Radiation attenuation

• X-rays and γ-rays interact with the atoms of any medium, including air, which
they pass through, and will be attenuated in some way.

• It is the differential attenuation of radiation by different media which allows

radiography to be a useful inspection method.

• The degree of attenuation is affected by many factors, inc1uding the density and
structure of the medium and also the type, intensity and photon energy of the
radiation.
 Radiation attenuation

• The intensity of the radiation which emerges from a homogeneous medium

decreases exponentially with the thickness of the medium through which it has
• passed.

• This can be written as I = I0 × e-µt

• where I is the intensity of the emerging radiation, I0 is the intensity at the entry
face, t is the thickness of the medium and µ is a characteristic of the medium
termed the linear absorption coefficient.
 Radiation attenuation

• The important modes of absorption of radiation are photo-electric effect,

Rayleigh scattering, Compton scattering and pair production.

• Photo-electric effect: An interaction in which a photon is consumed in breaking

the bond between an orbital electron and its atom.

• Rayleigh scattering: is an interaction in which a photon is deflected without any

loss of photon energy or release of electrons.

• Compton scattering: is an interaction in which an incident photon causes an

orbital electron to be ejected from an atom.

• Pair production can occur if the incident photon energies exceed 1 MeV.

• Two lower-energy photons of scattered radiation are emitted for each high-
energy photon absorbed.
 Shadow formation and distortion

• X-rays and γ-rays, like light, propagate in

straight lines and the geometric relationships
between source, object and film, or screen,
determine the main features of the
radiographic image which is formed.

• The image formed on a radiograph is similar

to the shadow cast on a screen by an opaque
object placed in the light path.

• The dimensions of the shadow of an object

illuminated from a point source will be
larger than the object.
 Shadow formation and distortion

• If a plane of the object being inspected is not

parallel to the film or other recording
medium, the shape of the image will be
distorted.

• Radiographs of many test objects will show

so me distortion because many test-pieces
will be of such shape that they will possess
some features that will not be parallel to the
plane of the film.
 Shadow formation and distortion

• In a number of cases the object may contain

features that will produce images which
overlap one another.
 Shadow formation and distortion

• Most radiation sources are too large to be

considered as a point source.

• There will be a portion of the image that will

be in shadow for radiation coming from all
points on the source.

• This region of complete shadow is termed

the umbra.

• Zone of partial shadow is termed the

penumbra.

• The size of the penumbra, or the degree of geometric unsharpness, can be reduced
by reducing the size of the source of radiation, by reducing the object to film
distance, or by increasing the source to object distance
 Shadow formation and distortion

• Geometric unsharpness is given as:

 Radiographic film and paper
• The film which is used for industrial radiography differs from normal photographic
film in a number of respects.

• The film base is considerably thicker than photographic film, being about 0.018
mm in thickness and it possesses a thin film of emulsion on both sides.

• Some radiographic film is produced with only one emulsion layer but this type is
not in general use.

• The silver salts in the emulsion are very sensitive to electro-magnetic radiation of
the X-ray or 'γ-ray type but are also sensitive to visible light.

• A thin coating of emulsion on both sides of the film base effectively increases the
speed of the film because the radiation affects both layers almost equally.

• The film development process is also more effective than would be the ease for one
thick emulsion layer rather than two thin layers.
 Radiographic film and paper

• X-ray film is of two general types: direct exposure no-screen-type, and screen
type film.

• Most industrial X-ray film is of the direct exposure type and is available in
several grades, each grade with a different combination of film speed and
grain size.

• The film produced for medical radiography is of the screen-type but this
grade is used for some industrial applications.
 Radiographic film and paper
• Film speed is a very important parameter.

• For high speed films, grains react sooner than other film types.

• For a constant intensity, grains of high speed film produce the density before
grains of slow speed film.

• Faster speed films have larger grains and may not be able to produce minute
details.

• Grain size of a film affects quality and type of exposure.

• Slow speed films have fine grains and give better quality even though
exposure time is longer.
 Intensifying screens
• Use of thin screens or foils made of heavier metals produce intensification
when exposed to X or gamma rays of 70kV and above.

• Cuts down exposure time.

• Intensification due to liberations of photo electrons from screen/foil.

• Leads films…
 Film density

• All radiographic films must have a readable density (blackening of film).

• Developed radiograph will have various shades of density depending upon exposure.

• Variables that affect density are tube voltage, tube current, source strength, distances,
development procedure, film speed and time.

• A measure of exposure seen by developed film or film density D is given as:

• Here I0 =light intensity striking the film.

• It = transmitted light intensity.

• A densitometer is used and most specifications call for a film density of 1.5 to 3.3.
 Radiographic sensitivity

• Ability of the technique to reveal the smallest discontinuity on the radiograph.

• The sensitivity is expressed either as absolute value or in percentage with respect to
the thickness of specimen.

• Contrast sensitivity:
• Amount of radiation exposure affects the contrast sensitivity.
• It is defined as the film density.
• In other words, it is the ease with which an image can be seen against the radiographs
background.
• If there is less material in one area, it will appear darker than the surrounding area.

