as
channel of the device. The current flowing through the channel due to drift of majority
carriers. The majority carriers enter into the channel through the terminal is referred as
to source terminal and the terminal through which the majority carriers leave the
channel is referred as to drain terminal.
In normal operating condition the drain terminal of n channel JFET is applied with
positive potential and the drain terminal of a p channel JFET is applied with negative
potential. The gate voltage is kept such in a JFET that the PN junction between the gate
region and the channel is in reverse biased condition. The width of the depletion layer of
this PN junction can be varied by varying gate terminal voltage. The opening of the
channel depends on the width of the depletion layer.
Properties of JFET
1. This is a voltage control device since the current through the channel gets
controlled by gate voltage. In other words, the electric field across the junction
 effects the operation of the transistor and that is why it is named as junction field
effect transistor.
2. As in normal operating condition, the junction between input gate region and
channel remains to reverse biased, the input impedance of the transistor is high.
3. Ideally, there will be no gate current in JFET.
4. Majority carriers only contribute the current through the channel in the device,
i.e., free electrons in n channel and holes in p channel and these are the reason
why a transistor is called unipolar device.

19. MOSFET:- ​MOSFET stands for Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor.
The mosfet is a capacitor operated transistor device. The capacitor plays an essential
role for operating a MOSFET.
Construction wise we can categorise the device into four types.
P – Channel Enhancement MOSFET
N – Channel Enhancement MOSFET
P – Channel Depletion MOSFET
N – Channel Depletion MOSFET
[Link]

20. Flip Flop:- ​A flip flop is an important basic memory element for the digital circuit.
Flip-flop is designed by assembling different logic gates. The single logic gate does not
have any information storing capacity but by combining different such gates one can
make such a digital circuit that can store digital information.
It can remain in either of the states indefinitely. Its state can be changed by applying the
proper triggering signal. A flip flop is a one-bit memory element. There are two outputs
in a flip-flop generally marked as Q and \overline{Q}. Either of Q and \overline{Q} can be
used as output but normal practice is to take Q as output port and \overline{Q} as an
inverted output port.

The types of flip flops and latches include:

SR Flip Flop:- ​An SR Flip Flop (also referred to as an SR Latch) is the most simple
type of flip flop. It has two inputs S and R and two outputs Q and \overline{Q}. The state
of this latch is determined by the condition of Q. If Q is 1 the latch is said to be SET and
if Q is 0 the latch is said to be RESET. This SR Latch or Flip flop can be designed either
by two cross-coupled NAND gates or two-cross coupled NOR gates.
When we design this latch by using NOR gates, it will be an active high S-R latch. That
means it is SET when S = 1. When we design this latch by using NAND gates, it will be
an active low S-R latch. That means it is SET when S = 0. SR Flip Flop is also called
SET RESET Flip Flop.

In the above logic circuit if S = 1 and R = 0, Q becomes 1. Let us explain how.

1. NOR gate always gives output 0 when at least one of the inputs is 1.
2. So when S is applied as 1 the output of gate G2 i.e. \overline{Q} is 0 irrespective
of the condition of second input Q to the gate.
3. Now \overline{Q} is the input of gate G1 so both the inputs of G1 become 0 as R
is already 0. So, the output of G1 is now \overline{0 + 0} or 1.
4. So whatever may be the previous condition of Q, it always becomes Q = 1 and
\overline{Q} = 0 when S = 1 and R = 0. This is called the SET condition of the
latch.

In the above logic circuit if S = 0 and R = 1, Q becomes 0. Let us explain how.

1. As we already said, a NOR gate always gives output 0 when at least one of the
inputs is 1.
2. So when R is applied as 1, the output of gate G1 i.e. Q is 0 irrespective of the
condition of the second input \overline{Q} to the gate.
3. So, whatever may be the previous condition of Q, it always becomes 0 this 0 is
then fed back to the input of gate G2. As here S is already 0, both inputs of G2
are 0. Hence the output of G2 i.e. \overline{Q} will be 1. So, Q = 0 and
\overline{Q} = 1 when, S = 0 and R = 1. This is called the RESET condition of the
latch.

In the above logic circuit if S = 0 and also R = 0, Q remains the same as it was. Let us
explain how.

