AGAR D-LS-39-70

gm

"I a G a B D
a:

2
(3
a
ADVISORY GROUP FOR AEROSPACE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

LECTURE SERIES No. 39

On

Advanced Compressors

I I

N O R T H ATLAINTIC TREATY O R G A N I Z A T I O N -

INITIAL DISTRIBUTION IS LIMITED

F O R ADDITIONAL COPIES SEE BACk COVER
 AGARD Lecture Series No.39

NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION

ADVISORY GROUP FOR AEROSPACE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

(ORGANISATION DU TRAITE DE L'ATLANTIQUE NORD)

.-

ADVANCED COMPRESSORS

The material in this book has been assembled to support a Lecture Series under the sponsorship of
the Propulsion and Energetics Panel and the Consultant and Exchange Programme of AGARD.
The material i n t h i s publication has been composed d i r e c t l y from copy
supplied by each author.

Published August 1970

[Link]

Printed by Technical E d i t i n g and Reproduction Ltd

Harford House, 7-9 C h a r l o t t e S t , London.
W d ' 1HD

ii
 FORE WORD

Upon i n v i t a t i o n of National Delegates of Belgium and Norway, Lecture S e r i e s 39 on

“Advanced Compressors” was presented i n Brussels, Belgium, and i n Bolkesjd, Norway, i n
June 1970.

T h i s Lecture S e r i e s was sponsored by t h e Propulsion and E n e r g e t i c s Panel and t h e

Consultant and Exchange Programme of AGARD.

During t h e past few y e a r s , s i g n i f i c a n t progress has been made i n t h e design and

development of high performance a x i a l and radial compressors, i n response t o t h e increas-
ing demand from j e t engine and gas t u r b i n e manufacturers and t o t h e broadening i n t e r e s t
f o r such machines f o r closed cycle gas t u r b i n e a p p l i c a t i o n f o r atomic power p l a n t s .

The development of d i g i t a l computers has enabled t h e use of more and more s o p h i s t i c a t e d

design methods which are now paying o f f . S i g n i f i c a n t improvements have a l s o been obtained
f o r t h e compressor o p e r a t i o n i n t h e t r a n s o n i c and supersonic range. I n t e r e s t i n t h e long
f o r g o t t e n r a d i a l compressors has been revived, f o r small gas t u r b i n e a p p l i c a t i o n , and
s t a r t l i n g improvement i n performance has been obtained, both i n e f f i c i e n c y and i n maximum
p r e s s u r e r a t i o obtainable.

It was f e l t by AGARD t h a t a review of t h e r e c e n t progress and of t h e p r o s p e c t s f o r

the future w a s appropriate.

The Lecture S e r i e s , which w a s presented by leading e x p e r t s i n t h e f i e l d , covered

advanced information on r a d i a l and a x i a l flow compressors, including a p p l i c a t i o n of
through-flow methods of c a l c u l a t i o n t o a x i a l and radial t r a n s o n i c and supersonic
compressors, flow i n supersonic bladings (cascade performance and mass flow l i m i t a t i o n s ) ,
flow i n subsonic bladings with a l o c a l supersonic region, secondary flows and l o s s e s ,
advanced design of r a d i a l flow compressors, supersonic vaneless and vaned d i f f u s e r s .

The Lecture S e r i e s was concluded by a round-table discussion.

S c i e n t i s t s and Engineers from 10 NATO Nations p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h i s Lecture S e r i e s .

ROLLAND [Link]
D i r e c t o r , Plans and Programmes, AGARD
 AVANT - PRQPOS

Sur l ' i n v i t a t i o n des de'16gue's nationaux d e la Belgique e t de la Norvhge, l a se'rie de

confe'rences No. 39 consacre'e aux "Compresseurs d' Avant-garde" f u t prdsente'e & Bruxelles.
Belgique, e t h Bolkesjd. Norvhge en j u i n 1970.

La pre'sente se'rie de confe'rences f u t placde sous 1' e'gide de l a Commission "Propulsion

e t Energe't ique" e t du "Programme Consultat i f e t d' Echange" d e 1' AGARD.

Au c o u r s d e ces d e r n i e r e s anne'es. des p r o g r e s importants ont &e' re'alises en m a t i h e

de l a conception e t de l a mise au p o i n t d e s compresseurs axiaux e t radiaux & rendement
e'leve', e t ce pour re'pondre & l a demande t o u j o u r s c r o i s s a n t e de l a part d e s f a b r i c a n t s de
moteurs & re'action e t de t u r b i n e s & gaz, a i n s i q u ' 8 1' inte'rbt de p l u s en p l u s large porte'
& de t e l l e s machines pour a p p l i c a t i o n aux t u r b i n e s k gaz & c y c l e fermd destine'es aux
c e n t r a l e s nucle'aires.

L' e'volution d e s o r d i n a t e u r s nume'riques a permis l ' u t i l i s a t i o n de techniques d' e'tude de

p l u s en p l u s r a f f i n e ' e s q u i commencent k s ' a m o r t i r . Une ame'lioration s e n s i b l e du
f o n c t ionnement du compresseur en re'gime t r a n s s o n i q u e e t supersonique a e'galement &e'
obtenue. On p o r t e un nouvel inte'rbt aux compresseurs de type r a d i a l , oublie's d e p u i s
longtemps. pour a p p l i c a t i o n aux t u r b i n e s & gaz d e p e t i t e t a i l l e , e t dans l e domaine d e s
performances, a u s s i b i e n l e rendement que l e r a p p o r t maximum d e p r e s s i o n r e ' a l i s a b l e se
s o n t trouve's ame'liore's de facon s a i s i s s a n t e .

I1 a semble' opportun k 1'AGARD de p a s s e r en revue l e s proprhs e n r e g i s t r e ' s jusqu'k

pre'sent e t les p e r s p e c t i v e s d' a v e n i r .

La se'rie d e confe'rences, pre'sente'e par l e s grands spe'cialistes en la matiere, a f o u r n i

d e s renseignements avance's s u r l e s compresseurs & e'coulement t a n t a x i a l que r a d i a l , y
compris 1' a p p l i c a t i o n aux compresseurs t r a n s s o n i q u e s e t supersoniques B e'coulement axial
ou r a d i a l de proce'de's d e c a l c u l u t i l i s a n t un e'coulement d r o i t ; l'e'coulement dans l e s
aubages supersoniques (performances d e s g r i l l e s e t l i m i t a t i o n s & d' e'coulement massique);
1' e'coulement dans les aubages subsoniques ayant une zone supersonique l o c a l e ; les e'coule-
ments s e c o n d a i r e s e t les p e r t e s ; 1' dtude e'volude d e s compresseurs k dcoulement radial;
les d i f f u s e u r s supersoniques s a n s e t avec aubes.

La se'rie de conferences s'est termine'e par une "Table Ronde", e t a re'uni des s c i e n -
t i f i q u e s e t inge'nieurs venant de 10 pays membres de 1'OTAN.

ROLLAND [Link]\UME
D i r e c t e u r , Plans e t Programmes, AGARD

iv
 CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORD iii

AVANT P R O P O S iv

PARTICIPANTS vi

R e f e rence

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS: RECENT P R O G R E S S I N AERODYNAMIC D E S I G N O F COMPRESSORS

by J. C h a u v i n 1

T H E THROUGII-FLOW A N A L Y S I S O F A X I A L FLOW C O M P R E S S O R S
by H . M a r s h 2

M A S S FLOW L I M I T A T I O N I N S U P E R S O N I C C O M P R E S S O R S
by J . F a b r i 3

TRANSONIC COMPRESSOR CASCADES

by H. G r i e p e n t r o g 4

SECONDARY FLOW L O S S E S I N A X I A L C O M P R E S S O R S
b y H. G r i e p e n t r o g 5

B A S I C E L E M E N T S F O R ADVANCED D E S I G N S O F R A D I A L FLOW C O M P R E S S O R S
by M . H . V a v r a 6

SUPERSONIC RADIAL DIFFUSORS

by D . P . K e n n y '1

S U P E R S O N I C CASCADE PERFORMANCE
by H . S t a r k e n a n d H . L i c h t f u s s 8

A P P L I C A T I O N O F THROUGH FLOW T O R A D I A L WHEEL D E S I G N

by M . V a v r a 9

CONCLUSION
by J . C h a u v i n 10

V
 PARTICIPANTS

Lecture S e r i e s Director: Professor J. Chauvin

Von K h d n I n s t i t u t e
Rhode-Saint -Gen&se
Be 1g iurn

Speakers: Mr J. F a b r i
Chef de Division de Recherches
ONERA
Chatillon-sous-Bagneux
France

Dr H. Griepentrog
GutehoffnungshUtte S t e r k r a d e
Oberhausen
Germany

Mr [Link]
Supervisor, Compressor Research
United A i r c r a f t of Canada Ltd
Longueuil, Quebec
Canada

D r [Link]
Engineering Department
University of Cambridge
UK

Mr [Link]
Institut fur Luftstrahlmtriebe
DFVLR
Porz- Wahn
Germany

Professor M.H. Vavra

US Naval Postgraduate School
Monterey, C a l i f o r n i a
USA

vi
 1

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

RECENT PROGRESS IN AERODYNAMIC

DESICB OF COMPRESSORS.

J..CHAUVIN

Professor, Head Turbomachinery Laboratory

von Karman Institute
1

S U M M A R Y
The progress made during t h e last few years in compressor performance is briefly reviewed.
The reasons behind t h i s progress (systematic use of transonic or supersonic blading,
improvement in understanding o f t h e flow behaviour, development of sophisticated theories,
availability of large computers) are reviewed and briefly discussed.

T h e course content i s presented, and justified, starting from a physical description of

t h e flow in turbomachines and o f the resulting flow models and some of the critical
a r e a s for future research are presented.

S O M M A I R E
Lea progras r6alisEs d a n s l'aocroissement des performances des compresseurs a u cours de
c e s dernigres ann6es sont pass6s en revue. Lee bases de c e s progrgs (utilisation eyst8-
matigue d'aubages transsoniques et supersoniques, meilleure compr6hension des m6canismes
d'6coulement, d6veloppement de th6ories plus complexes, utilisations d'ordinateurs a
grande capacit8) sont pr6sent6es.

On pr6sente ensuite le contenu du cours, au d6part d'une description physique des 6cou-
laments dans le8 turbomachines e t ' d e s modgles d'6coulement qui en d6coulent. On pr6sente
ensuite quelques-una des domaines de recherche6 critiques pour les d6veloppement.s futurs.
 1

LIST OF FIGURES

1. E v o l u t i o n of a x i a l c o m p r e s s o r - s t a g e s p r e s s u r e r a t i o i n f u n c t i o n of t h e mean Mach
number r e l a t i v e t o t h e r o t o r M ( c o u r t e s y F. B r e u g e l m a n s , V K I )

2. E v e l a t i o n of s t a g e e f f i c i e n c y i n f u n c t i o n of w ( a x i a l compressors) ( c o u r t e s y
F. B r e u g e l m a n s , V K I )
3. Number of c o m p r e r s o r s t a g e s fer 1 0 / 1 p r e s s u r e r a t i o ( c o n s t a n t a d i a b a t i c efficiency
(from ref. 3 )

4. E f f e c t of p r e s s u r e r a t i o and t u r b i n e i n l e t t e m p e r a t u r e cm s p e c i i i c f u e l c o n r u m p t i o n
a n d s p e c i f i c power (small g a s t u r b i n e )

5. T y p i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e of an a d v a n c e d r a d i a l c o m p r e s s o r (from ref. 8 )
6. A new t y p e of s u p e r s o n i c d i f f u s e r for r a d i a l c o m p r e s s o r ( U n i t e d A i r c r a f t Canada)
(from r e f . 8 )
7. S t r e a m s u r f a c e d i s t o r s i o n i n a x i a l f l o w c o r n p r e s s o r b l a d i n g
8. Flow i n b l a d i n g w i t h a l o c a l s u p e r s o n i c r e g i o n

9 . C a s c a d e s e c o n d a r y flow

1 0 . Downrtream v i e w of s e c o n d a r y f l o w s

11. T h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a r a d i a l wheel ( f r o m ref. 2 1 )

12. S e c o n d a r y f l o w s a t w h e b l o u t l e t ( r a d i a l c o m p r e s s o r ) (from r e f . 2 1 )
13. S t a t i c p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n a t t h e w h e e l o u t l e t a l o n g t h e b l a d e w i d t h (radial
compressors) (from r e f . 21)

1 4 . I n s t a n t a n e o u s c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n a t t h e wheel o u t l e t (radial
compressors) (from r e f . 2 1 )
15. D e t a i l e d f l o w d e v e l o p m e n t i n u n s h r o u d e d i m p e l l e r (from r e f . 2 2 ) (courtesy National
R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l of C a n a d a )

16. S c h e m a t i c f l o w i n a s u p e r s o n i c v a n e d d i f f u s e r p a s s a g e
17. Flow i n t h e m e r i d i o n a l . p l a n e
18. B l a d e t o b l a d e f l o w
1
 1-1

I. IOTBODUCTIOO

D u r i n g t h e l a s t d e c a d e , c o n s i d e r a b l e s u c c e s s h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d i n t h e improvement of
c o m p r e s s o r p e r f o r m a n c e . The d e v e l o p m e n t of s u c c e s s f u l a x i a l c o m p r e s s o r s h a s c o n t i n u e d
t o f o l l o w i t s s t e a d y p l a c e of t h e y e a r s 50, a n d , d u e t o a s t r o n g r e v i v a l o f i n t e r e s t
f o r many a p p l i c a t i o n s , t h e r a d i a l c o m p r e s s o r h a s s e e n i t s r a t e o f p r o g r e s s a c c e l e r a t e d
cons i d e rably.

