Comparison and Applicability of

Different NDT Techniques

 Metallurgical Processes & Defects
• Casting Defects (types covered)
• Forging and Rolling Defects
• Extrusion Defects and Drawing Defects
• Welding Defects (types covered)
• Grinding Cracks
• Heat Treating Cracks
 Forging & Rolling Defects
• Forging is the working of a material into an useful shape by hammering or pressing.
• Many times forging operations are carried out at higher temperatures.
• Certain materials are also cold forged.
Forging Lap
• A forging lap is a discontinuity caused by folding of metal in a thin plate on the surface of the forged material.
It is due to mismatch between the mating surfaces of the two forging dies in closed-die forging.
It is always open to the surface and is irregular in contour.
Forging Bursts or Cracks
• Bursts are caused by forging at too low a temperature.
• They can occur internally or on the surface.
Stringer
• Non-metallic inclusions in slabs or billets which get thinned and elongated in the direction of rolling by the
rolling process are called stringers.
 Extrusion and Drawing Defects
• Extrusion is the process by which a block of material is reduced in cross section by forcing it to
flow through a die under high pressure.
• Extrusion is carried out either under hot or cold condition.
• Drawing operations involve pulling a material through a die by means of a tensile force applied on
the exit side of the die.
• The reduction in diameter of a solid bar or tube by successive drawing is known as bar or wire or
tube drawing.

Following defects are generally formed during extrusion process:

• Internal Pipe or Extrusion Defect Cracks: Trapping of oxidized outer skin of the billet into the
central region of the extruded product is known as internal pipe. If the material does not flow
through the die properly, cracks are generated in the finished product.
 Extrusion and Drawing Defects
The drawing defects are as follows:
• Seams: Seams can occur in rod or wire if the starting rod (raw material) has defects such as seams
or pipe.
• Center-burst: The most common type of drawing defect is the 'Center-burst' or chevron cracking.
Center burst is due to drawing at too low temperature.
 Grinding cracks
• Grinding cracks are caused by stresses which are built up from excessive heat generated between
the grinding wheel and the material.
• These cracks occur on the surface of the material at right angles to the direction of rotation of the
grinding wheel.

Heat treatment cracks

• Heat treating is basically the process of obtaining microstructure with desired properties like
strength, hardness, ductility, impact strength, etc. of a material by controlled heating and cooling.
• While heat treating, unequal cooling between light and heavy sections of a part results in build up
of stress leading to cracking.
• These cracks are called heat-treating cracks.
 Defects Introduced During Service
• Static Loads
• Dynamic Loads
• Service or High Temperature
• Stresses Above Elastic Limit
• Corrosive Environment
• Vibration

Types of Materials Failure

• Excessive plastic deformation
• Fracture
• Fatigue
 Selection of The NDT Methods
(a) type and origin of discontinuity,
(b) material manufacturing process,
(c) accessibility of the component to perform NDT,
(d) type of equipment available,
(e) time available,
(f) cost
 Visual Inspection
Advantages: Disadvantages:
❖ It is the lowest cost non destructive test. ❖ Many variables can lead to discontinuities being
❖ Allows to detect and eliminate possible missed.
discontinuities before starting or completing the ❖ At its worst, it relies totally on the human factor.
welding. ❖ Many organisations pay little attention to the proper
❖ It allows the identification of major discontinuities training of operators.
and generally indicates possible points where ❖ Sub-surface discontinuities will not be seen.
discontinuities may arise, which must be inspected
by other non-destructive test. Defects:
❖ A well - achieved visual inspection provides a ❖ Surface Deposits
reduction in the amount of repairs to the weld , ❖ Mechanical damage
leading to greater production of the other non - ❖ Blemishes
destructive tests and therefore decreasing the cost of ❖ missing feature
production. ❖ dimensional flaws
❖ Good at finding dimensional flaws or surface ❖ Discoloration
blemishes. ❖ Erosion or corrosion
❖ Generally fast test time. ❖ Oxidation bulging
❖ Scaling
❖ Gross defects visible on the surface
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection
Advantages: Disadvantages:
❖ High sensitivity to small surface discontinuities. ❖ Detect flaws only open to the surface.
❖ Easy inspection of parts with complex shapes. ❖ Materials with porous surfaces cannot be examined
❖ Quick and inexpensive inspection of large areas and using this process.
large volumes of parts / materials. ❖ Only clean, smooth surfaces can be inspected. ( Rust
❖ Simple and inexpensive , dirt, paint, oil and grease must be removed. )
❖ Versatile and Portable ❖ Surface finish and roughness can affect examination
❖ Indications maybe further examined. sensitivity.
❖ It is easy and requires minimal amount of training. ❖ Multiple process steps must be performed and
❖ Indications can reveal relative size, shape , and depth controlled.
of flow. ❖ Post cleaning of parts and material is required
especially if welding is to be performed.
❖ Surface films, such as coatings, scale, and smeared
metal may visually mask defects.
 Liquid Penetrant Inspection