1. First suppose Q is previously 1.

2. Now the inputs of G2 are 0 and 1 as S=0 and Q=1. So output of G2 i.e.
\overline{Q} is \overline{0 + 1} or 0.
 3. Now both inputs of G1 are 0 as R=0 and \overline{Q}=0. So the output of G1 i.e.
Q is \overline{0+0} or 1.
4. Now suppose Q is previously 0.
5. Now both inputs of G2 are 0 and 1 as S = 0 and Q = 0. So the output of G2 i.e.
\overline{Q} is \overline{0+0} or 1.
6. Now the inputs of G1 are 0 and 1 as R=0 and \overline{Q} = 1. So the output of
G1 i.e. Q is \overline{0+1} or 0.
7. So it is proved that Q remains the same as it is when S = 0 and also R = 0 in SR
latch or flip flop.
In the above logic circuit if S = 1 and also R = 1, the condition of Q is totally
unpredictable. Let us explain how.

1. First suppose Q is previously 1.

2. Now both inputs of G2 are 1 as S = 1 and Q = 1. So output of G2 i.e. \overline{Q}
is \overline{1+1} or 0.
3. Now the inputs of G1 are 1 and 0 as R = 1 and \overline{Q} = 0. So the output of
G1 i.e. Q is \overline{1+0} or 0. That means Q is changed.
4. Now Q is 0. So inputs of G2 are 1 and 0 as S = 1 and Q = 0. So the output of G2
i.e. \overline{Q} is \overline{1+0} or 0. That means \overline{Q} is unchanged.
5. Now the inputs of G1 are 1 and 0 as R = 1 and \overline{Q} = 0. So the output of
G1 i.e. Q is \overline{1+0} or 0. That means Q is unchanged.

So, when both S and R are 1, it becomes unpredictable whether the value of output Q
will be changed or unchanged. This condition of SR latch normally avoided. As the latch
is SET when S = 1(HIGH), the latch is called Active High SR Latch.
D Flip Flop:- ​A D Flip Flop (also known as a D Latch or a ‘data’ or ‘delay’ flip-flop) is a
type of flip flop that tracks the input, making transitions with match those of the input D.
The D stands for ‘data’; this flip-flop stores the value that is on the data line. It can be
thought of as a basic memory cell.

JK Flip Flop:- ​A JK flip-flop is a sequential bi-state single-bit memory device named

after its inventor by Jack Kil. In general it has one clock input pin (CLK), two data input
pins (J and K), and two output pins (Q and Q̅) as shown in Figure 1. JK flip-flop can
either be triggered upon the leading-edge of the clock or on its trailing edge and hence
can either be positive- or negative- edge-triggered, respectively.
Digital Logic Gates:- ​Digital logic gate is an electronic component which results in a
particular output after implementing its logic on the input signals. These serve as the
basic building blocks of any digital system irrespective of its complexity.

Basic Gates
NOT gate​ has one input and one output, where the output will always be the inversion
(i.e. negation) of the input. This means that if the input is zero, then output will be one
and vice-versa.
AND gate​ can have multiple inputs, while its output is restricted to be a single one. Here
the output will be high only if all the inputs are high; for any other case the output will be
low.

OR gate​ is a multi-input, single-output gate which has its output equal to logic ‘zero’
when all the inputs to the gate are low. Further for all other remaining combinations of
inputs, where at least one of the inputs will be high, the output will be logically high.
NOT, AND and OR gates are the preliminary gates used to realize any Boolean
expression. Thus these are called basic gates.

A NAND gate (“not AND gate”) is a logic gate that produces a low output (0) only if all its
inputs are true, and high output (1) otherwise. Hence the NAND gate is the inverse of
an AND gate, and its circuit is produced by connecting an AND gate to a NOT gate. Just
like an AND gate, a NAND gate may have any number of input probes but only one
output probe.
The NAND gate performs the logical NAND operation. NAND gates are known as
universal gates (along with NOR gates), which means they are a type of logic gate
which can implement any Boolean function without the need to use any other gate type.
A NOR gate (“not OR gate”) is a logic gate that produces a high output (1) only if all its
inputs are false, and low output (0) otherwise. Hence the NOR gate is the inverse of an
OR gate, and its circuit is produced by connecting an OR gate to a NOT gate. Just like
an OR gate, a NOR gate may have any number of input probes but only one output
probe.