• Detail sensitivity:
• Needed to identify the various types of defects.
• Sharpness with which image detail of the penetrameter is shown.
• Factors that control detail sensitivity include focal spot, anode size or target area of the
tube, the focal to film distance and type of film.
 Unsharpness

• Various types of unsharpness that contribute to the definition of the image are:

 Geometric unsharpness: Controlled under a certain exposure setup.

 Movement unsharpness: Considered negligible when source, object and the film
are stationary during the exposure.

 Inherent or film unsharpness: Fixed once the radiation energy is selected for the
test.

 Scattering unsharpness: Scattered radiation produced within the object reduces

contrast whereas scatter radiation generated from the edge of the specimen lowers
the definition.
 Image quality indicators - Penetrameters

• Each radiograph should contain some means of assessing the quality or sensitivity of
the image.

• This is achieved using devices termed Image Quality Indicators IQIs or penetrameters.

• Several Image Quality Indicators or penetrameters of different designs have been

devised by the various standards organisations.

• They are generally made in the form of steps or wires of varying thickness and made
in the same or a similar material to that being inspected.

• The relevant British Standard (BS 3971) covers both step-hole and wire IQI types.
 Image quality indicators - Penetrameters

• Identification markers are made of lead or lead alloy, usually in the form of letters and
numbers.

• These are then attached to the testpiece by means of adhesive tape during the setting-
up process.

• The markers should be placed in such a way that they will not obscure any portion of
the testpiece.

• The shadows of the dense metal characters would mask coincident defects.
 Image quality indicators - Penetrameters
Step-hole type Hexagon model B Wire type

• The placement of penetrameters is important.

• They should be placed on the source side of the testpiece and at the edge of the area,

• Namely in the outer zone of the radiation beam with the thinnest step or wire being
outermost.

Identification markers must be put on to indicate the type of material and the thickness
range of the IQI.
 Image quality indicators - Penetrameters
Step-hole type Hexagon model B

• The coding 8 AL 13
indicates that the IQI is an
aluminium with the
thinnest step being No. 8
(0.630 mm) and the
thickest step being No. 13
(2.00 mm).
Step and hole dimensions for IQIs to BS 3971

• The coding 7 FE 12
means that the IQI is steel
with step thicknesses
ranging from No. 7 to No.
12.
 Image quality indicators - Penetrameters
Wire type • A series of wires, each of 30 mm length, are laid parallel and
set 5 mm apart within an optically transparent material such as
polythene.

• The lead identification markers are also encased within the

polythene.

• The coding 9 CU 15 means that there are seven copper wires

ranging in diameter from wire No. 9 (0.200 mm dia.) to wire
No. 15 (0.80 mm dia.).

IQI wire diameters (BS 3971)

 Xeroradiography

• In this system the latent radiographic image is produced on a metal plate.

• Has a thin coating of selenium.

• The plate is given an overall but even charge of static electricity.

• A charged plate of this type is highly sensitive to light and also X-radiation and
must be kept in a light-tight holder similar to a film cassette.

• When X-radiation impinges on the plate it will differentially discharge the surface
of the plate in proportion to the amount of radiation received at different portions.

• Produces an electrostatic latent image

 Xeroradiography
• The exposed plate is developed by subjecting it, in the absence of light, to a cloud
of extremely fine plastic powder, or toner.

• The particles of the toner powder are charged electrostatically.

• With a charge of opposite sign to the charge on the plate.

• The toner powder partic1es are attracted to the charged portions of the plate,

• Produces a radiographic image.

• This image is not permanent as the powder particles are merely held in place by
the electrostatic charge.

• A permanent image can be made by placing a piece of treated paper on the plate.

• The powder is transferred to the paper where it can be fixed in position using heat

• Images can normally show excellent detail.

 Fluoroscopy

• In fluoroscopy the X-ray image is not recorded on film.

• The radiation, after passing through the object under inspection, impinges on a
screen made up of crystals of a fluorescent compound bonded on a thin base.

• The crystals fluoresce when X-radiation strikes them.

• The intensity of the fluorescence produced is greatest in those parts receiving the
most radiation.

• The appearance of the fluoroscope image is the reverse of that seen on a

developed radiograph.

• A defect such as porosity which would show as dark spots on a radiograph would
appear as brighter spots on a fluorescent screen.
 Fluoroscopy

• The major
advantage of
fluoroscopy is that
an image can be
seen in 'real-time’.

• Useful inspection
technique for the
inspection of large-
scale production
items. Principle of operation of a fluoroscope.
 Identification and Evaluation of Discontinuities

• The radiographic image of a discontinuity in a component shows a variation of density

compared to its surroundings.

• The density may be higher or lower, depending on the nature of the discontinuity. A
void in a component results in a darker image (high optical density) than its
surroundings.

• A foreign object of higher material density causes a lighter image (low optical density)
on the radiograph.

• However, it should be realized that if the density of an entrapped inclusion in a

component is the same as that of the component, such an inclusion might not be
revealed on the radiograph.