A s i n t h e p a s t , most o f t h e improvement h a s come from t h e e x a c t i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e

a i r c r a f t i n d u s t r y , b u t , a t t h e same t i m e , t h e knowledge g a i n e d i n t h i s p r i v i l e g e d
s e c t o r h a s b e e n d i f f u s i n g , a t an i n c r e a s i n g r a t e , i n t o t h e more c o n v e n t i o n a l i n d u s t r y ,
,
w i t h some d e g r e e o f o r i g i n a l a c h i e v e m e n t s ( (1) f o r i n s t a n c e ) .

The e v o l u t i o n o f a x i a l c o m p r e s s o r s f o r t h e l a r g e and medium s i z e j e t e n g i n e s i s sum-

m a r i z e d i n f i g s . 1 and 2 , r e p l o t t e d p a r t l y from [ 2 ) , w i t h a d d i t i o n a l d a t a on c o m p a r a b l e
m a c h i n e s coming from t e s t s c a r r i e d o u t a t V K I . W i t h i n t h e l a s t PO y e a r s , a 60% i n c r e a s e
i n s t a g e p r e s s u r e r a t i o h a s been achieved, mainly through an i n c r e a s e of t h e r v e r a g e
Mach number l e v e l , r e l a t i v e t o t h e r o t o r b l a d i n g s , w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g p r a c t i c a l l y t h e
same e f f i c i e n c y . The maximum p r e s s u r e r a t i o o f m u l t i s t a b e s m a c h i n e s h a s b e e n r a i s e d
from 1 0 a b o u t t o 2 7 , a n d c o u l d r e a c h more i f t h i s was r e q u e s t e d b y t h e g a s t u r b i n e
c y c l e . T h i s f a c t p r o v e s t h a t t h e i n t e r s t a g e m a t c h i n g p r o b l e m h a s b e e n l a r g e l y mastered.
The p r o g r e s s h a s b e e n o b t a i n e d i n t h e whole r a n g e s o f s t a g e t y p e s , f r o m t h e front f a n
w i t h v e r y low hub t o t i p r a t i o (down t o 0.3) and h i g h r e l a t i v e r o t o r i n l e t Mach ,number
( u p t o l . 7 t a t t h e t i p ) where t h e s t r e a m l i n e e q u i l i b r i u m p r o b l e m i s p r e d o m i n a n t , t o t h e
h i g h hub t o t $ p r a t i o [ u p t o 0.9), s u b s o n i c r e a r s t a g e s , where e n d w a l l e f f e c t s i s t h e
most i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r .

S i m i l a r i f n o t l a r g e r p r o g r e s s h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d i n t h e f i e l d o f s m a l l t u r b o j e t and o f
small g a s t u r b i n e s ( 5 0 0 t o 2000 AP) f o r l a n e , h e l i c o p t e r o r t e r r e s t r i a l p r o p u l s i o n ,
as w i t n e s s e d by f i g . 3 r e p l o t t e d from ( 3 7 a n d c o m p l e t e d . The p r o g r e s s h a s b e e n s t i m u -
l a t e d by i p t e l l i g e n t government s p o n s o r e d p r o g r a m s s u c h as t h e U.S. Army Advanced
Component T e c h n o l o g y program ( b ) , and it i s n o t u n r e a l i s t i c t o p r e d i c 8 t h a t , w i t h i n
t h e n e x t d e c a d e , t h e g a s t u r b i n e w i l l compete s u c c e s s f u l l y w i t h t h e d i e s e l e n g i n e f o r
many c l a s s i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s ( 5 ) . A l t h o u g h t h e i n c r e a s e o f t u r b i n e i n l e t t e m p e r a t u r e is
t h e k e y e l e m e n t f o r s u c c e s s , i t would b e f r u i t l e s s w i t h o u t a p a r a l l e l i n c r e a s e i n com-
p r e s s o r p r e s s u r e r a t i o , as shown i n f i g . 4. Due t o t h e s m a l l volume f l o w i n v o l v e d ,
b l a d e s i z e i s a l w a y s s m a l l and end w a l l e f f e c t s a r e p r e d o m i n a n t , w h a t e v e r t h e t y p e o f
compressor used.

The t r e n d o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e a v e r a g e b l a d e Mach number i s t h e same a s f o r t h e c o m p r e s s o r s

f o r t h e l a r g e r e n g i n e s , a n d e v e n more p r o n o u n c e d , f o r t h e a d v a n c e d p r o j e c t s which show
t h e f i r s t p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of t r u l y s u p e r s o n i c c o m p r e s s o r s (6,7,8,9,10~.

.The p r o g r e s s a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h r a d i a l c o m p r e s s o r s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t e w o r t h y . P r e s s u r e
r a t i o s o f t h e o r d e r o f 1 2 p e r s t a g e h a v e b e e n a c h i e v e d , w i t h e f f i c i e n c i e s i n t h e 70975%

b l i s h e d (1,8,9,10) .
b r a c k e t ( f i g . 5 ) . The f e a s i b i l i t y o f s u c h h i g h p r e s s u r e r a t i o s h a s c l e a t k y b e e n e s t a -
The a i m i s now t o improve t h e e f f i c i e n c y a t d e s i g n p o i n t , A
t y p i c a l c o n t e m p o r a r y t a r g e t i s 8 1 1 p r e s s u r e r a t i o a n d 80% a d i a b a t i c e f f i c i e n c y a n d 1 0 1 1
n t 75% e f f i c i e n c y .

A l r e a d y a t t h i s s t a g e , new c o n c e p t s h a v e b e e n i n t r o d u c e d i n w h e e l , and e s p e c i a l l y ,
i n d i f f u s e r d e s i g n ( ( 8 , l o ) a n d f i g . 6).

The p a s t d e c a d e h a s t h u s b e e n e x t r e m e l y f x u i t f u l f o r t h e c o m p r e s s o r d e s i g n e r , and s t i l l
more i m p o r t a n t p r o g r e s s l i e s a h e a d . The r e a s o n b e h i n d t h i s p r o g r e s s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d
i n p a r . IV a f t e r a p h y s i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e flow i n compressors.

11. PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION OF THE FLOW

The f l o w t h r o u g h a c o m p r e s s o r b l a d e row i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l i n n a t u r e . I n
a n a x i a l m a c h i n e , t h e t h r o u g h flow d i r e c t i o n i s a x i a l , a n d v a r i e s a l o n g t h e stream
d i r e c t i o n , e x c e p t f o r v e r y p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s . The flow i S d e f l e c t e d t a n g e n t i a l l y t h r o u g h
t h e b l a d i n g , a n d , f o r a f o r c e t o b e e x e r t e d on t h e b l a d i n g , a c i r c u m f e r e n t i a a v a r i a t i o n
of t h e v e l o c i t i e s must o c c u r b e t w e e n t h e p r e s s u r e s i d e of one b l a d e a n d t h e s u c t i o n
s i d e o f t h e n e x t o n e , l e a d i n g t o d i s t o r t i o n of t h e s t r e a m s u r f a c e ( i n d u c e d r a d i a l com-
p o n e n t ) ( f i g . 7). Hub and c a s i n g c u r v a t u r e i n d u c e f u r t h e r r a d i a l components, a n d , even
i n a c y l i n d r i c m l c h a n n e l , t h e s t r e a m l i n e s must assume some c u r v a t u r e i n t h e r a d i a l
d i r e c t i o n , f o r t h e f l o w c o n t i n u i t y a n d c o n s e r v a t i o n o f momentum t o b e s a t i s f i e d .
I n c o n t e m p o r a r y m a c h i n e s , t h e f l o w i s a l w a y s c o m p r e s s i b l e , and v e r y o f t e n , l o c a l
s u p e r s o n i c r e g i o n s , t e r m i n a t e d by [Link] a p p e a r i n t h e b l a d e p a s s a g e s ( f i g . 81, o r
e v e n , f o r t r a n s o n i c and s u p e r s o n i c c o m p r e s s o r s , a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t of t h e f l o w a t t h e
i n l e t a n d i n t h e p a s s a g e i s s u p e r s o n i c and a f f e c t e d by s h o c k s . Boundary l a y e r s d e v e l o p
on t h e b l a d e s u r f a c e s and merge i n t h e wakes. They a l s o dwvelop on t h e hub and c a s i n g .
Those b o u n d a r y l a y e r s a r e s t r o n g l y a f f e c t e d by t h e s h o c k s , i n t h e c o m p r e s s i b l e r e g i m e .

I n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n hub o r c a s i n g and b l a d e b o u n d a r y l a y e r s i s s i g n i f i c a n t , a s shown

i n f i g . 9. The hub a n d c a s i n g b o u n d a r y l a y e r s a r e s u b m i t t e d t o t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l
p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t s e x i s t i n g between t h e p r e s s u r e s i d e of one b l a d e and t h e s u c t i o n s i d e
of t h e n e x t one. A s t h e v e l o c i t y i s r e d u c e d i n t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r s , a t r a n s v e r s e m o t i o n
1- 2

i s g e n e r a t e d , a n d t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r m a t e r i a l a c c u m u l a t e s i n t h e c o r n e r formed b y t h e
b l a d e s u c t i o n s u r f a c e a n d t h e hub or c a s i n g , where i t r o l l s up i n a v o r t e x , v e r y o f t e n
i n d u c i n g an e x a e n s i v e s e p a r a t i o n of t h e b l a d e b o u q d a r y l a y e r . An i m p o r t a n t s e c o n d a r y
f l o w i s t h u s s u p e r i m p o s e d on t h e main flow, r e s u l t i n g i n t h e f o r m a t i o n of l a r g e z o n e s
of low e n e r g y v i s c o u s m a t e r i a l a n d of i m p o r t a n t l o c a l c h a n g e s of v e l o c i t y , i n f l u e n c i n g
t h e b u l k of t h e f l o w by b l o c k a g e and s w i r l i n d u c t i o n .

C l e a r a n c e e f f e c t s a l s o p r o d u c e a c o r n e r v o r t e x ( f i g . 10) a n d d e f l e c t i o n of t h e hub a n d
c a s i n g boundary l a y e r e x i s t i n g p r i o r t o e n t r a n c e t o t h e b l a d i n g induce b u l k v o r t i c e s ,
whose main e f f e c t i s t o m o d i f y t h e f l o w d i r e c t i o n . A n a d d i t i o n a l s e c o n d a r y flow i s
due t o t h e c e n t r i f u g a t i o n of t h e b l a d e b o u n d a r y l a y e r on t h e r o t o r b l a d e s , of of t h e i r
motion towards t h e hub, due t o t h e r a d i a l p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t , i n t h e s t a t o r s (12,13).

We t h u s h a v e a f u l l y t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l , c o m p r e s s i b l e , v i s c o u s t y p e of flow. I t i s a l s o
g e n e r a l l y u n s t e a d y even for t h e f i r s t r o t o r row ( u n s t e a d y m o t i o n i n a b s o l u t e c o o r d i -
n a t e s (14)) and q u i t e c l e a r l y for a l l t h e f o l l o w i n g b l a d e rows, even for a s t e a d y
o p e r a t i o n of t h e machine. Any b l a d e row i s i n r e l a t i v e m o t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e
p r e c e d i n g one. The f l o w coming o u t of t h i s l a t t e r i s e s s e n t i a l l y non u n i f o r m , a n d d u e
t o t h e r e l a t i v e motion f e e d s t h e n e x t b l a d e w i t h a flow p e r i o d i c i n t i m e . I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
i t c a n be shown (15,16f t h a t t h e wakes coming from t h e u p s t r e a m b l a d e row m a i n t a i n
t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l i t y t h r o u g h o n e or more s u c c e s s i v e b l a d e rows, w h i l e hub a n d c a s i n g
b o u n d a r y l a y e r s a r e r e - e n e r g i z e d a n d mixed ( 1 7 , 1 8 ) ,

O t h e r t y p c s o f u n s t e a d y flow o c c u r i n t h e r o t a t i n g s t a l l and s u r g e r e g i m e of o p e r a t i o n .
They a r e a l s o m o s t l y p e r i o d i c ( 1 9 , 2 0 ) .