XOR Gate:- ​ An XOR gate is normally two inputs logic gate where the output is only
logical 1 when only one input is logical 1. When both inputs are equal, either are 1 or
both are 0, the output will be logical 0.
This is the reason an XOR gate is also called an anti-coincidence gate or inequality
detector. This gate is called XOR or exclusive OR gate because its output is only 1
when its input is exclusively 1.

XNOR Gate:- ​In the XNOR gate, the output is 0 when only one input is 0, and the
output is 1 when both inputs are the same.
the truth table is satisfied by the equation AB + ĀB ̅.

Truth Table:- ​A truth table is a mathematical table that lists the output of a particular
digital logic circuit for all the possible combinations of its inputs. These truth tables can
be used to deduce the logical expression for a given digital circuit, and are used
extensively in Boolean algebra.
Boolean Algebra:- ​Boolean algebra or switching algebra is a system of mathematical
logic to perform different mathematical operations in a binary system. There only three
basis binary operations, AND, OR, and NOT by which all simple, as well as complex
binary mathematical operations, are to be done.

De-Morgan’s Law:-
1. According to De-Morgan’s laws or De-Morgan’s theorem if A and B are the two

variables or Boolean numbers. Then accordingly​

2. Also, The compliment of the sum of two variables is equal to the product of the

compliment of each variable.

K-Map:- ​A Karnaugh map (K-map) is a pictorial method used to minimize Boolean

expressions without having to use Boolean algebra theorems and equation
manipulations. A K-map can be thought of as a special version of a truth table .
Using a K-map, expressions with two to four variables are easily minimized.
Expressions with five to six variables are more difficult but achievable, and expressions
with seven or more variables are extremely difficult (if not impossible) to minimize using
a K-map.

Transformer:-​ A transformer is defined as a passive electrical device that transfers

electrical energy from one circuit to another through the process of electromagnetic
induction. It is most commonly used to increase (‘step up’) or decrease (‘step down’)
voltage levels between circuits.
The working principle of a transformer is very simple. Mutual induction between two or
more windings (also known as coils) allows for electrical energy to be transferred
between circuits.
[Link]

Thermistor:- ​A thermistor (or thermal resistor) is defined as a type of resistor whose

electrical resistance varies with changes in temperature. Although all resistors’
resistance will fluctuate slightly with temperature, a thermistor is particularly sensitive to
temperature changes.

MCB:- ​A Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB) is an automatically operated electrical switch

used to protect low voltage electrical circuits from damage caused by excess current
from an overload or short circuit. MCBs are typically rated up to a current up to 125 A.
Multiplexer:- ​A multiplexer (sometimes spelled multiplexor and also known as a MUX)
is defined as a combinational circuit that selects one of several data inputs and forwards
it to the output. The inputs to a multiplexer can be analog or digital. Multiplexers are also
known as data selectors.
A multiplexer is useful for transmitting a large amount of data over the network within a
certain amount of time and bandwidth.

Multiplexers that are built from transistors and relays are termed as analog multiplexers
which are used in analog applications and Multiplexers that are built from logic gate
termed as digital multiplexers which are used in digital applications. The inverse of a
multiplexer is known as a demultiplexer.
[Link]

Microprocessor vs microcontroller
1. Microprocessor consists of only a Central Processing Unit, whereas Micro
Controller contains a CPU, Memory, I/O all integrated into one chip.
2. Microprocessor is used in Personal Computers whereas Micro Controller is used
in an embedded system.
3. Microprocessor uses an external bus to interface to RAM, ROM, and other
peripherals, on the other hand, Microcontroller uses an internal controlling bus.
4. Microprocessor is complicated and expensive, with a large number of instructions
to process but Microcontroller is inexpensive and straightforward with fewer
instructions to process.
The computer chips are microprocessors.
I9 core 10 microprocessor will have around 4billion transistors.
Cores in the processor:- ​A core, or CPU core, is the "brain" of a CPU. It receives
instructions, and performs calculations, or operations, to satisfy those instructions. A
CPU can have multiple cores.
A processor with two cores is called a dual-core processor; with four cores, a
quad-core; six cores, hexa-core; eight cores, octa-core. As of 2019, the majority of
consumer CPUs feature between two and twelve cores. Workstation and server CPUs
may feature as many as 48.
Each core of a CPU can perform operations separately from the others. Or, multiple
cores may work together to perform parallel operations on a shared set of data in the
CPU's memory cache.
CRT:- ​The CRT is a display screen which produces images in the form of the video
signal. It is a type of vacuum tube which displays images when the electron beam
through electron guns are strikes on the phosphorescent surface. In other Words, the
CRT generates the beams, accelerates it at high velocity and deflect it for creating the
images on the phosphorous screen so that the beam becomes visible.