Applications:
Defects:
❖ AEROSPACE : Typical components that are
❖ Cracks of any orientation
checked by this method include turbine, rotor
❖ Porosity
disc, blades , aircraft wheels, casting, forged parts
❖ Pin holes
and welded assemblies.
❖ Voids
❖ AUTOMOBILES : Many automotive parts
❖ Forging
particularly aluminium castings and forging
❖ Forging bursts
including pistons and cylinder heads are subjected
❖ Various types of weld defects
to this form of quality checks before assembly.
❖ Corrosion cracks
❖ RAILWAYS : LPI to detect fatigue cracking is
❖ Creep fissures
also used for the regular service examination of
❖ Fatigue cracks
the bogie fames of railway locomotive and the
❖ LPT can also be used for leak testing. In this case, the
rolling stock.
component casing is filled with the penetrant and
❖ TOOL AND DIES : Field drilling rays, drill
developer is applied outside the surface.
pipes , castings and drilling equipment’s inspected
by this method.
 Magnetic Particle Inspection
Advantages:
Disadvantages:
❖ Can detect both surface and near surface indications.
❖ Nonferrous materials, such as aluminium,
❖ Surface preparation is not as critical compare to other
magnesium, or most industries, cannot be inspected.
NDT methods. Most surface contaminants will not
❖ Examination of large parts be required use of
hinder detection of a discontinuity.
equipment with special power requirements.
❖ A Relatively fast method of examination.
❖ May require removal of coating or plating to achieve
❖ Indications are visible directly on the surface.
desired sensitivity.
❖ A portable NDT method, especially when used with
❖ Limited sub surface discontinuity detection
battery powered yoke equipment.
capabilities.
❖ Post cleaning generally not necessary.
❖ Post demagnetisation is often necessary.
❖ A relatively safe technique ; material is generally not
❖ Alignment between magnetic flux and indications is
combustible or hazardous.
important.
❖ Indications can show relative size and shape of the
❖ Only small sections or small parts can be examined at
discontinuity.
one time.
❖ Easy to use and requires minimal amount of training
 Magnetic Particle Inspection

Defects: Applications:
❖ Cracks and tears ❖ Used for inspection of castings, forgings and
❖ Porosity weldments on bridges, storage tanks etc.
❖ Shrinkage cavities ❖ Used by structural steel, automotive, petrochemical,
❖ Slag inclusions power generation, and aerospace industries.
❖ Voids ❖ Even used for underwater inspections.
❖ Forging laps ❖ Used in industries for in - process, final , receiving
❖ Grinding cracks inspection and also for maintenance and overhaul.
❖ Corrosion cracks ❖ Inspected for cracks. Crankshafts, frames, flywheels,
❖ Fatigue cracks crane hooks, shafts, steam turbine ladies and
❖ Larger size cracks in various orientations fasteners.
❖ Pores
❖ Slag inclusions
❖ Voids
❖ Laminations
❖ Incomplete fusion
 Eddy Current Testing
Advantages: Applications:
❖ Sensitivity to surface defects. ❖ Crack detection
❖ Can detect through several layers. ❖ Conductivity measurements
❖ Can detect to surface coatings. ❖ Inspection of heat exchanger tubes and larger size tubes
❖ Accurate conductivity measurements. during manufacturing and inservice.
❖ Can be automated. ❖ Material thickness and coating thickness measurements.
❖ Little pre cleaning required. ❖ Heat damage detection.
❖ Portable test equipment is very small and light. ❖ Heat treatment monitoring.
❖ Inspects complex shapes and sizes of conductive ❖ Case depth determination.
materials. ❖ Material identification.
❖ Test probe does not need to contact the part.
Defects: ❖ Porosity
Disadvantages: ❖ Electrical conductivity ❖ Pinholes
❖ Conductive material only ❖ Heat treatment condition ❖ Corrosion
❖ Shallow depth of penetration ❖ Dimensional variation ❖ Fatigue cracks
❖ Surface roughness may affect test quality ❖ Hardness
❖ Coating thickness
❖ Cracks
❖ Voids
 Radiographic Testing