I n a r a d i a l m a c h i n e , a s i m i l a r t y p e of Q l o r e x i s t s . The i n d u c e r p a r t , which i s q u i t e
e x t e n d e d i n modern c o m p r e s s o r s h a s a f l o w f i e l d v e r y c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e f l o w i n
a n a x i a l c o m p r e s s o r r o t o r . T h e i n l e t f l o w i s e i t h e r i n t h e h i g h s u b s o n i c r a n g e , or
p a r t l y s u p e r s o n i c , or e n t i r e l y s u p e r s o n i c ( 2 1 , 8 , 9 , 1 0 ) . I n t h e r a d i a l p a r t of t h e
i m p e l l e r , t h e f l o w i s a l s o of a t r i - d i m e n s i o n a l c h a r a c t e r . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e main
r a d i a l flow, c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l v a r i a t i o n s must e x i s t t o p a o d u c e t h e f o r c e on t h e b l a d e .
V i s c o u s e f f e c t s and b o u d d a r y l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n a r e a l s o p r e s e n t . A d d i t i o n n a l l y , i t
c a n b e shown b o t h t h e o r e t i c a l l y and e x p e r i m e n t a l l y (21) t h a t , due t o t h e r a p i d a r e a
i n c r e a s e w i t h t h e r a d i u s , s e p a r a t i o n o c c u r s e f t e n i n t h e p a s s a g e b e t w e e n two b l a d e s ,
i n t r o d u c i n g i m p o x t a n t s e c o n d a r y f l o w s , w i t h r e - c i r c u l a t i o n i n s i d e t h e b l a d i n g . ( f i g . 11
t o 1 4 ) . I n p a r t i c u l a r , a t t h e w h e e l o u t l e t , t h e f l o w c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d a s b e i n g made
of two j e t s , one w i t h a h i g h v e l o c i t y , t h e o t h e r w i t h a s m a l l or e v e n z e r o v e l o c i t y .
Due t o c l e a r a n c e e f f e c t s , a r e t u r n flow from e x i t t o o u t l e t c a n e x i s t n e a r t h e c a s i n g .
R e f e r e n c e 22 g i v e s d e t a i l e d v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a w h e e l of l a r g e d i m e n s i o n s ,
r o t a t i n g a t v e r y low s p e e d ( t h e o b s e r v e r s i t s i n t h e wheel). F i g u r e 1 5 shows a t y p i c a l
result.

The d i f f u s e r i s a t t a c k e d by a h e a v i l y u n s t e a d y f l o w , u n d e r a h i g h s w i r l a n g l e ( f r o m t h e
a x i a l d i r e c t i o n ) with v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e s o n i c and, very o f t e n , supersonic range t o be
diffused practically t o a zero velocity. Past t h e entrance region (fig. 16) affected ' I
by s h o c k s , t h e d i f f u s e r b e h a v e s l i k e a c u r v e d p i p e o r d i f f u s e r of r e c t a n g u l a r c r o s s
s e c t i o n , w i t h t h e u s u a l secondary flows.

111. DBFIBITIOB OF SHE FLOW MODELS

The t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l , u n s t e a d y , v i s c o u s a n d c o m p r e s s i b l e flow t h a t w e h a v e d e s c r i b e d
c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h e f u l l N a v i e r - S t o k e s e q u a t i o n s , which c a n n o t b e s o l v e d
The d e t a i l e d f l o w mechanism i s e v e n n o t y e r f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d . Flow models h a v e t o b e
-
a t l e a s t now.

d e f i n e d , b a s e d on some h o p e f u l l y j u s t i f i e d h y p o t h e s i s , t o a l l o w f o r a s a t i s f a c t o r y
s o l u t i o n of t h e d e s i g n p r o b l e m ; and an u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a s c o m p l e t e a s p o s s i b l e of t h e
most s i g n i f i c a n t phenomenon o c c u r i n g i n t h e machine. The b a s i s of t h e most u s e d one
h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d some 20 y e a r s a g o by Wu (25) b u t i t s a p p l i c a t i o n i s c o n t i n u o u s l y
improve d.

T h e f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n i n t r o d u c e d i s t h a t , for s t e a d y o p e r a t i o n of t h e m a c h i n e , t h e
flow i s s t e a d y . We h a v e s e e n t h a t t h i s was by no means t r u e . However, faom o u r p r e s e n t
knowledge a b o u t u n s t e a d y v i s c o u s f l o w s (24) i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e r e d u c e d f r e q u e n c y of
t h e f l o w phenomena i s s u c h t h a t t h e s t e a d y flow v a l u e of t h e force a c t i n g on t h e b l a d i n g s ,
t h e v e l o c i t i e s , e t c . a r e c l o s e t o t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e of t h e same p a r a m e t e r i n t h e u n s t e a d y
flow. T h i s m i g h t b e q u e s t i o n a b l e , however, for t h e c a s e of t h e v a n e d d i f f u s e r of r a d i a l
c o m p r e s s o r s . The a p p r o x i m a t i o n f i n d s a p a t t i a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n i n t h a t t h e m a c h i n e s b u i l t
on t h e r e s u l t i n g f l o w mode% h a v e a c h i e v e d , i n g e n e r a l , a s a t i s f a c t o r y l e v e l of p e r -
f o r m a n c e . I t i s q u i t e s u r e , however, t h a t a d d i t i o n a l p r o g r e s s w i l l b e g a i n e d when t h e
f u l l i m p a c t of t h e u n s t e a d y c h a r a c t e r of t h e flow w i l l b e u n d e r s t o o d . T h i s p o i n t a t t r a c t s
an i n c r e a s i n g amount of r e s e a r c h e f f o r t .

The s e c o n d a p p r o x i m a t i o n c o n s i s t s i n r e p l a c i n g t h e t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l f l o w by t h e s u p e r -
p o s i t i o n of two t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l f l o w s .

The f i r s t o n e i s t h e " f l o w i n t h e m e r i d i o n a l p l a n e 'I ( f i g . 17) a s s u m i n g t h e flow t o

be axisymmetric ( a l l d e r i v a t i v e s a r e z e r o i n t h e p e r i p h e r a l d i r e c t i o n ) . T h i s i s c o k e r s n t
w i t h bhe s t e a d y f l o w a p p r o x i m a t i o n . I t i s s u p p o s e d t o r e p r e s e n t t h e f l o w on a mean

I.
s t r e a m s u r f a c e c o n t a i n i w t h e a x i s (26 o r i t s p r o j e c t i o n on a p l a n e d e f i n e d by t h e a x i s
of t h e machine a n d a r a d i u s (27,28,29
 1- 3

The u s e of t h i s two-dimenSional model was i n i t i a l l y l i m i t e d t o t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f

s i m p l e r ' i s e n t r o p i c r a d i a l e q u i l i b r i u m (no e n t r p p p v a r i a t i o n a l o n g t h e r a d i u s , b l a d e
rows c o n s i d e r e d a s i s o l a t e d c a l c u l a t i o n s o u t s i d e t h e b l a d e r e g i o n , no s t r e a m l i n e c u r -
v a t u r e , s u b s o n i c v e l o c i t i e s j which g a v e r i s e t o t h e c l a s s i c a l f o r m s o f s w i r l d i s t r i b u -
t i o n ( f r e e v o r t e x , c o n s t a n t 0 2 , e t c . ) . W i t h t h e a d v e n t o f d i g i t a l c o m p u t e r s , it h a s
now be a l l o w e d t o d e v e l o p c o m p u t i n g t o o l s ( t h r o u g h - f l o w methods o f c a l c u l a t i o n ) i n -
c o r p o r a t i n g r a d i a l v a r i a t i o n s of e n t r o p y a n d e n t h a l p y , m a t r i x s o l u t i o n s f o r m u l t i s t a g e
m a c h i n e s c o n s i d e r e d g l o b a l l y , b l a d e r e g i o n s , s t r e a m l i n e c u r v a t u r e s and t r a n s o n i c aad
supersonic flows. Apart t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n h e r e n t t o numerical i t e r a t i v e s o l u t i o n s
of t h e f l o w e q u a t i o n s , t h e s i n g l e more i m p o r t a n t d i f f i c u l t y i s t h e . e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e
entropy v a r i a t i o n a l o n g t h e r a d i u s , always c o n s i d e r a b l e n e a r t h e ends of t h e b l a d e s ,
and a l l a l o n g t h e r a d i u s , f o r s m a l l , h i g h l y l o a d e d b l a d i n g e .

The s e c o n d t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l model i s t h e " b l a d e t o b l a d e flow. ( f i g . l a ) , c o n s i d e r i n g

t h e f l o w on a c y l i n d r i c a l or c o n i c a l s u r f a c e c e n t e r e d on t h e a x i s , i.e., on an a x i -
s y m m e t r i c stream s u r f a c e . The i n l e t f l o w i s g e n e r a l l y s u p p o s e d t o b e u n i f o r m a n d ,
d e f i n e d . b y t h e f l o w i n t h e m e r i d i o n a l p l a n e , a l t h o u g h t h i s model i s now f r e q u e n t l y
u s e d w i t h non-uniform a n d u n s t e a d y f l o w s t o t r y t o g a i n a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
t h e unsteady e f f e c t s .

T h i s model n e g l e c t s t h e s t r e a m s u r f a c e d i s t o r s i o n m e n t i o n e d above ( f i g . 7). For a x i a l

m a c h i n e s . , where s t r e m l i n e s h i f t i n t h e r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n c a n u s u a l l y b e n e g l e c t e d ,
a f u r t h e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n c a n be u s e d ( d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s t r e a m s u r f a c e o n t o a p l a n e ) ,
l e a d i n g t o t h e w e l l known c a s c a d e model. T h i s t y p e o f model i s v a l i d f o r s t a t o r a n d
a p p r o x i m a t e s 2 r e l a t i v e l y w e l l t h e r e l a t i v e f l o w s i n r o t o r b l a d e s e c t i o n s when t h e
energy. a d d i t i o n i n t h e r e l a t i v e system o f c o o r d i n a t e s can be n e g l e c t e d [small change
i n r a d i u s of t h e s t r e a m l i n e t h r o u g h t h e b l a d i n g ) . The c a s c a d e model seems t o b e a s
u s e f u l , f o r t h e t h e i r e t i c a l and e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n f o r t h e h i g h l y loaded t r a n -
s o n i c a n d s u p e r s o n i c b l a d i n g as i t w a s f o r t h e more c o n v e n t i o n a l s u b s o n i c b l a d i n g 8 (30).
I t i s w i d e l y u s e d t o g a i n a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e f l o w mechanism a n d g a t h e r
d a t a on t h e l o s s e s , p r e s s u r e i n e r e a s e a n d t u r n i n g p r o d u c e d b y g i v e n b l a d e s e c t i o n s ,
as e x a m p l i f i e d i n t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of M M S t a r k e n and G r i e p e n t r o g t o t h i s course.
It i s a l s o f i t t o d e v e l o p optimum b l a d e d e s i g n p r o c e d u r e , a s e x a m p l i f i e d i n ( 3 L ) a n d ( 3 2 ) .
The e x p e r i m e n t a l model c a n a l s o be u s e d t o i n v e s t i g a t e a c e r t a i n number of a s p e c t s
o f t h e s e c o n d a r y f l o w s . T h i s i s most u s e f u l t o h e l p e v a l u a t i n g t h e e n t r o p y v a r i a t i o n
f o r t h e p r e c e d i n g model.

The c a s c a d e model c a n n o t b e u s e d , o f c o u r s e , t o s i m u l a t e t h e f l o w i n r a d i a l c o m p r e s s o r
r o t o r s , as t h e r e t h e mechanism of c r e a t i o n o f t h e f o r c e on t h e b l a d i n g a n d of e n e r g y
t r a n s f e r by r o t a t i o n c a n n o t b e s e p a r a t e d anymore ( c h a n g e i n r a d i u s ) , e x c e p t f o r t h e
i n d u c e r p a r t , where t h e f l o w s t r o n g l y r e s e m b l e s t h e f l o w i n an a x i a l c o m p r e s s o r r o t o r ,
as a l r e a d y mentioned.

I n t h e r a d i a l p a r t , t h e b l a d e t o b l a d e f l o w i s most o f t e n c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s
as t o be a p p r o x i m a t e d by a l i n e a r v a r i a t i o n of v e l o c i t y a c r o s s t h e b l a d e p a s s a g e .