The working of CRT depends on the movement of electrons beams. The electron guns
generate sharply focused electrons which are accelerated at high voltage. This
high-velocity electron beam when strikes on the fluorescent screen creates luminous
spot.
After exiting from the electron gun, the beam passes through the pairs of electrostatic
deflection plate. These plates deflected the beams when the voltage applied across it.
The one pair of plate moves the beam upward and the second pair of plate moves the
beam from one side to another. The horizontal and vertical movement of the electron
are independent of each other, and hence the electron beam positioned anywhere on
the screen.
The working parts of a CRT are enclosed in a vacuum glass envelope so that the
emitted electron can easily move freely from one end of the tube to the other.

Q. How does my phone know to flip the screen around?

A. A sensor called the accelerometer — used inside phones, fitness trackers,
smartwatches and other gadgets — measures changes in velocity. The Android or iOS
software then uses the accelerometer’s data to tell how you’re holding your phone and
orients the screen appropriately so that when you want to switch from browsing the web
to watching a wide-screen video, the screen rotates automatically. The accelerometer’s
motion-sensing capabilities are also used for things like augmented-reality apps, games
and work with GPS data and other navigation tools that show the rate of speed you (and
your phone) are traveling.
802.11:- ​802.11n is a specification for wireless LAN (WLAN) communications. 802.11n,
an addition to the 802.11 family of standards, will increase wireless local area
network(WLAN) speed, improve reliability and extend the range of wireless
transmissions. 802.11n uses multiple input / multiple output (MIMO) technology and a
wider radio frequency channel.

Bit:- ​A bit (short for binary digit) is the smallest unit of data in a computer. A bit has a
single binary value, either 0 or 1. There are eight bits in a byte. Half a byte (four bits) is
called a nibble.
In digital telecommunication, the bit rate is the number of bits that pass a given point in
a telecommunication network in a given amount of time, usually a second. Thus, a bit
rate is usually measured in some multiple of bits per second - for example, kilobits, or
thousands of bits per second (Kbps).
Baud rate is defined as the number of signal units per second.
Bit rate = Baud rate x the number of bit per baud.

UPS:- ​An Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) is defined as a piece of electrical

equipment which can be used as an immediate power source to the connected load
when there is any failure in the main input power source.
In a UPS, the energy is generally stored in batteries, or super capacitors. When
compared to other immediate power supply system, UPS have the advantage of
immediate protection against the input power interruptions. It has very short on-battery
run time; however this time is enough to safely shut down the connected apparatus
(computers, telecommunication equipment etc) or to switch on a standby power source.

Radiowave:- ​A radio wave is a combination of a magnetic field at a right angle to an

electric field. Both oscillate at a specific frequency, and they travel together in a
direction perpendicular to both fields (Fig. 1). These electromagnetic fields move at the
speed of light (about 300 million meters per second or about 186,400 miles per second)
through free space. According to Maxwell’s well-known equations, they support and
regenerate one another along the way, but weaken over distance. frequencies ranging
from 300 GHz to 3 kHz,
The frequency band for FM radio is about 88 to 108 MHz. The information signal is
music and voice which falls in the audio spectrum. The full audio spectrum ranges form
20 to 20,000 Hz, but FM radio limits the upper modulating frequency to 15 kHz
Generally, radio waves have a near field and a far field. The near field is close to the
antenna, usually within several wavelengths (?). The far field is about 10 wavelengths or
more from the antenna. The far field breaks away from the antenna and becomes the
radio signal.
Applications like radio-frequency communication (RFID) and near-field communications
(NFC) use the near field, which is more akin to the magnetic field around a transformer
primary winding. But overall, the far field is the most useful radio wave.