Advantages: Disadvantages:
❖ No prior preparation of the surface of the component ❖ Highly hazardous, so proper care must be exercised
is necessary. ❖ High degree of skills and experience required
❖ Ability to inspect assembled components. ❖ Costly affair
❖ Automatically detect and measure in internal flaws. ❖ Slow process and slow results
❖ Can be used for broader range of materials. ❖ Two sided access of component required
❖ Both surface and subsurface flaws can be detected. ❖ Has limited ability to detect fine cracks
❖ Assembled components can easily be inspected. ❖ Defect require significant depth in relation to the
❖ Easily verify internal defects on complex items / radiation beam.
structures. ❖ Depth of discontinuity not indicated
❖ Dimensions and angles of the sample can be ❖ Bulky equipment
measured without sectioning.
 Radiographic Testing

Applications:
❖ Radiography is used in a very wide range of applications
Defects:
included medicine , engineering, forensics, security etc.
❖ Cracks (parallel to the radiation beam)
❖ In NDT, radiography is one of the most important and
❖ Volumetric defects such as slag inclusions, voids etc.
widely used method.
❖ Porosity
❖ Well suited for inspection of semiconductor devices for
❖ Blockages or deposits inside the pipelines or pressure
detection of cracks, broken wires, unsoldered connections,
vessels
foreign material and misplaced components.
❖ Material thickness
❖ It is used to inspect most types of solid materials both ferrous
❖ To detect hidden foreign material inside a component
and non ferrous alloys as well as non metallic materials and
composites
❖ RT is also used to check the integrity of the micro welds
used in electronic integrated circuits.
 Ultrasonic Testing

Advantages: Disadvantages:
❖ Real time availability of results ❖ Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.
❖ Higher sensitivity for planar defects ❖ Skill and training is more extensive than some other
❖ Independence of sensitivity over depths method.
❖ Low cost for inspection ❖ Material that are rough, irregular in shape, very
❖ Higher portability of the equipment small, exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are
❖ Compatibility for automation difficult to inspect.
❖ Sensitive to both surface and subsurface ❖ Linear defect oriented parallel to the sound beam
discontinuities may go undetected.
❖ Depth of penetration for flaw detection or ❖ Test objects should be water resistant.
measurement is superior to other methods ❖ Manual operations require careful attention by
❖ Higher accuracy in determining reflector position and experienced technicians.
estimating size and shape. ❖ Normally requires a coupling medium to promote
❖ Minimal part preparation required. transfer of sound energy into the test specimen.
❖ Has other uses such as thickness measurements, in
addition to flaw detection.
 Ultrasonic Testing

Defects: Applications:
❖ Surface breaking and hidden cracks in any ❖ Industries such as power, railways , chemical , aerospace etc.
orientation ❖ Used in underwater inspection applications for locating and
❖ Inter granular cracks sizing subsurface defects in components.
❖ Laps ❖ Most suitable method of NDT for in-service inspection (ISI)
❖ Laminations of components in power plants, chemical process industries
❖ Volumetric defects such as slag inclusions etc.
❖ Porosity ❖ Quality control and material inspection.
❖ Wall thickness measurements ❖ Inspect pipe and plate welds.
❖ Creep ❖ Inspect pins, bolts and shafts or cracks.
❖ Hydrogen embrittlement ❖ Detect internal corrosion.
❖ Liquid level measurement ❖ Thickness measurements - Refinery and chemical processing
❖ To detect blockages, deposits etc. in the pipe lines equipment, submarine hulls, aircraft sections, pressure
and pressure vessels. vessels, etc.
Industrial Applications
 Industrial Applications
Railways
❖ A number of railway components and assemblies are tested and evaluated using NDT methodologies.

❖ During manufacture:
❖ Wheels, axles, bearings, rails, welded rail joints, bridges, etc.
❖ Wheels are fixed to an axle.
❖ The part of the wheel sitting on the rails is called the tyre.
❖ The test methods commonly used during fabrication are visual examination, the magnetic particle test, the liquid
penetrant test, ultrasonics and radiography.
❖ These methods are used to detect and evaluate surface, sub-surface and internal defects.