Combining t h e two t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l f l o w m o d e l s i t i s p o s s i b l e , w i t h some c o r r e c t i o n s f o r

end w a l l e f f e c t s ( 3 3 , 3 4 ) t o r e c o n s t i t u t e an a p p r o x i m a t e p i c t u r e f o r d e s i g n or a n a l y s i s
purposes ( p r e d i c t i o n of off-design performance).

T h i s t y p e o f a p p r o a c h h a s b e e n u s e d # o r t h e p a s t t w e n t y y e a r s , and h a s b e e n shown t o
b e v a l i d a s w e l l f o r a d v a n c e d m a c h i n e s , o p e r a t i n g i n t h e t r a n s o n i c and s u p e r s o n i c r a n g e s .
I t i s f l e x i l l e enough t o i n c o r p o r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n coming from a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f t h e e f l o w phenomena as t h e y come. I t w i l l p r o b a b l y b e u s e d f o r a r a t h e r l o g g p e r i o d
o f t i m e i n t h e f u t u r e , a l t h o u g h o n e must t r y t o l i f t t h e r e s f r i c t i o n i n h e r e n t t o t h e
u n s t e a d y f l o w a s s u m p t i o n . A f u O t h e r r e a s o n o f s t u d y i n g t h e u n s t e a d y f l o w a r i s e s from
t h e need t o reduce e n g i n e n o i s e (95).

IV. O R I G I N OF THE PROORESS I N COMPRESSOR A E R O D Y N A M I C DESIGN

A s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e , t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y t o c o m p r e s s o r d e s i g n i s n o t new.
The most s o p h i s -
t i c a t e d e q u a t i o n s i n v o l v e d were e x p l i c i t e d b y Wu ( 2 5 ) i n 1950 a l r e a d y . They c o u l d n o t
be e x p l o i t e d , however, as no s u f f i c i e n t means w e r e a v a i l a b l e t o p e r f o r m t h e i r n u m e r i c a l
s o l u t i o n on t h e one h a n d , a n d a s t h e u n d e r s t a d i n g o f t h e phenomena w e r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t
t o give t h e necessary input f o r t h e i r solution.

The s l i d e r u l e o p e r a t o r c o u l d s o l v e t h e " i s e n t r o p i c s i m p l e r a d i a l e q u i l i b r i u m " equa-

tion. f o r instance
ai,u
V u - + - + V a r
vi ava
aR R

( V u , V a t a n g e n t i a l a n d a x i a l components o f v e l o c i t y ; R, r a d i u s ) , which l e d t o t h e
c l a s s i c a l whirl distribution ( f r e e Porter, e t c . ) but could not t a c k l e t h e generalised
radial equilibrium equation.

-
aa
aR
T -
as +
aR
Vu
avu + V;
3 R
- 'a
a vR
aa (2)
1-4

(E, t o t a l e n t h a l p y ; T , a b s o l u t e t e m p e r a t u r e ; S, e n t r o p y ; VR r a d i a l v e l o c i t y ; a , c o o r -
d i n a t e i n t h e a x i a l d i r e c t i o n ) , which d e s c r i b e s more a c c u r a t e l y t h e f l o w c h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c s , w i t h i t s e n e r g y and e n t r o p y g r a d i e n t s , a n d t h e s t r e a m l i n e c u r v a t u r e e f f e c t ,
The i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e t o t a l e n t h a l p y g r a d i e n t , f o r i n s t m c e , i s a p o w e r f u l t o o l f o r
t h e d e s i g n e r (35) g i v i n g him an a d d i t i o n a l d e g r e e of freedom. Hub and c a s i n g con-
t o u r i n g ( c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e t e r m s i n Va i n ( 2 ) ) a r e a l s o i m p o r t a n t .

Thus, one of t h e main a g e n t s i n t h e p r o g r e s s i s t h e d i g i t a l c o m p u t e r , which g a v e t h e

p o s s i b i l i t y of w o r k i n g w i t h e q u a t i o n s l i k e (2) i n complex s y s t e m s w h i c h w i l l b e d i s -
c u s s e d by D r Marsh.

The computer w i l l , however, o n l y g i v e b a c k t o you t h e d a t a f e d t o i t , i n a n o t h e r f o r m ,

and i t s o u t p u t i s w o r t h o n l y what t h e i n p u t s a r e [Link] ( e n t r o p y g r a d i e n t s , f o r i n s t a n c e ) .
A c o r r e c t q u a n t i t a t i v e d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e f l o w c a n t h u s o n l y come from a good q u a l i t a -
t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , a l l o w i n g i n t u r n t o f e e d i n c o r r e c t n u m e r i c a l
inputs.

Among t h e f a c t o r s of p r o g r e s s i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e f l o w b e h a v i o u r , t h e most
p r e d o m i n a n t s c a n b e l i s t e d as f o l l o w s :
- b e t t e r knowledge of b o u n d a r y l a y e r s i n g e n e r a l (31,32,36) a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r o f boun-
d a r y l a y e r shock i n t e r a c t i o n , and end w a l l boundary l a y e r s (11,33)
- b e t t e r a p p r e c i a t i o n of t h e mode of o p e r a t i o n of b l a d e s i n t h e s u p e r s o n i c r a n g e , i . e . ,
i n l e t flow mechanism, s h o c k p a t t e r n s i n p a s s a g e s , b a c k p r e s s u E e f f e c t s which l e d t o
t h e d e s i g n of new t y p e s of b l a d i n g a , r e d u c i n g s h o c k s t r e n g t h a n d w i t h a s u b s o n i c o u t l e t
f l o w for a x i a l f l o w c o m p r e s s o r s , l e a d i n g t o new d e s i g n f o r v a n e d d i f f u s e r s i n r a d i a l
c o m p r e s s o r s . A s a t i s f a c t o r y f u l l y t h e o r e t i c a l method i s n o t y e t a v a i l a b l e h o v e v e r .
- more d e t a i l e d knowledge o f t h e f l o w i n b l a d i n g s a t t a c k e d a t h i g h l y s u b s o n i c Mach
number, e n d h a v i n g h i g h l o a d i n g (more c o r r e c t l i m i t l o a d i n g f a c t o r s , i n c l u s i o n o f s h o c k
boundary l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n , e t c . )
- b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e mechanism of s e c o n d a r y flows a n d of t h e p a r a m e t e r s i n -
f l u e n c i n g them, p a r t i c u l a r l y l o a d i n g a n d a s p e c t r a t i o ( b l a d e h e i g h t t o b l a d e c h o r d
r a t i o ) . S e m i - e m p i r i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e s t i l l t h e b a s i s of q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a , however,
F r a g m e n t a r y b u t s i g n i f i c a n t p r o g r e s s w a s made a l s o i n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g of n o i s e
g e n e r a t i o n , s t a l l , e t a l l f l u t t e r and s u r g e .

PRESENTATION OF THE COURSE CONTENT

T h i s c o u r s e i s t h e r e s u l t of a recommendation o f t h e P r o p u l s i o n and E n e r g e t i c s P a n e l
o f A G A R D , e n e r g e t i c a l l y a n d e f f i c i e n t l y p u t i n t o a c t i o n by AGARD P l a n s and Programs.
The P a n e l f e l t t h a t t h e b e g i n 8 i n g of t h e 7 0 t h d e c a d e w a s a good t i m e t o p r e s e n t a
r e v i e w of t h e f u n d a m e n t a l a s p e c t s of t h e p r o g r e s s which h a s l e a d t o t h e i m p r e s s i v e
improvement i n p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e a i r c r a f t and g a s t u r b i n e c o m p r e s s o r .

F o r t h i s p u r p o s e , a g r o u p of l e a d i n g e x p e r t s i n t h e f i e l d was p i c k e d up. Eaoh of them

h a s made, t o d i f f e r e n t d e g r e e s , o r i g i n a l c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e
modern c o m p r e s s o r . They a r e r e s e a r c h p e o p l e a n d s c h o l a r s , b u t w i t h a d e e p knowledge
of t h e "hardware" s i d e , through t h e i r a c t i v e c o n t a c t s w i t h t h e i n d u s t r y .

T h e i r m i s s i o n i s l i m i t e d i n t i m e and s c o p e . The c o u r s e i s l i m i t e d t o t h e a e r o d y n a m i c
d e s i g n a s p e c t s a n d o n l y t h e most b a s i c a s p e c t s w i l l b e c o v e r e d and namely:
For a x i a l compressors:
D r Marsh w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e t h o r o u g h flow m e t h o d s o f c a l c u l a t i o n , i n c l u d i n g
l o s s e s and end w a l l b o u n d a r y l a y e r , a n d w i t h p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s i s
on t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e methods t o t r a n s o n i c and s u p e r s o n i c
compressors.
MM S t a r h e n a n d F a b r i w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e f u n d a m e n t a l a s p e c t s of t h e f l o w i n
b l a d i n g s s u b m i t t e d t o a s u p e r s o n i c i n l e t v e l o c i t y : mass flow l i m i t a -
t i o n , d e t a i l e d s t r u c t u r e of t h e i n l e t flow f i e l d and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
methods o f c a l c u l a t i o n , e f f e c t s o f a x i a l v e l o c i t y r a t i o on l o s s e s
and d i f f u s i o n .
D r G r i e p e n t r o g w i l l p r e s e n t t h e p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e flow i n b l a d i n g s
s u b m i t t e d t o a h i g h s u b s o n i c f l o w w i t h l o c a l s u p e r s o n i c r e g i o n s con-
t a i n e d i n t o t h e p a s s a g e s b e t w e e n two b l a d e s . T h i s i s a r e l e v a n t
p r o b l e m f o r t h e r o o t s e c t i o n of t r a n s o n i c r o t o r s a n d f o r t h e s t a t o r s
of a l l h i g h l y l o a d e d m a c h i n e s . He w i l l a l s o d i s c u s s t h e p r o b l e m s
of s e c o n d a r y flows and l o s s e s , and p r e s e n t s e m i - e m p i r i c a l c o r r e l a -
t i o n s showing t h e f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t h e l o s s e s , m a i n l y t h e l o a d i n g
t h e l o a d i n g and a s p e c t r a t i o .
For r a d i a l compressors:
P r o f e s s o r Vavra w i l l d e a l w i t h t h e b a s i c e l e m e n t s f o r adva?ced d e s i g n n t h e
b a s i s of d i m e n s i o n l e s s p a r a m e t e r s , and loss r e l a t i o n s h i p s . He w i l l
t h e n i n t r o d u c e t h e through flow t h e o r y f o r radial wheel c a l c u l a t i o n s
showing i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e e f f e c t s of t h e s i m p l i f i c a t i o n i n t r o d u c e d
into the calculation.
M r D. Kenny w i l l d i s c u s s t h e v e r y i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t of d i f f u s e r flow f o r
advanced r a d i a l compressors, o p e r a t i n g i n t h e s u p e r s o n i c r e g i o n ,
 1-5

The p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h s t a l l a n d s u r g e i n l e t m a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , n o i s e ( i . e . , un-
s t e a d y f l o w s i n g e n e r a l ) h a v e b e e n l e f t o u t . They would j u s t i f y a f u l l c o u r s e by them-
s e l v e s a s w e l l as t h e p r o b l e m l i n k e d t o s t r u c t u r a l i n t e g r i t y a n d t e c h n o l o g y ( m a t e r i a l s ,
v i b r a t i o n , s h a f t , b e a r i n g , manufacture p r o c e s s e s , e t c . )

AREAS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

The c o u r s e w i l l b e c o n c l u d e d by a r o u n d t a b l e d i s c u s s i o n , which w i l l a l l o w a c o n t r o n -
tatiom of t h e a u t h b r g ' p o i n t of v i e w , b u t a l s o s t r e s s o u t t h e a r e a s where r e s e a r c h
i s u r g e n t l y needed.

T e n t a t i v e l y , I would p e r s o n a l l y s u g g e s t t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g p o i n t s , r e l a t e d t o t h e
p r o b l e m s d e a l t w i t h h e r e s t i l l n e e d a l o t of c l a r i f i c a t i o n ;
- r e c o n d a r y flows: no s a t i s f a c t o r y t h e o r e t i c a l method i s a v a i l a b l e for t h e moment, and
t h e p r e d i c t i o n of f l o w d i r e c t i o n i n t h e s e c o n d a r y f l o w r e g i o n i s s t i l l v e r y i n a c c u r a t e ;
- flow i n b l a d i n g 0 w i t h s u p e r s o n i c i n l e t f l o w : h e r e a g a i n , t h e r e i s no way of p r e d i c t i n g
a c c u r a t e l y t h e s h o c k p a t t e r 9 i n s i d e t h e b l a d e p a s s a g e s . Shock b o u n d a r y l a y e r i n t e r -

-
a c t i o n s a r e a k e y f a c t o r , e s p e c i a l l y for l o n g p a s s a g e s .
for r a d i a l m a c h i n e s , a n d t o a l o w e r e x t e n t , for a x i a l m a c h i n e s , t h e r o t o r - d i f f u s e r
or r o t o r s t a t o r i n t e r a c t i o n a r e s t i l l t o b e f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d . It i s o b v i o u s ( 9 ) t h a t
good r a d i a l m a c h i n e s a r e o b t a i n e d o n l y b y h a l f e m p i r i c a l m a t c h i n g of d i f f u s e r s t o a
p a r t i c u l a r wheel concept.
- t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t t h e u n s t e a d y flow phenomenon m i g h t b e a k e y t o f u t u r e improvements
a n d t h e knowledge i s s t i l l f r a g m e n t a r y .