IEEE:- ​The ​Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers​ is a professional

association for electronic engineering and electrical engineering with its corporate office
in New York City and its operations center in Piscataway, New Jersey.

Set-top box:- ​A set-top box is a hardware device that allows a digital signal to be
received, decoded and displayed on a television. The signal can be a television signal
or Internet data and is received via cable or telephone connection.
It received signals containing data for multiple channels and filtered out the channel a
user wanted to view. The numerous channels were generally transmitted to an auxiliary
channel on the television. Other features included a decoder for pay-per-view and
premium channels.

Configuration of transistor:-​ ​[Link]

Bipolar Transistor Configurations
Common Base Configuration – has Voltage Gain but no Current Gain.
Common Emitter Configuration – has both Current and Voltage Gain.
Common Collector Configuration – has Current Gain but no Voltage Gain.

Different network topologies:-

[Link]
-hybrid/
Difference Between LED and LCD
1. The LED is a PN junction diode which emits visible light when the forward bias
applies across it. Whereas the LCD uses liquid filaments which are filled between
glass electrodes for the emission of light.
2. The LED stands for Light Emitting Diode whereas the LCD stands for Liquid
Crystal Display
3. The LCD uses cold cathode fluorescent lamp which provides the backlight of the
screen, whereas the LED uses the PN-junction diodes for displaying the light.
The backlight refers to the turning on and off of the displays for better vision.
4. The resolution of the LED is much better than that of LCD. The resolution is the
number of pixels on the display of the screen.
5. The LED consumes more power as compared to LCD because of the plasma.
The filament used in LCD is made up of plasma, which requires less power for
activation.

How will you explain the working of an AC to a layman?

Ans. DC is like 'calm river water' , which has a uniform velocity in a river or a rivulet and
also the river water flows only in one direction (from the hills to the sea ) .DC flows from
high potential to low potential , In one direction.
AC is like water which is continuously moving Forward and backward, one can consider
the water waves hitting the beach and receding back , in similar fashion AC changes its
direction after a particular interval of time.

Z-plane:- ​The Z-plane is a complex plane with an imaginary and real axis referring to
the complex-valued variable z. The position on the complex plane is given by reiθ and
the angle from the positive, real axis around the plane is denoted by θ. When mapping
poles and zeros onto the plane, poles are denoted by an "x" and zeros by an "o". The
below figure shows the Z-Plane, and examples of plotting zeros and poles onto the
plane can be found in the following section.
Z-transform:- ​In mathematics and signal processing, the Z-transform converts a
discrete-time signal, which is a sequence of real or complex numbers, into a complex
frequency-domain representation.
Also, it can be considered as a discrete-time equivalent of the Laplace transform.

Satellite Comm:-
[Link]
[Link]

Kepler’s First Law:- ​Kepler’s first law states that the path followed by a satellite around
its primary (the earth) will be an ellipse. This ellipse has two focal points (foci) F1 and
F2 as shown in the figure below. Center of mass of the earth will always present at one
of the two foci of the ellipse.
If the distance from the center of the object to a point on its elliptical path is considered,
then the farthest point of an ellipse from the center is called as apogee and the shortest
point of an ellipse from the center is called as perigee.

Kepler’s Second Law:-​ Kepler’s second law states that for equal intervals of time, the
area covered by the satellite will be same with respect to center of mass of the earth.

Kepler’s Third Law:-​ Kepler’s third law states that, the square of the periodic time of an
elliptical orbit is proportional to the cube of its semi major axis length.

[Link]
[Link]

Indian electronics company:-

1. Ptron
2. BEL(Bharat electronics limited)
3. Micromax
4. Onida
5. Videocon
6. Samtel
7. iball
8. Intex

Foreign electronics company:-

1. Nvidia
2. ST microelectronics
3. Intel
4. Qualcomm
5. NXP Semiconductor
6. Texas instruments
7. Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Co. Ltd. (TSM)
SSD v/s HDD