❖ During service
❖ NDE methods are used to monitor components to ensure their continued usage.
❖ Components are subjected to extreme conditions of service loads, frictional wear, high temperature and corrosive
environment.
❖ Initiation of cracks, breakage of components, gauge spreading, unacceptable residual stresses and deterioration of
material.
❖ Contribute to accidents, derailments, and the failure of individual components.
❖ To minimize the occurrence of accidents or the deterioration of components and assemblies beyond acceptance limits
❖ Periodic NDE checks and records are maintained.
 Industrial Applications
Railways
❖ Usually, specific test and evaluation techniques are developed for each situation.
❖ Depending on the part configuration, assembly condition, test environment and sensitivity required by acceptance
standards.
❖ In case acceptance standards are not available, sufficient data needs to be generated in coordination with design and
maintenance agencies.
❖ Currently, ultrasonic methods in pulse-echo mode constitute the most widely used NDE method, in the frequency range
of 2-5 MHz for the detection, location and evaluation of defects. Both manual and automatic test systems are used
worldwide.
❖ Ultrasonic velocity gives a good idea of material deterioration and unacceptable residual stresses.
❖ Other methods are used depending on specific requirements.
❖ Railway bridges are essential for continuous movement across water-ways and many other obstacles.
❖ The role of NDE in this regard, is to support the maintenance of bridges in service.
❖ Conventional as well as advanced methods like acoustic emission are used to detect and monitor corrosion and cracks in
critical members of bridges.
❖ For the repair and replacement of members, NDE is used to ensure effective repair.
 Industrial Applications
Railways
❖ Further, an area of concern is health monitoring of railway tracks to avoid/ reduce derailments and accidents as failure

could be very expensive in terms of life and property.

❖ Apart from visual and ultrasonic inspection, instrumented hammer excitation is used as a tool for evaluation and

monitoring railway track structure.

❖ In this method, signal analysis is used to examine vibration response of the structure to the impact excitation.

❖ The impact excitation is converted in to frequency response function and parameters like frequency, damping and mode

shapes are extracted for health monitoring.

 Industrial Applications
NUCLEAR, NON-NUCLEAR AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES
❖ Welding is the major manufacturing process for various equipment and assemblies in nuclear, nonnuclear and chemical
industries.
❖ The major equipment and assemblies fabricated by welding are pressure vessels, boilers, heat exchangers, storage tanks
and industrial and transmission piping.
❖ The materials used to fabricate these components are comprised of low carbon steel, low alloy steels, stainless steels,
ferritic stainless steel, nickel base alloys, copper-nickel alloys, titanium, admiralty brass, etc.
❖ The commonly used processes of welding are TIG and MIG.
❖ The role of NDE during fabrication is to ensure the structural integrity of components.
❖ NDE methods ensure the acceptability of butt and fillet welds for satisfactory root penetration; proper fusion in fillet
welds for joint efficiency and freedom from unacceptable cavities, porosity, inclusions, cracks and mechanical damages.
❖ During the fabrication of pressure vessels, NDE is required to examine and evaluate longitudinal, circular and nozzle
welds.
❖ Radiography, magnetic particle, liquid penetrant and ultrasonic methods are commonly used.
❖ Test techniques and acceptance standards are prepared and documented based on the mutual agreement between the
manufacturers and users of the product.
❖ The documents are prepared based on universally accepted codes, standards and specifications.
 Industrial Applications
NUCLEAR, NON-NUCLEAR AND CHEMICAL INDUSTRIES
❖ Heat exchangers form vital components in a large number of process plants.
❖ These are examined during fabrication to control the process of fabrication and during usage to prevent failure and
initiate replacement.
❖ Usually, the following techniques are used to examine tubes: eddy current, ultrasonics, helium leak test and visual
examination.
❖ Bobbin type eddy current probes are inserted into the tube through a probe drive system.
❖ Multifrequency test modes are used to detect local corrosion, erosion and cracks and also to locate foreign materials.
❖ Tubes of magnetic materials are tested by eddy current using saturation techniques.
❖ Ultrasonic rotatory inspection using the pulse-echo technique is used to examine the circumference of the tube wall.
❖ The tube wall thickness is assessed by this technique.
❖ The camera or endoscope is inserted into the tube and examination is performed after the camera or endoscope is
withdrawn.
❖ Liquid penetrant methods are also used to assess the presence of corrosion in the tube sheet
 Industrial Applications
AIRCRAFT AND AEROSPACE INDUSTRIES

❖ The selection of materials and manufacturing processes is dictated by design requirements of high specific strength and
stiffness.
❖ This means that components have to be light weight and highly loaded.
❖ Tolerance for design stipulated properties and the dimensions, size and distribution of defects is very stringent