To q u o t e P r o f e s s o r V a v r a , 9 0 5 e f f i c i e n c y , a s a c h i e v e d i n many i n s t a n c e s , seems t o b e
p r e t t y h i g h , b u t , f r a n k l y , 1 0 5 of w a s t e d e n e r g y i s a v e r y l a r g e amount, and we h a v e a
l o n g way t o go, and h a r d work l y i n g a h e a d t o improve t h e s i t u a t i o n .
1-6

LIST OF REFERENCES

1. HORTOBACYI, F.: Application des compresseurs supersoniques d'une nouvelle conception

b l'industrie du froid.
Conf6rence de 1'Industrie du Froid, Madrid.

2. NEWTON, A.C.: The axial compressor. Problems of design and application.

Lecture given at t h e von Karman Institute; Rhode Saint Geni2se, Belgium, 1;th
December 1967 -
Rolls Royce Publication.

3. ELLIS, C.W., ACURIO, J., SCHNEIDER, J.J.: Helicopter propulsion t r e n d B B i n Helicopter

propulsion Systems.
ACARD Conference Protreedings 31, J u n e 1968.

4. WHITE, J.W.: Advanced army components technology program.

SAE, Prpprint 650707. Combined Powerplant and Transportation Meeting, Cleveland
Ohio, Oct. 18-21, 1965.

5. CHAUVIN, J.: Perspectives d'avenir des turbines b gaz et des compresseurs b hautes
performances.
IVK, T U 18, juillet 1966.
I
6. SABATINK, A.: The development of supersonic axial compressor boost stages for s m a l l
gas turbines.
A S M E P 69-CT/44.

7. Research Program, FN-IVK, Private communication.

8. MORRIS, R.E. & KENNY, D.P.: High pressure ratio centrifugal compressors f o r small
gas turbine engines, in Helicopter Propulsion Systems.
ACARD Conference Proceedings 31, J u n e 1968.

9. SCHORR, P.C., WELLIVER, A.D., WINSLOW, L.J.: Design and development of small high
pressure ratio single stage centrifugal compressors.
The Boeing Company, Seattle, Washington, March 11, 1969,

10. ERWIN, J.R. b VITALE, N.G.: The radial outflow compressor.

Paper presented at t h e ASME 1969 Bas Turbine Conference, March 9-13, 1969,
Cleveland, Ohio.

11. Centrifugaa Compressor Program. U S Army AVLABS.

12. HORLOCK, J.H.: Boundary layer problems in axial turbomachinee, in Flow Research i n
Blading, L.S. Dzung, editor; Elsevier Publishing Cy, Amsterdam, 1970, p.322-357.

13. HANSEN, A.G. & HERZIC, H . Z . : Secondary flows and three dimensional boundary layer
effects; Chapter XV, NASA SP 36, 1970.

14. HORLOCK, J.H.: Unsteady flows,in Unsteady Flows in Axial Compressors.

VKI, LS 20, 1970.

15. SOVRANO, R. d, LE BOT, 9 . : Contribution b 1'6tude d e s compresseurs supersoniques.

ONERA T P 669, 1969.

16. KERREBROCK, J.L. b MIKOLAYCZAK: Intra-stator transport o f rotor wakes a n d its effect
on compressor performance.
Paper presented at t h e ASME 1970 Gas Turbine Conference, Brussels, Belgium,
May 1970.

17. MACER, A.: Discussion of boundary layer characteristics near t h e w a l l of an axial

flow compressor.
BACA TR 1085, 1952.

18. SMITH, L.H. Jr: Casing boundary layers in multistage axial flow compressors, in Flow
Research in Blading, L.S. Dzung, editor, Elsevier Publ; Cy, Amsterdam, 1970,
P * 275-299.
19. FABRI, J.: Le d6collement tournant dans le8 compresseurs axiaux.
OIERA T P 497, 1967 -
VKI L S 20, 1970.

20. MORITZ, R.R.: Axial compressor e t a l l p i n Unsteady Flows in Axial Compressors.

VKI LS 20, 1970.

21. SCHNELL, E.: Recherche6 th6oriques et exp6rimentales sur Bes compresseurs radiaux b
charge limite. I a r e partie: Ecoulement au travers de roues radialos b charge
limite.
VKI CN 538, March 1965.

22, FOWLER, H.S.: A n investigation of t h e flow processes in a centrifugal cornpressor

impeller.
NRC [Link] Report M E 220, July 1966.
 1-7

24. SMOLDEREB, J.J.: M a t h e m a t i c a l b a s i s of u n s t e a d y f l o w t r e a t m e n t .

Unpublished l e c t u r e .

25. WU, Chung Hua: A g e n e r a l t h e o r y of t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l f l o v i n s u b s o n i c and s u p e r s o n i c

t u r b o m a c h i n e s of a x i a l , r a d i a l , a n d mixed f l o w t y p e .
NACA TIS 1 7 9 5 , 1 9 5 0 .

26. MARSH, H.: A d i g i t a l c o m p u t e r programme f o r t h e t h r o u g h f l o w f l u i d m e c h a n i c s i n

a n a r b i t r a r y t u r b o m a c h i n e u s i n g a m a t r i x method.
BGTE R e p o r t R 282, J u l y 1966.

27. BOVAK, R.A.: S t r e a m l i n e c u r v a t u r e c o m p u t i n g p r o c e d u r e s for f l u i d f l o w p r o b l e m s .

V K I CIS 59; a l s o , ASME P a p e r 66-WA/GT3.

[Link], L.H. J r : The r a d i a l e q u i l i b r i u m e q u a t i o n of t u r b o m a c h i n e r y .

J n l of E n g i n e e r i n g f o r P o v e r , ASME T r a n s a c t . S e r i e s A , v o l . 18, 1 9 5 1 , p.1-12.
29. VAVRA, M.H.: Aerothermodynamics and flow i n turbomachines.
w i l e y & Sons, 1960.

30. M I K O L A Y C Z A K , A.A.; MORRIS, A.L., JOHBSOH, B.V.: Comparison of p e r f o r m a n c e of s u p e r -

s o n i c b l a d i n g i n c a s c a d e and i n compressor r o t o r s .
P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 1 5 t h ASME Gas T u r b i n e C o n f e r e n c e , B r u s s e l s , May 1 9 7 0 .

31. LE FOLL, J.: A t h e o r y of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e p r o p e r t i e s of b o u n d a r y l a y e r s on a

plane.
P r o c e e d i n g s S e m h a r on Advanced Pcoblems i n T u r b o m a c h i n e r y . K. C a s s a d y a n d J .
C h a u v i n , e d i t o r s , V K I 1965.

32. PAPAILIOU; IC.: O p t i m i s a t i o n d ' a u b a g e s de c o m p r e s s e u r B f o r t e o h a r g e sur l a b a s e d e s

t h k o r i e s de couches l i m i t e s . Ph.D. T h e s i s , Univ. LiBge, 1969, a l s o
V K I TB 55, 1969.

33. STRATFORD, B.S.: The u s e of b o u n d a r y l a y e r t e c h n i q u e s t o c a l c u l a t e t h e b l o c k a g e from

t h e a n n u l a r boundary l a y e r s i n a compressor,
ASME P 67-WA/GT-T, November 1967.
34. BOVAK, R.A. & JAISSEIS, W.: The a p p l i c a t i o n of e n d w a l l b o u n d a r y l a y e r e f f e c t s i n t h e
p e r f o r m a n c e a n a l y s i s of a x i a l c o m p r e s s o r s .
ASME 67-WA/GT-llB November 1967.

35. HETHERIBGTOB, R . : E n g i n e component d e s i g n p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l a r g e s u b s o n i c

transports,
L e c t u r e g i v e n a t t h e von Karman I n s t i t u t e , 2 3 r d A p r i l 1 9 6 9
a l s o , V K I LS 16 : High R e y n o l d s number a e r o d y n a m i c s , 1969.
-
Rol1.s-Royce Publ.
1-8

SThCE
TOTAL PRESJURE
RATIO

TAROMI

A V m MAPOINTS

46

HEAN RELATIVE
INLET NACH NUMBER
4.2 c
.6 .? .0 .9 4.0 1.4 I .2 1.3 41 1.5 46 jq

Figure 1

STAGE
€FFIcIEwcY

vu1
JS69

\
HEAN RELATIVE
INLET MACH NUMBER
c
.5 6 .? 8 9 4.0 4i 42 4.3 44 i.5 la iq

Figure 2
 €- 9

16

I4
P
a
8
6

4
2
0
Year

kink,of comppsw stages fm I0:l pressure ratio

Figure 3

g
lIT.'l150*C
I
%- .7 5

TIT. 9SO.C

I
Z
150

100&I

Figure 4
IKglHPh 1 SFC
1ll.750
1- 10

Figure 5

Figure 6
 1- 11

I 1
I
I D'
E'
I B'
F'
A'

C ' F

' Figure 7
1-12

M1 +.82L

M1 = ,835
 1-15

\
I \

\,
\

Figure 9
1-14

PRESSURE SIDE SUCTION SIDE

I------s4
Figure 10

PRESSrn SUCTION SIDE

SIDE Rm 325 mm

PLANE
0
1
2
3
4
5

PLANE
CASING

R. 450-

..___............_I._. ...

R. 530mm

L
T
-x
.
,............. ............
I
R*S62mm

R. Wnnl

Figure 11
 1- 15

SECONDARY FLOWS AT WHEEL EXIT (RADIAL COMPRESSOR)

Figure 12

zo

t 18
P
-
Po 1-6

m
1.4

CLEARANCE
0

0
2.6 m m
1.8 m m
* O,S mm
HUB 12
- 0 15
CHANNEL WIDTH

Figure 13
CASIN

30 (mml

DEAD .

1 2 3 4

B IN I
P

P
s
--
SPP

pressure s i d e
suction s i d e
S P S P

Figure 14
S
DETAILED FLOW DEVELOPMENT IN UNSHROUDED
IMPELLER, WITH 0.20" RUNNING CLEARANCE

Figure 15
 1- 17

Figure 16

COYPREBBOR BIREAMLIIE

Figure 17
P'igllre 18
 2 I

The Through-flow Analysis of Axial Flow Compreesors

bY

H. Marsh
*

Q,
Cambridge University Engineering Department.
2

Summary

Methods f o r p r e d i c t i n g t h e performance o f a x i a l flow compressors

a r e described i n d e t a i l and i t i s shown t h a t t h e methods o f streamline
curvature and matrix thrcugh-flow a n a l y s i s a r e based on t h e same
mathematical model f o r flow on the mean stream surface. The need f o r
an accurate loss model i s emphasised and t h e Mach number l i m i t a t i o n s
c f t h e s e two methods of a n a l y s i s a r e defined. Methods f o r p r e d i c t i n g
the development o f the w a l l boundary l a y e r s a r e discussed and t h e
simple theory o f S t r a t f o r d (10) i s shown t o be i n agreement w i t h
experimental r e s u l t s obtained f o r f l o w s w i t h low angles o f s w i r l . The
work of Gregory-Smith (11) suggests t h a t i f an accurate estimate o f t h e
wall boundary l a y e r can be obtained, then i t i s possible t o p r e d i c t t h e
flow p a t t e r n acros8 t h e e n t i r e annulus.

I
 2

a l o c a l v e l o c i t y of sound,
B s u r f a c e thickness parameter,
C chord,
equivalent d i f fus on f a c t o r ,
Deq
F f o r c e vector,
h s t a t i c enthalpy,
H s t a g n a t i o n enthalpy,
i incidence,
I r e l a t i v e stagnation enthalpy (rothalpy) I = H - wrVe,
const ants,
meridional Mach number,
r e l a t i v e Mach number,
v e c t o r normal t o t h e mean stream s u r f a c e ,

P pressure,
r radius,
R g a s constant,
r a d i u s of curvature of meridional streamlines,
Rm
s entropy,
9 mean stream surface,
T temperature ,
blade speed ' a t mean radius,
v e l o c i t y vector,
r e l a t i v e v e l o c t t y vector,
a i r angle,
6 deviation,

angles defining t h e l o c a l mean stream surface,

densi t y ,
s o l i d i t y (chord/pitch),
slope of t h e meridional streamlines,
stream function,
angular v e l o c i t y ,
w t o t a l pressure l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t ,

Subs c r iPt 8

1 inlet,
2 outlet,
I
r radial,
2 axial,
0 circumferential.
2

Notation (Cont.)

