Turtle shell

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A preserved turtle skeleton showing how the

Carapace: Scutes (left) and skeletal components (right).

Part of a series related to

Biomineralization

General

Exoskeletons (shells)

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Endoskeletons (bones)
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Teeth, scales, tusks etc

Calcification

Silicification

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The turtle shell is a shield for turtles (order Testudines), completely enclosing all the turtle's
vital organs and in some cases even the head. It comprises an upper part, the carapace, and
lower part, the plastron, connected by a bony bridge.[1] It is constructed of modified bony
elements such as the ribs, parts of the pelvis, and other bones found in most reptiles. The bone
of the shell consists of both skeletal and dermal bone, showing that the complete enclosure of
the shell likely evolved by including dermal armor into the rib cage.

The turtle's shell is important to study, not just because of the apparent protection it provides
for the animal, but also as an identification tool, in particular with fossils, as the shell is one of
the most likely parts of a turtle to survive fossilization. Therefore, understanding the shell
structure in living species provides comparable material with fossils.

The shell of the hawksbill turtle, among other species, has been used as a material for a wide
range of small decorative and practical items since antiquity, including food and medicine, [2] but
is normally referred to as tortoiseshell.

Shell nomenclature
 Internal anterior
carapace of Elseya dentata. (Annotations: Pe = peripheral, P1 = pleural 1, BCS = bridge carapace
suture.)

The turtle shell is made up of numerous bony elements, generally named after similar bones in
other vertebrates, and a series of keratinous scutes which are also uniquely named. The ventral
surface is called the plastron.[3][4] These are joined by an area called the bridge. The actual
suture between the bridge and the plastron is called the anterior bridge strut.[5] In pleurodires,
the posterior pelvis is also part of the carapace, fully fused with it. This is not the case
in Cryptodires, which have a floating pelvis.[3][4] The anterior bridge strut and posterior bridge
strut are part of the plastron. On the carapace are the sutures into which they insert, known as
the bridge carapace suture.[5]

In the shell, there is a turtle's epidermis layer. This layer is important to the strength of the shell
surrounding it. In an international study, the layer can be as thick as two to four cells. Even with
such a small thickness, the epidermis allows for the deformation the shell can experience and
provides the shell more support.[6] The epidermis layer is apparent in both sections of the shell
—carapace and plastron—and is thicker in critical areas. A thicker epidermis allows a higher
stress force to be experienced without permanent deformation or critical failure of the shell. [7]

The shape of the shell is from its evolutionary process, which caused many microstructures to
appear to aid survival and motion. The shell shape allows the animal to escape predatory
situations. Microstructures can include the scutes mentioned prior or the ribs found internally
of the shell. Many ribs can be found within and throughout the shell. The rib structures provide
extra structural support but allows the shell to deform elastically depending on the situation
the turtle is in (i.e., predatory escape).[8] Nonstructural mechanisms have also been in the turtle
shell that aids the turtle during locomotion. A mucus film covers parts of the shell, allowing
some physical protection and also reducing friction and drag.

The bones of the shell are named for standard vertebrate elements. As such, the carapace is
made up of eight pleurals on each side. These are a combination of the ribs and fused dermal
bone. Outside of this, at the anterior of the shell, is the single nuchal bone, a series of twelve
paired periphals then extend along each side. At the posterior of the shell is the pygal bone, and
in front of this, nested behind the eighth pleurals, is the suprapygal.[3]

Transverse sections
through the first neural of A. Aspideretes hurum showing the suture between the wide neural
bone (N) and the vertebral neural arch (V). B. Chelodina longicollis at pleural IV showing a
narrow midline neural bone, lateral pleurals (P) and underlying vertebral neural arch. and
C. Emydura subglobosa at pleural IV showing location of a rudimentary neural bone underneath
medially contiguous pleurals.

Between each of the pleurals are a series of neural bones,[9] which although always present are
not always visible,[10] in many species of Pleurodire they are submerged below the pleurals.
[11]
Beneath the neural bone is the neural arch which forms the upper half of the encasement for
the spinal cord. Below this the rest of the vertebral column.[4] Some species of turtles have some
extra bones called mesoplastra, which are located between the carapace and plastron in the
bridge area. They are present in most Pelomedusid turtles.[12]

The skeletal elements of the plastron are also largely in pairs. Anteriorly there are two
epiplastra, with the hyoplastra behind them. These enclose the singular entoplastron. These
make up the front half of the plastron and the hyoplastron contains the anterior bridge strut.
The posterior half is made up of two hypoplastra (containing the posterior bridge strut) and the
rear is a pair of xiphiplastra.[4][5]

Overlying the boney elements are a series of scutes, which are made of keratin and are very
similar to horn or nail tissue. In the center of the carapace are five vertebral scutes, and out
from these are four pairs of costal scutes. Around the edge of the shell are 12 pairs of marginal
scutes. All these scutes are aligned so that for the most part the sutures between the bones are
in the middle of the scutes above. At the anterior of the shell there may be a cervical scute
(sometimes incorrectly called a nuchal scute); however, the presence or absence of this scute is
highly variable, even within species.[4][12]

On the plastron there are two gular scutes at the front, followed by a pair of pectorals, then
abdominals, femorals, and lastly anals. A particular variation is that the Pleurodiran turtles have
an intergular scute between the gulars at the front, giving them a total of 13 plastral scutes,
compared to the 12 in all Cryptodiran turtles.[4][12]
Carapace

See also: Carapace

Exploded view of the carapace of Emys

Legend

The carapace is the dorsal (back), convex part of the shell structure of a turtle, consisting of the
animal's ossified ribs fused with the dermal bone. The spine and expanded ribs are fused
through ossification to dermal plates beneath the skin to form a hard shell. Exterior to the skin,
the shell is covered by scutes, which are horny plates made of keratin that protect the shell from
scrapes and bruises. A keel, a ridge that runs from front to the back of the animal, is present in
some species. These may be single, paired, or even three rows. In most turtles, the shell is
relatively uniform in structure, species variation in general shape and color being the main
differences. However, the soft shell turtles, pig-nose turtles, and the leatherback sea turtle have
lost the scutes and reduced the ossification of the shell. This leaves the shell covered only
by skin.[14] These are all highly aquatic forms.

The evolution of the turtle's shell is unique because of how the carapace represents
transformed vertebrae and ribs. While other tetrapods have their scapula, or shoulder blades,
found outside of the ribcage, the scapula for turtles is found inside the ribcage.[15][16] The shells
of other tetrapods, such as armadillos, are not linked directly to the vertebral column or rib
cage, allowing the ribs to move freely with the surrounding intercostal muscle.[17] However,
analysis of the transitional fossil Eunotosaurus africanus shows that early ancestors of turtles
lost that intercostal muscle usually found between the ribs.[18]

Plastron