❖ Aircraft and aero-engine components operate under cyclic loading and are prone to fatigue cracking.
❖ Further, components are subjected to a hostile environment of corrosion, erosion, extreme temperature variation and
lightning strikes

❖ Increasing usage of composites, foam honeycomb and sandwich structure, particularly for aircraft and aerospace
components

❖ Visual examination, radiography, ultrasonics, magnetic particle, liquid penetrant and eddy current tests are extensively
used to examine and evaluate surface and internal defects.
❖ In addition to these methods, acoustic emission, infrared thermography, high frequency eddy current, laser sherography
and holography is also used.
 Industrial Applications
Defects observed during fabrication and the service and the NDE methods used
 Industrial Applications
AUTOMOTIVE

❖ Automotive industries were using more than 80% steel for fabricating automotive parts, and conventional welding
methods for producing body structures.
❖ However, the situation has undergone drastic changes due to the following reasons:
❖ The industry has become highly competitive; hence, cost effectiveness has become a major production strategy
❖ There is demand for increased safety and conformance to strict environment regulations
❖ There is a desire to fulfill the needs of car owners for more luxury features
❖ There is demand for light-weight designs to save as much petrol and diesel as possible

❖ These demands have necessitated the use of lighter materials like aluminum, magnesium, adhesives and composites,
coupled with an innovative design approach and new joining techniques.
❖ The introduction of lighter material components like aluminum- and magnesium-alloy castings, new welding technique
and innovative design features coupled with the introduction of adhesive joints necessitates the introduction of
commensurate NDE methodologies during manufacture and maintenance.
❖ The examination of welds and adhesive joints of metal plates and a combination of steel, polymer materials and glass has
led to the application of high-frequency ultrasonics (A and C-scans) to assess the soundness of adhesive joints.
 Industrial Applications
AUTOMOTIVE

❖ The inspection of aluminum and magnesium castings and fiber-reinforced composites is carried out by film radiography
and computer tomography.
❖ Tomography allows the detection and location of defects like porosity, shrinkage cavity and the determination of internal
wall thickness and core mismatch.
❖ Low KV radiography is used to examine fiber-reinforced composites.
❖ Apart from radiography and ultrasonics, other conventional methods are used for evaluating surface and sub-surface
defects.
❖ The objective of NDE is to control and monitor the quality, detection and evaluation of defects and wear analysis so that
necessary action is initiated before premature failure of the component in service.
 Industrial Applications
OFFSHORE GAS AND PETROLEUM PROJECTS

❖ NDE methods are extensively used in two major areas in offshore gas and petroleum projects, namely the
fabrication of drilling platforms and the inspection of flexible pipes.
❖ The main components of a drilling platform are legs and piles, which are tubular sections, welded together.
❖ The lower sections are larger in diameter and thicker than the upper sections.
❖ The structure has longitudinal and circumferential welds, which are examined by gamma radiography.
❖ Co-60 is used as the source of penetrating radiation.
❖ Ultrasonic methods are also used to assess various weld joints.
❖ Initially, efforts are made to correlate radiographic and ultrasonic indications to establish confidence levels.
❖ Ultrasonic test methods include the pulse-echo as well as time of flight techniques.
❖ A-, B- and C-Scan methods of data presentations are used to indicate the condition of the entire volume of
the welded area.
 Industrial Applications
OFFSHORE GAS AND PETROLEUM PROJECTS

❖ The magnetic particle test and visual examinations are carried out to check for surface and subsurface
defects.
❖ Flexible pipes are used for production, gas lift or water injection.
❖ These pipes are composite, multi-layered structures and are critical components of offshore exploration
activity.
❖ These pipes link the offshore platform and the wellhead on the seabed and are subjected to corrosion,
erosion and fatigue
❖ NDE inspection on these pipes includes visual examination using remote-operated vehicles or by divers,
eddy current methods and X-ray radiography.
❖ Magnetic flux leakage methods are also being tried.
❖ In so far as the NDE of deep-sea installations is concerned, robot-based systems are used for inspection and
maintenance.
❖ The usual problems that one encounters are those of cracks and corrosion in underwater components.
❖ Advanced artificial intelligence techniques have also been developed to classify corrosion and cracks..
 Industrial Applications
COAL MINING INDUSTRY