. Boundary Layer
&* displacement thickness,
e momentum thickness,
r shear s t r e s s ,

?L wall shear s t r e s s .
 2- 1

Introduction
The u l t i m a t e o b j e c t i v e of t h e through-flow a n a l y s i s i s t o p r e d i c t t h e performance
o f a turbomachine so t h a t t h e design engineer can ensure an e f f i c i e n t machine w i t h
t h e minimum time f o r development. During t h e p a s t f o r t y years, methods of flow analysie
f o r turbomachines have progressed from the b a s i c mean l i n e a n a l y s i s , first t o t h e
method of simple r a d i a l equilibrium, which was necessary t o d e a l w i t h machines o f low
hub t o t i p r a t i o , then t o a c t u a t o r d i s c theory, which contributed t o our understanding
of blade row i n t e r a c t i o n , and f i n a l l y t o the numerical methods of streamline curvature
and matrix through-flow a n a l y s i s which both use d i g i t a l computers t o solve t h e
equations of f l u i d motion. The c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e flow p a t t e r n remains a very d i f f i c u l t
mathematical problem and a complete explanation of t h e flow r e q u i r e s an understanding
o f s e v e r a l branches of' f l u i d dynamics.
U n t i l 1960, t h e mathematical model f o r t h e flow i n turbomachines was more advanced
than t h e methods o f computation; f o r example, the computing f a c i l i t i e s a v a i l a b l e i n
1952 were not ade a t e f o r obtaining general s o l u t i o n s t o t h e governing equations
derived by Wu ( l r It i s only during t h e p a s t decade t h a t computers have been
developed having s u f f i c i e n t speed and storage capacity t o d e a l economically with these
problems of flow calculation. The techniques now e x i s t f o r c a l c u l a t i n g the flow i n
turbomachines on the b a s i s of a flow model which includes the e f r e c t s of compressibility,
r a d i a l v a r i a t i o n s of l i f t and l o s s e s , blade row i n t e r a c t i o n , secondary flow e f f e c t s
and t h e development of t h e w a l l boundary layers. T h i s flow model i s based on our
understanding of the flow through cascades, i s o l a t e d blade rows and s i n g l e s t a g e
machines; i t i s a model which i s c o n t i n u a l l y being r e v i s e d and improved.

Methods of Flow Calculation

There a r e two methods of flow c a l c u l a t i o n f o r turbomachines and they both attempt
t o o b t a i n information about t h e o v e r a l l flow p a t t e r n without including the e f f e c t s of
time dependent flows. These methods, o f t e n c a l l e d streamline curvature and matrix
through-flow, a r e based on t h e same mathematical model, but d i f f e r i n t h e i r numerical
techniques. Although t h e s e two methods of a n a l y s i s were developed independently and
a r e u s u a l l y t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y , they have much i n common and the following discussion
i s an attempt t o show t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o each other.
In Wu's general theory f o r the flow i n turbomachines, reference 1, t h e equations
of f l u i d motion a r e s a t i s f i e d on two i n t e r s e c t i n g f a m i l i e s of stream s u r f a c e s , t h e
complete three-dimensional flow f i e l d being obtained by an i t e r a t i v e process between
s o l u t i o n s f o r the flow on the two s e t s of surf'aces. Throughout t h e a n a l y s i s , i t i s
assumed t h a t the flow i s steady. However, a t e x i t from a blade row, t h e flow and t h e
g a s s t a t e vary c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l l y and i f t h e following blade row has a motion r e l a t i v e
t o t h e f i r s t , then i t i s subject t o a time dependent i n l e t flow. I t follows t h a t t h e
g e n e r a l theory i s t h e r e f o r e only a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e flow through an i s o l a t e d blade row.
The theory i s general i n t h e sense t h a t i t i s a general method f o r estimating a steady
three-dimensional flow by c a l c u l a t i n g t h e flow on two i n t e r s e c t i n g s e t s of stream
s u r f aces.
The through4low theory i s s i m i l a r t o t h e general theory, but the equations o f
f l u i d motion a r e only solved f o r the steady flow on a mean stream surface. The flow
and f l u i d s t a t e on t h i s surface may be regarded a s average values f o r t h e flow within
t h e blade passage. For a multi-stage turbomachine, t h e time dependence of t h e flow
i s removed by t r e a t i n g t h e through-flow s o l u t i o n a s an a x i a l l y symmetric flow f o r the
duct region between each p a i r o f blade rows. In t h e a n a l y s i s which follows, t h e
equations governing the flow on the mean stream surface a r e derived and t h e two methods
of s o l u t i o n a r e uiscussed i n d e t a i l .
In a coordinate system r o t a t i n g w i t h the blade row a t an angular v e l o c i t y U, any
steady r e v e r s i b l e , i n v i s c i d flow is-governed by t h e equation o f motion

2 is x W - CW x [Vx 9 ) = - V I + T Vs

where ? i si the r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y vector. In t h e r, e , z coordinate system, t h e

equations o f c o n t i n u i t y , motion, energy and s t a t e a r e
2- 2

Enerrty ( a d i a b a t i c )

State (perfect gas)

where h i s . t h e s t a t i c enthalpy p e r u n i t mass. These equations t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r

boundary c o n d i t i o n s d e f i n e t h e steady flow through any blade row or duct.
I n t h e through-flow a n a l y s i s , t h e governing e w a t i o n s a r e only solved for t h e
flow on t h e mean stream s u r f a c e which i s defined a8
(€3)

where i t i s assumed t h a t t h e s u r f a c e i s s i n g l e valued i n 0.

If
%-
3 T
and ~ - a r pea r t i a l d e r i v a t i v e s taken along t h e stream s u r f a c e , then

where A,, ne and ttz a r e t h e components o f t h e u n i t v e c t o r X normal t o t h e surface.

These s p e c i a l d e r i v a t i v e s a r e taken on t h e stream surface an2 must be d i s t i n g u i s h e d
from ordinary p a r t i a l d e r i v a t i v e s . The s p e c i a l d e r i v a t i v e 3 is t h e r a t e of change
of % with r on t h e stream s u r f a c e a t a given v a l u e o f z, whereas
& a-& is t h e r a t e o f
change o f % w i t h r a t given v a l u e s of z and 8.
The equations governing t h e flow may now be expressed in terms of t h e s p e c i a l
d e r i v a t i v e s f o r t h e flow on t h e mean stream s u r f a c e ,
Continuity -

Energy

I n an i n v i s c i d flow, t h e f o r c e v e c t o r i s normal t o t h e stream s u r f a c e S and i e

t h e r e f o r e normal t o t h e r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y v e c t o r ,
 -
2- 3

It is convenient t o d e f i n e the l o c a l form of t h e stream s u r f a c e by two angles 1 and y

where
_-

(I7 )
The t h r e e v e l o c i t y components a r e then r e l a t e d by

WO = - W r L X - WzT-
which i s the geometrical condition t h a t t h e flow follows the mean stream surface.
Following Wu’s a n a l y s i s , an i n t e g r a t i n g f a c t o r B i s introduced such t h a t t h e
equation of continuity becomes

t h e f a c t o r B being given by

The equations i n d i c a t e t h a t B i s proportional t o the l o c a l angular thickness of t h e

stream surface and a s a first approximation, t h e thickness o f t h e stream surface i s
assumed t o be proportional t o t h e width of t h e blade passage,

B = circumferential w i d t h of t h e blade passage

blade p i t c h
For t h e flow i n a duct region, where t h e r e a r e no blades, the parameter B is taken as
unity.
The through-flow a n a l y s i s has been presented here f o r t h e flow on t h e mean stream
s u r f a c e without assuming a x i a l symmetry, so t h a t t h i s can be seen t o be t h e f i r s t s t a g e
i n applying t h e general theory. However, i f a x i a l symmetry were assumed and a
d i s t r i b u t e d body force introduced t o represent the blade f o r c e , then t h e governing
equations a r e o f t h e same form, but w i t h t h e s p e c i a l d e r i v a t i v e s replaced by Ordinary
p a r t i a l derivatives. It follows t h a t t h e same flow p a t t e r n i s obtained by assuming
a x i a l symmetry, o r by solving f o r t h e flow on t h e mean stream s u r f a c e and then t r e a t i n g
t h i s a s an a x i a l l y symmetric solution. The same s o l u t i o n f o r t h e flow p a t t e r n i s
obtained i r r e s p e c t i v e of whether the assumption of a x i a l symmetry is made b e f o r e o r
a f t e r the equations a r e solved.
There a r e two methods f o r solving t h e governing equations, nainely the method of
streamline curvature and t h e matrix method. The method of streamline curvature is
based on t h e r a d i a l equation of motion,

The l a s t term on t h e r i g h t hand s i d e can be expressed i n terms of t h e meridional

- - -
v e l o c i t y Wm and t h e slope and curvature of t h e meridional streamlines

CJ, ?r!
ar
= W, @r
2-
- d,-N
2r
r (21)
where m i s measured i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of the meridional streamline. Introducing the
streamline slope $ and r a d i u s of curvature R-, t h i s term can a l s o be w r i t t e n a s

so t h a t t h e r a d i a l equation of motion becomes

The l a s t term on t h e r i g h t hand s i d e can be evaluated from t h e equations of c o n t i n u i t y

and energy, much algebra being omitted,
2- 4

Energy

-
If t h e working f l u i d i s a p e r f e c t gas then
L.* = AI . - - -I
x &
P 3m CP Jrn R am
and s u b s t i t u t i n g from the equations of c o n t i n u i t y and energy

+eFW
, - W,-we‘
a
a% Pa

The r a d i a l equation of motion can t h e r e f o r e be w r i t t e n a s

or

T h i s i s the form of the r a d i a l equilibrium equation a s derived by Smith (2), Novak ( 3 )

and S i l v e s t e r and Hetherington (4).
The method of s o l u t i o n assumes t h a t an estimate of the flow p a t t e r n i s known, s o
t h a t the functions KCr) and f-(r)can be evaluated. A t any p o s i t i o n i n t h e flow f i e l d ,
a value f o r Wm i s chosen a t some p o s i t i o n such a s the mid-span and t h e equation f o r Wm
i s i n t e g r a t e d r a d i a l l y t o o b t a i n t h e a x i a l v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e . The mass flow r a t e across
the c a l c u l a t i n g plane i s then computed and compared w i t h t h e upstream mass flow r a t e .
If necessary, a new value f o r Wm i s chosen and t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s repeated u n t i l t h e
required mass flow r a t e i s obtained. When the a x i a l v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s a r e known
obtained f o r t h e f u n c t i o n s K ( r ) and L(r) .
throughout the machine, then t h e new streamline p a t t e r n can be c a l c u l a t e d and new values
The complete cycle of c a l c u l a t i o n s i s
repeated u n t i l a convergence c r i t e r i o n i s s a t i s f i e d . The numerical procedure can become
highly unstable and it i s u s u a l l y necessary t o r e s t r i c t t h e c a l c u l a t i o n t o small changes
i n t h e flow p a t t e r n between successive i t e r a t i o n s .
The major d i f f i c u l t y i n applying t h i s method i s t h a t i t i s necessary t o evaluate
the streamline slope and curvature. A commonly used approximation f o r t h e shape of t h e
streamlines i s t h a t of a s p l i n e f i t through p o i n t s of equal stream function on
neighbouring c a l c u l a t i n g planes. T h i s s p l i n e curve i s sometimes d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t o
o b t a i n both t h e slope and the curvature, but Shaalan and Daneshyar ( 5 ) suggest t h a t a
more accurate estimate of t h e curvature i s obtained by f i t t i n g a second s p l i n e curve t o
t h e v a r i a t i o n of slope and then d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g t o o b t a i n t h e curvature. The authors
r e f e r t o t h i s as a double s p l i n e f i t . Perhaps the most important f e a t u r e of t h e work
by Shaalan and Daneshyar i s t h a t concerning the r a t i o of t h e spacing of the c a l c u l a t i n g
planes t o the wavelength of t h e streamline pattern. I t i s shown t h a t whereas a s i n g l e
s p l i n e f i t r e q u i r e s about t e n p o i n t s per wavelength i n order t o o b t a i n a good estimate
of t h e curvature, t h e double s p l i n e f i t r e q u i r e s only f o u r o r f i v e points. In a
multistage turbomachine, t h e b a s i c wavelength may correspond t o t h e length of a s t a g e
and i t then follows t h a t a good estimate f o r t h e curvature of t h e streamlines can only
be obtained by taking c a l c u l a t i n g planes within t h e blade rows. T h i s i s r e l a t i v e l y
simple f o r subsonic flows, but i n a transonic flow with shocks, t h e mathematical model
is not adewate. I t is t h e r e f o r e common t o analyse t h e flow i n t r a n s o n i c compressors
by placing the c a l c u l a t i n g planes o u t s i d e t h e blade rows and t r e a t i n g t h e blade rows
ae devices which have a s p e c i f i e d behaviour, even though t h i s may reduce t h e accuracy
o f t h e o v e r a l l calculation.
 2- 5