• Further, radiography is not an effective tool for detecting planer type of

discontinuities.
 Identification and Evaluation of Discontinuities

• An understanding of the material and the manufacturing process goes a long way in
correlating radiographic indication with the exact nature and origin of the
discontinuity.

• By establishing the identity of indication by comparison with reference standards, a

radiographer should be able to identify the cause of occurrence of the discontinuity.

• Evaluation of defects is done by comparing the test object radiograph with the known
standard reference radiographs having different degrees of each defect.

• The limit of acceptance/rejection, however, is based on the service application of the

component, keeping in view the service environment and the design stipulated
mechanical property requirement.

• Often, it may be necessary to generate a defect-property data for this purpose.

 Interpretation of Casting Radiographs
Gas porosity:
• Appears as round or elongated smooth dark
spots, occurring individually or in clusters or
distributed throughout the casting.
• This is caused by gas formation during
solidification by evaporation of moisture or
volatile material from the mold surface.
• Insufficient core baking, could also be the
cause.
• The term 'gas porosity' is used to refer to dark Gas porosity (round and elongated) in Al-Cu alloy casting
spots on the radiograph, whose diameters are
usually 1.0 mm or less.
• Gas holes appear as dark circular images,
isolated or in clusters.
• These are caused by gas entrapment casting,
resulting in gas holes in molten metal. If the
molten metal solidifies before all gases escape,
the gas is entrapped in the casting, resulting in
gas holes.
Gas porosity (round) coarse type in Al-Si alloy casting
 Interpretation of Casting Radiographs
Micro-porosity/Shrinkage porosity/Micro-
shrinkage:
• These appear as an overall mottled
appearance in aluminum alloy castings,
and dark streaks or a spongy appearance
in magnesium alloys.
• These are very fine cavities, usually
around the grain boundaries.
• This defect occurs in casting when overall Micro shrinkage in Al-Mg alloy casting
metal shrinkage is more than the normally
expected shrinkage factor.
• The defect is due to improper feeding of
the molten metal and occurs when the
pouring temperature is higher than the
ideal temperature.
• Shrinkage appears as dendrite,
filamentary or jagged darkened areas. Filamentary shrinkage associated with
shrink porosity in Al-Cu alloy casting
 Interpretation of Casting Radiographs
Cracks:
• These occur as hot tears or cold cracks (also called stress cracks).
• Hot tears appear as rugged dark lines of variable width and numerous branches with no
definite line of continuity.
• Hot tears occur during or immediately after solidification.
• Cold cracks appear generally as a single straight, sharp dark line, usually continuous
throughout the length.
• Such cracks occur when internal stresses are set up by a thermal gradient.
• Dross appears as a dark, round or irregularly shaped images due to slag filling up the
void entrapped in castings.
• These may look lighter if the density of inclusion is more than the density of the parent
material. Inclusions may be due to slag, sand or oxides.
• Cold shut appears as a dark line of variable length with a definite, smooth outline.
• Cold shuts are formed when two streams of molten metal flowing from different
directions fail to unite.
• The formation of a cold shut is due to interrupted pouring, slow pouring or pouring the
metal at too low a temperature.
 Interpretation of Casting Radiographs

Non metallic inclusion in Airlock in Mg-Zn-Zr Oxide inclusion in Mg-

Al-Cu alloy casting alloy casting Zn-Zr alloy casting

Micro shrinkage and crack Shrinkage cavities in steel Corrosion pits in steel
in in Mg-Zn-Zr alloy casting casting tubing
 Interpretation of Casting Radiographs

Dense inclusion in Al-Cu alloy casting

Dross/cavities in Al-Si alloy casting

 Interpretation of Welding Radiographs
• Porosity: See under casting defects in the previous section.
• Slag inclusion and slag lines appear on the radiograph as dark, irregular shapes. These
isolated, clustered or randomly distributed. A slag line appears as a linear dark shade,
continuous or intermittent along the edge of the weld. Slag inclusions occur due to
entrapment of foreign materials in the cavities during welding.
• Incomplete penetration appears on the radiograph as continuous or intermittent dark
lines, usually of uniform width, occurring in the middle of the weld. This is caused by the
failure of the weld metal to fill the root gap.
• Lack of fusion appears on the radiograph as a thick, dark line. It may also appear as
diffused and wavy, depending upon the defect orientation with respect to the radiation
beam. This defect is caused by the failure of the weld metal to fuse with the parent metal
or previously deposited weld metal. In case of lack of sidewall fusion, the radiographic
image shows the appearance of straight, dark band parallel to the weld bead.
• Cracks appear on the radiograph as sharp, straight or jagged dark lines with tapered ends.
Cracks may appear in longitudinal or transverse directions. Cracks may occur in the weld
and heat affected zones. The effect is caused by the rupture of the weld metal during
solidification due to shrinkage or by fracture when cold, due to uneven stresses and poor
handling.
Interpretation of Welding Radiographs

Transverse crack in weld longitudinal crack in weld

Porosity in weld
Fatigue crack in Al-alloy component
Thank You