❖ Non-destructive Test and Evaluation Methods are widely used in Coal Mining Industry to ensure freedom
of mining equipment from harmful manufacturing defects, control of service and environment related
defects during life cycle management and providing warning systems for prevention and control of
accidents and dust control.
❖ Mining Industries use hoisting system for moving personnel and material in vertical and inclined shafts
through cage.
❖ Rope haulage system is used for transporting men, materials and waste.
❖ The systems use items like suspension gears pulley shaft and steel wire ropes.
❖ Transportation system either by hoisting or haulage are required to be reliable and safe during service.
❖ The components of the systems show manufacturing defects like: cavities, porosity, shrinkages in castings
and defects like-cavities, lack of fusion/penetration, lapping, lamination and surface and subsurface defects
in welded items.
❖ During service, the defects that are generated are wear, fatigue cracks, corrosion and erosion.
❖ Effect of various defects depend on their location, service and environment constraints and stress field.
❖ To ensure serviceability of components and assemblies, it is important to document acceptable defects
depending on their morphology; in terms of size, number, proximity of defects and volume dispersion.
 Industrial Applications
COAL MINING INDUSTRY

❖ In so far as application of NDE is concerned following methods are regularly used:

❖ Visual Inspection to detect gross surface defects
❖ Magnetic particle test to detect surface and subsurface defects in ferromagnetic components
❖ Liquid penetrant test to detect surface defects in all components except highly porous components
❖ Eddy current test methods to detect surface and subsurface defects in conducting materials specially steel
wire ropes for detection of broken wire and corrosion
❖ Radiography and ultrasonic methods find application to test and evaluate castings and weldments

❖ Life cycle maintenance of components and assemblies requires periodic examination depending on
accessibility, field condition and availability of equipment/test facility.
❖ Often times more than one complementary test may be required.
❖ Feedback from such tests may be used for risk assessment in allowing some defects for economic reasons
or for realistic assessment of remaining life of components/ assemblies.
 Industrial Applications
FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES

❖ Fiber re-inforced composites are susceptible to fabrication defects, impact damage, moisture absorption,
variability in material properties.
❖ It is often required to produce evidence through NDT methods to establish integrity of structures,
repeatability of manufacturing process to ensure design stipulated strength, stiffness, thickness, variation
and material homogeneity..
❖ Two conventional methods of NDT, namely Ultrasonics and low energy Radiography have been
successfully applied to test, evaluate and certify composites.

❖ Visual Examination
❖ Visual examination of surface is the most commonly used for detecting crazing, cracks, scratches, nicks,
blisters, pitting, resin rich and resin starved areas, discolouration, wrinkles, open voids and delamination.
❖ Visual aids such as intense light or magnifying glasses are used to increase detection capability.
❖ Reflected light is used to observe surface irregularities and other defects.
❖ Transmitted light is often used for glass fiber-reinforced composites to reveal defects within the material.
❖ Any indentation of the surface without visible damage to the fibers, is analysed by other NDT methods
before acceptance.
Industrial Applications
FIBER REINFORCED COMPOSITES
Uses of Composites
 Industrial Applications
DEFECTS IN COMPOSITES

Defects Induced During Fabrication and Service

Industrial Applications
Defect in Monolithic Structures
Industrial Applications
Defect in Monolithic Structures
Industrial Applications
Defect in Monolithic Structures
Industrial Applications
Defect in Monolithic Structures
Industrial Applications
Defect in Honeycomb Structures
 Industrial Applications
Defects in Composites and their effects

Effect of Porosity
• Among the defects that significantly influence mechanical properties of fiber reinforced
composites is porosity.
• Porosity may be introduced due to inadequate pressure on the laminate during cure, vacuum
bag leakage or lack of resin due to its out flow (as happens in time expired material).

Effect of Delamination
• Presence of delamination leads to reduction in shear strength, buckling/compressing strength.
• Tensile strength is not effected till some load bearing fiber breaks.
• The important point to be noted is the significance of delamination or any other defect varies
according to its location with respect to stress field.
 Industrial Applications
Defects in Composites and their effects

Effect of Notches and Surface Scratches

• Notches and scratches often occur during handling and assembly of components.
• This leads to local variation in strength and stiffness.
• There is also a possibility of such notches initiating delamination damage , resulting in low
compressive strength.
• Such defects can be detected and assessed visually or by eddy current test.
• Ultrasonic method may be employed to detect presence of delamination accompanied by
scratches.

Effect of Thickness Variation Due to Ply Omission

• Inadvertent omission of plies may occur during lay up of large components due to negligence.
• This leads to local variation in strength and stiffness in addition to reduced thickness, depending
on the number of plies missing their orientation.
• Ultrasonic C-Scan transit time map provides a reliable method for assessing variation in local
thickness.