The a l t e r n a t i v e method of solving t h e equations governing t h e flow on ‘ t h e mean

stream s u r f a c e is t o d e f i n e a stream f u n c t i o n $J where

and

T h e r a d i a l equation of motion (12) can then be expressed a s

or

Equation (31) is o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o a s Wu’s p r i n c i p a l equation; it is a non-linear

equation, b u t i b can be solved by t h e repeated s o l u t i o n and c o r r e c t i o n of t h e quasi-
l i n e a r equation (32). A s o l u t i o n f o r t h e stream f u n c t i o n Y i s obtained f o r a given
d i s t r i b u t i o n q ( r , z ) , t h e f u n c t i o n q ( r , z ) is then c o r r e c t e d using t h e improved s o l u t i o n
for and the process is repeated u n t i l a convergence c r i t e r i o n is s a t i s f i e d , a s
described by Marsh (6).
Mathematically, Wu’s a n a l y s i s i s extremely s i m p l e , b u t t h e d i f f i c u l t y l i e s i n
o b t a i n i n g numerical s o l u t i o n s f o r t h e stream function. Many f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e approx-
imations u s e a r e c t a n g u l a r g r i d of p o i n t s , s i n c e t h i s l e a d s t o simple expressions f o r
t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of t h e f u n c t i o n values a t neighbouring points. However, f o r
c a l c u l a t i n g t h e flow through an a x i a l flow compressor, a more s u i t a b l e form o f g r i d is
a d i s t o r t e d o r non-rectangular mesh which is s t r a i g h t i n only one d i r e c t i o n . Figure 1
shows a d i s t o r t e d g r i d w i t h p a r a l l e l r a d i a l l i n e s having equally spaced p o i n t s between
t h e i n n e r and o u t e r casings. By d e f i n i t i o n , t h e machine casings form curved g r i d l i n e s
and there a r e no a d d i t i o n a l d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r g r i d p o i n t s which l i e c l o s e t o o r on t h e
boundaries. There is an automatic r e f i n i n g of t h e g r i d a s t h e annulus height is
reduced.
There is c l e a r l y no d i f f i c u l t y i n forming f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e approximations f o r th’e
r a d i a l d e r i v a t i v e s , b u t t h e r e a r e no s i m p l e expressions for d e r i v a t i v e s with respect t o
2. Reference ( 6 ) d e s c r i b e s a g e n e r a l method f o r obtaining t h e f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e approx-
imations i n t h e d i s t o r t e d mesh and t h i s can form p a r t of t h e computer program. The
f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e approximation f o r t h e p r i n c i p a l equation (32) and i t s boundary
c o n d i t i o n s can be w r i t t e n i n t h e matrix form

where L(b] and LQ] a r e column v e c t o r s and [MI i s a band matrix which remains unchanged
throughout t h e c a l c u l a t i o n . Only one band of non-zero elements i s formed and s t o r e d
i n t h e computer. The method of s o l u t i o n is t o s o l v e f o r t h e stream f u n c t i o n w i t h a
given v e c t o r [Q] , t o c o r r e c t CQ] using t h e new flow p a t t e r n and then t o repeat t h e
c y c l e of c a l c u l a t i o n u n t i l convergence is obtained.
The matrix method h a s c e r t a i n l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e Mach number, which occur i n t h e
c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e l o c a l density. A t each point i n t h e mesh, t h e r e a r e two p o s s i b l e
flow s o l u t i o n s , one corresponding t o a meridional o r r e l a t i v e Mach number l e s s than
u n i t y and t h e o t h e r t o meridional o r r e l a t i v e Mach number g r e a t e r than unity. T o avoid
ambiguity and t o ensure t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l equation remains e l l i p t i c , t h e computer
program of r e f e r e n c e ( 6 ) i s r e s t r i c t e d t o flows where
a) i n a duct region Idm< 1
b) i n a blade row Idrel< 1

It h a s been suggested t h a t t h e s e Mach number l i m i t a t i o n s might be relaxed by modifying

t h e procedure by which t h e d e n s i t y and v e l o c i t y components a r e c a l c u l a t e d .
The numerical s t a b i l i t y of t h e matrix method is dependent on t h e problem which i s
being solved and although a considerable degree of under-relaxation o f t h e stream
f’unctlon is u s u a l l y required, i n a few problems i t has been p o s s i b l e t o use over-
r e l a x a t i o n . Radial g r i d l i n e s a r e u s u a l l y p o s i t i o n e d . b o t h i n t h e duct regions and
w i t h i n t h e blade rows and t h e r e does not appear t o be any d i f f i c u l t y i n obtaining
numerical s o l u t i o n s , provided t h a t t h e machine boundaries form smooth curves.
I t is important t o r e a l i s e t h a t t h e method o f streamline curvature and t h e matrix
through-flow a n a l y s i s a r e merely two d i f f e r e n t numerical techniques f o r solving t h e
same s e t of equations governing the flow on the mean stream surface. When applied t o
the same flow problem with t h e same mesh, then t h e two methods of c a l c u l a t i o n must l e a d
t o t h e same solution. The major d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two methods a s they a r e now
applied, i s t h a t t h e method o f streamline curvature u s u a l l y places t h e c a l c u l a t i n g
planes only i n t h e duct regions, while t h e matrix method includes c a l c u l a t i n g planes
within t h e blade rows. T h i s is, however, a d i f f e r e n c e o f no g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h a t
e i t h e r method can be applied w i t h o r without c a l c u l a t i n g planes i n s i d e t h e blade rows.
The Loss Model
One d i f f i c u l t y i n c a l c u l a t i n g t h e flow p a t t e r n i s t h a t it i s necessary t o estimate
t h e loss of r e l a t i v e stagnation pressure, o r t h e entropy change, on passing through t h e
blade rows. T h i s problem i s perhaps b e s t phrased i n terms of entropy i n t h a t i t i s then
c l e a r t h a t the e f f e c t o f l o s s i n a multi-stage compressor i s cumulative. I t i s t h e
r a d i a l gradient o f entropy which e n t e r s d i r e c t l y i n t h e governing equations f o r t h e
matrix method, while t h e method o f streamline curvature r e q u i r e s both the r a d i a l and
meridional g r a d i e n t s of entropy. As t h e flow passes through each blade row, then f o r
an a d i a b a t i c flow, the entropy i n c r e a s e s monotonically along t h e streamlines. The
changes i n entropy and the entropy gradient i n an i s o l a t e d blade row a r e u s u a l l y small,
but when t h e flow has passed through a l a r g e number o f blade rows, then the entropy
gradient term i n t h e governing equations becomes more important. For a multi-stage
machine, the flow c a l c u l a t i o n s r e q u i r e an extremely a c c u r a t e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e l o s s
model f o r each blade row.
It might be argued t h a t s i n c e both methods o f flow c a l c u l a t i o n do not include any
f r i c t i o n a l force terms, then the c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e only v a l i d f o r a r e v e r s i b l e flow.
For example, from equations 1 2 , 13, 14 and 15 i t i s possible t o derive an entropy
e quat ion,

which i s only v a l i d f o r a r e v e r s i b l e a d i a b a t i c process. The problem i s t o determine

whether t h e use o f some empirical r e l a t l o n s h i p f o r t h e entropy changes i n a turbomachine,
based on cascade data, i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h the method of calculation. T h i s can r e a d i l y
be determined by considering the equations which a r e used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n ,
1) Continuity,
2 ) Radial equation o f motion,
3 ) Tangential equation o f motion,
4) Energy,
5) S t a t e ,
6 ) Entropy (empirical).
For an a x i a l flow machine, t h e a x i a l equation of motion i s not used i n e i t h e r method of
c a l c u l a t i o n . It can thus be argued t h a t t h e changes o f entropy which occur a r e caused
by f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e terms i n the equation of motion which i s not required. The l o s s model
t h e r e f o r e assumes t h a t t h e f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e a c t s only i n t h e a x i a l d i r e c t i o n and t h e
flow c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h i s model. An a l t e r n a t i v e argument is t h a t t h e
l o c a l f r i c t i o n a l f o r c e terms a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y small t o oe neglected i n t h e t h r e e
equations of motion, but t h e i r cumulative e f f e c t i s a change of' entropy which cannot be
neglected.
The simplest method f o r including l o s s e s i n t h e flow c a l c u l a t i o n i s t o define a
polytropic e f f i c i e n c y which can vary throughout the flow f i e l d i n accordance with t h e
known behaviour o f s i m i l a r turbomachines. This model has g r e a t s i m p l i c i t y and was
t h e r e f o r e used i n some o f t h e e a r l y c a l c u l a t i o n s o f reference ( 6 ) . However, t h i s was
Wickly superseded by incorporating L i e b l e i n ' s ( 7 ) l o s s c o r r e l a t i o n a s a l o s s subroutine
i n the computer programs f o r both methods o f flow c a l c u l a t i o n .
L i e b l e i n ( 7 ) studied the flow through two dimensional cascades a t low speeds and
found t h a t t h e r e was a r e l a t i o n s h i p between the suction s u r f a c e aiff'usion r a t i o and the
r a t i o o f t h e wake momentum thickness t o the plade chord. It was shown t h i t L i e b l e i n ' s
equivalent difr'usion parameter could be c o r r e l a t e d w i t h che wake momentum thickness
parameter e/, such t h a t t h e l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t o could be expressed a s
I
The l o s s e s i n t h i s model a r e those caused by f l u i d f r i c t i o n a t t h e blade surface, flow
separation and wake mixing. In the discussion of L i e b l e i n ' s paper Klapproth suggested
a modified equivalent d i f f i s i o n f a c t o r
 2-7

0
where i i s t h e minimum l o s s incidence. T h i s modified d i f f u s i o n f a c t o r includes t h e
e f f e c t s o f a x i a l v e l o c i t y change across t h e blade row and t h e r a d i a l displacement of
t h e streamlines.
Swan ( 8 ) l a t e r showed t h a t f o r subsonic flow, a s i m i l a r c o r r e l a t i o n t o t h a t o f
L i e b l e i n could be obtained f o r compressor data. Swan's c o r r e l a t i o n i s i n two p a r t s , t h e
first r e l a t i n g the wake momentum thickness parameter t o t h e equivalent d i f f u s i o n f a c t o r
f o r operation a t t h e condition o f minimum l o s s ,

the a s t e r i s k denoting minimum l o s s . The c o r r e l a t i o n shows t h a t t h e r a d i a l p o s i t i o n of

the blade element a f f e c t s t h e l o s s . The second c o r r e l a t i o n was for off-minimum l o s s
operation and r e l a t e d t h e changes i n t h e wake momentum thickness and d i f f u s i o n parameters,

T h i s second c o r r e l a t i o n gave curves which were independent o f r a d i a l p o s i t i o n , but very

dependent on t h e Mach number.
Swan a l s o suggested t h a t t h e Lieblein l o s s model could be extended t o transonic
blade rows by adding a shock l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t d i r e c t l y t o t h e p r o f i l e loss c o e f f i c i e n t
p r e d i c t e d from D
e 9'

where ws and w a r e t h e shock and p r o f i l e loss c o e f f i c i e n t s . Swan proposed a shock

P
model i n which a bow wave i s attached t o t h e leading edge and t h i s is followed by a
Prandtl -
Meyer expansion along the s u c t i o n surface u n t i l an expansion wave i n t e r s e c t s
t h e next blade. A normal shock i s assumed t o occur a c r o s s t h e channel a t t h e p o s i t i o n
o f minimum flow area. The Swan - L i e b l e i n l o s s model h a s been found t o g i v e good
agreement between t h e p r e d i c t e d and observed performance o f compressors.
The shock l o s s model of Swan and t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s given by L i e b l e i n a r e b e s t
regarded a s a temporary general approximation f o r t h e l o s s model. The shock model is
much s i m p l i f i e d and t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s may not cover t h e e n t i r e range o f i n t e r e s t , but in
t h e absence of accurate l o s s d a t a f o r a p a r t i c u l a r blade element, t h i s may be t h e b e s t
a v a i l a b l e method f o r c a l c u l a t i n g the losses. T h i s i s c l e a r l y one p a r t of t h e c a l c u l a t i o n
f o r which more d e t a i l e d information i s required.
The D e f i n i t i o n o f the Mean Stream Surface
The methods o? streamline curvature and matrix through-flow both r e q u i r e t h a t t h e
flow angles a r e s p e c i f i e d within, o r a t e x i t from, a blade row. The d a t a obtained from
t e s t i n g a s t a t i o n a r y l i n e a r cascade can g i v e a reasonable approximation f o r t h e mean
stream surface, but i n a turbomachine, t h e s e flow angles a r e influenced by t h e l o c a l
flow p a t t e r n . The papers by Lieblein and Swan contain a c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e deviation
w i t h the equivalent d i f f u s i o n f a c t o r and Horlock ( 9 ) suggests t h a t t h e deviation can
be r e l a t e d t o t h e a x i a l v e l o c i t y r a t i o , AVR, by
s= &'+ IO(AVR-l)

where 6' i s t h e deviation f o r u n i t y a x i a l v e l o c i t y r a t i o . The computer program can be

arranged s o t h a t between t h e main i t e r a t i o n s , t h e flow p a t t e r n i s examined and t h e new
a i r e x i t angles estimated f o r the next cycle o f c a l c u l a t i o n s . It is t h u s possible t o
modify t h e o r i g i n a l d e f i n i t i o n o f the mean stream s u r f a c e during t h e c a l c u l a t i o n , so
t h a t t h e f i n a l stream surface i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e l o c a l flow pattern.
Annulus Wall Boundary Layers
In order t o p r e d i c t t h e flow p a t t e r n over t h e e n t i r e annulus, i t i s necessary t o
combine t h e through flow a n a l y s i s w i t h some method f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e development of
the annulus wall boundary layers. S t r a t f o r d (10) h a s proposed a simple model f o r
c a l c u l a t i n g t h e development of the a x i a l component of t h e boundary 1 e r and t h i s model
has been compared with experimental r e s u l t s by Gregory-Smith (11) (18.
equations o f motion for t h e flow i n t h e mainstream and boundary l a y e r regions a r e , from
The a x i a l
equation (14)
2- 8

Boundary Layer (b. 1. )

w, 3%
(4 0)
2f-
where 7, i s t h e a x i a l component of t h e shear s t r e s s . Following boundary l a y e r theory,
i t i s assumed t h a t t h e pressure does not vary through the boundary l a y e r ,

and 1 (4 1)

If t h e r e i s no d i s t o r t i o n o f t h e mean stream surface i n the boundary l a y e r , then

and it follows from t h e s e assumptions t h a t

(43)
By i n t e g r a t i n g through t h e boundary l a y e r , S t r a t f o r d derived the momentum i n t e g r a l equation
f o r t h e a x i a l d i r e c t i o n which can be w r i t t e n a s

where T,, i s t h e a x i a l component o f the wall shear s t r e s s . Additional information on

t h e s k i n f r i c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t and t h e shape f a c t o r parameter i s obtained from experimental
d a t a on the flow over a f l a t p l a t e w i t h a pressure g r a d i e n t
I n order t o apply t h i s method of c a l c u l a t i o n , t h e boundary l a y e r must be s p e c i f i e d
a t some upstream p o s i t i o n , ahead o f t h e first row o f blades. A streamline curvature o r
matrix through-flow program i s used t o c a l c u l a t e the flow p a t t e r n and t h i s provides
data on t h e flow c l o s e t o t h e wall, This information i s then used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n
of t h e development o f t h e wall boundary layer. For t h e flow through a r o t o r row, t h e
c a l c u l a t i o n i s made i n a coordinate system which r o t a t e s with the blade row.
Gregory-Smith (U), ( 1 2 ) h a s reported experiments w i t h an i s o l a t e d r o t o r row t o
t e s t t h e p r e d i c t i o n s obtained from S t r a t f o r d ' s theory. The apparatus i s the r o t a t i n g
cascade wind tunnel a t Cambridge University, t h e o v e r a l l design being a s shown i n
f i g u r e 2, a complete d e s c r i p t i o n being a v a i l a b l e i n reference (13). The l a r g e i n l e t
l e a d s t o a working s e c t i o n w i t h a hub diameter o f 2 f t . and a t i p diameter of 5 f t . , a
hub t o t i p r a t i o of 0.4. The tunnel h a s two independent r o t o r s , one being t h e research
r o t o r and t h e o t h e r being an a u x i l i a r y f a n which i s placed f a r downstream. The
combination of a v a r i a b l e speed research r o t o r , an a u x i l i a r y fan w i t h v a r i a b l e p i t c h
and speed and an e x i t t h r o t t l e allows t h i s apparatus t o operate over a very wide range
of flow conditions. A n unusual f e a t u r e of the apparatus i s t h a t t h e research r o t o r ia
f i t t e d w i t h a multi-channel pressure t r a n s f e r device which t r a n s m i t s pressures from t h e
r o t a t i n g blades t o s t a t i o n a r y manometers.
Preliminary experiments w i t h a row of i n l e t guide vanes had shown t h a t i f t h e r e
was a l a r g e r a d i a l g r a d i e n t o f a x i a l v e l o c i t y , then i t vas dir'f'icult t o der'iiie t h e edge
o r t h e boundary layer. It was t h e r e f o r e decided t o t e s t t h e theory against experiments
with an i s o l a t e d r o t o r row o f f r e e vortex design and l a t e r t o extend the experiments t o
a complete f r e e vortex stage. The design flow c o e f f i c i e n t wasv,/u,= 0.7, where U, i s
t h e blade speed a t t h e mid-span position. Rotating s t a l l with a s i n g l e c e l l was observed
a t V,/&, = 0.39 and d e t a i l e d measurements of t h e w a l l boundary l a y e r development were
taken a t vz/um= 0.5, 0.7 and 0.8. E'or t h i s range o f flows t h e mainstream shear remains
small. A l l experiments were performed a t a constant Reynolds number o f 300,000, t h i s
being based on the blade chord and t h e - r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y a t t h e blade mid-span.
The pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n around t h e r o t o r b l a d e s was measured a t fpurteen r a d i a l
p o s i t i o n s i n t h e mainstream and wall boundary l a y e r regions. I t was found t h a t f o r both
on-design and off-design operation, t h e r e was very l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n o f pressure through
the boundary l a y e r , a s assumed i n t h e theory. One p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t was
t h a t t h e r e was very l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e between the pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s measured a t
t h e edge of t h e boundary l a y e r and a t a p o s i t i o n 0.15 in. from t h e t i p of' t h e blade,
t h e t i p clearance being 0.1 in. and the blade chord being 6 in. Further work i s now
being c a r r i e d out t o determine t h e e f f e c t of t i p clearance.
Figure 3 shows a comparison of t h e p r e d i c t e d and experimental development o f t h e
wall boundary l a y e r , a s measured by Gregory-Smith ( 1 2 ) f o r operation a t vZ/l).,, = 0.5.
 2- 9

There i s good agreement between t h e theory and t h e experimental r e s u l t s a t the o u t e r wall,

but a t the inner wall, where t h e s w i r l angle is high, t h e agreement i s only f a i r . I t has
been found t h a t , i n general, t h e theory provides a good estimate f o r t h e development o f
t h e wall boundary l a y e r s when t h e s w i r l angle i s small, but t h e r e i s a progressive
d e t e r i o r a t i o n i n t h e p r e d i c t i o n s a s t h e s w i r l angle i s increased. S t r a t f o r d ' s model has
s i m p l i c i t y and g i v e s a first approximation f o r the development o f t h e wall boundary
l a y e r , but t h e r e i s c l e a r l y a need f o r an improved model, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r flows a t high
s w i r l angles.
Two a l t e r n a t i v e methods f o r estimating the growth o f t h e wall boundary l a y e r a r e
t h e c o r r e l a t i o n of cascade data by Hanley (14) and an extension o f Hoadley's a n a l y s i s
f o r boundary l a y e r s i n s w i r l i n g flows i n a diff'user (15). Hanley h a s c o r r e l a t e d end
wall l o s s d a t a from l i n e a r cascades, r e l a t i n g the changes i n the boundary l a y e r dis-
placement thickness and p r o f i l e parameter with the f r e e stream loading. It might be
p o s s i b l e t o check t h e experimental r e s u l t s o f Gregory-Smith against Hanley's c o r r e l a t i o n .
Hoadley's a n a l y s i s was o r i g i n a l l y developed f o r s w i r l i n g flow i n a diz'l'user, but i t can
be extended t o flows i n turbomachines by using a d i s t r i b u t e d body f o r c e t o represent a
blade row. Horlock (16) h a s found t h a t Hoadley's a n a l y s i s g i v e s good agreement with
Gregory-Smiths experimental r e s u l t s when the s w i r l angle i s small, but a s with S t r a t f o r d ' s
method, t h e agreement worsens r a p i d l y a s t h e s w i r l angle i s increased.
Secondary Flows
One of t h e assumptions i n S t r a t f o r d ' s boundary l a y e r theory i s t h a t t h e flovi angle
does not vary through t h e boundary layer. However, i t i s well known t h a t l a r g e
v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e flow angle can occur c l o s e t o t h e annulus walls. Following the work
of Hawthorne (17), Gregory-Smith (12) h a s computed the secondary flow i n t h e i s o l a t e d
r o t o r row described e a r l i e r and by averaging the induced secondary v e l o c i t i e s across
t h e p i t c h , he has obtained the v a r i a t i o n i n flow angle. These c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e described
i n d e t a i l i n reference (11). For t h e a n a l y s i s , t h e a x i a l v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e o f the wall
boundary l a y e r was assumed t o remain unchanged through t h e blade row and equal t o t h e
observed a x i a l v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e a t e x i t from t h e blade row. Figure 4 shows t h a t a t t h e
o u t e r wall, t h e r e i s good agreement between t h e p r e d i c t e d and measured v a r i a t i o n o f
r e l a t i v e flow angle a t e x i t from t h e r o t o r row, t h e r e being underturning caused by t h e
component of r e l a t i v e streamwise v o r t i c i t y a t i n l e t t o t h e blades. A t t h e inner wall,
where the d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e flow i s l a r g e r , t h e agreement i s only f a i r a t the low flow
c o e f f i c i e n t vZ/om= 0.5. The experimental r e s u l t s a t the inner wall may be influenced
by t h e presence of a s h o r t gap between t h e r o t o r hub and t h e s t a t o r hub, the probe
t r a v e r s e p o s i t i o n being a s h o r t d i s t a n c e downstream of t h i s gap.
Calculation of t h e Complete Flow P a t t e r n
One procedure f o r c a l c u l a t i n g t h e flow through turbomachines, including l o s s e s , t h e
development of t h e w a l l boundary l a y e r s and secondary flow e f f e c t s , might be as follows:-
1. Calculate t h e mainstream flow, neglecting the boundary l a y e r , using e i t h e r of t h e
through-flow methods o f analysis. This computer program would include a loss sub-
r o u t i n e based on t h e work of Lieblein ( 7 ) and Swan ( 8 ) .
2. Using t h e s o l u t i o n f o r the flow on t h e mean stream surface, s t a g e 1, c a l c u l a t e t h e
development of t h e annulus wall boundary layers. S t r a t f o r d ' s theory (10) gives a
simple method f o r c a l c u l a t i n g the development of t h e boundary l a y e r and it i s
p o s s i b l e t h a t b e t t e r methods may become available.
3. Hawthorne's (17) secondary flow theory can be used t o p r e d i c t t h e v a r i a t i o n o f flow
angle c l o s e t o t h e walls. This r e q u i r e s d a t a from t h e boundary l a y e r c a l c u l a t i o n s
of s t a g e 2, o r from experimental v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s .
4. Using t h e information on t h e boundary l a y e r , s t a g e 2 , together with t h e v a r i a t i o n
of flow angle p r e d i c t e d i n s t a g e 3 , the flow p a t t e r n can be re-calculated f o r t h e
e n t i r e annulus.
5. If necessary, t h e cycle o f c a l c u l a t i o n , s t e p s 2 , 3 and 4 can be repeated.
Grenoru-Smith (11) has PeDOrted c a l c u l a t i o n s of' t h e flow i n t h e e n t i r e annulus,
followinij s t e p s 1 t o & . o u t l i n e d above. The matrix through-flow program was used with
a meah c o n s i s t i n g of unevenly spaced p o i n t s on r a d i a l l i n e s , the r a d i a l g r i d spacing
being small i n the boundary l a y e r regions and l a r g e i n t h e mainstream. I n s t e p 1, t h e
matrix through-flow program i s used t o c a l c u l a t e the flow p a t t e r n and t o form t h e d a t a
r e q u i r e d f o r t h e boundary l a y e r program of s t e p 2. The downstream a x i a l v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e
p r e d i c t e d i n e t e p 1 f o r t h e i s o l a t e d . r o t o r row operating off-design, vz/um= 0.5, can be
seen i n f i g u r e 5. The corresponding p r e d i c t i o n of t h e development o f t h e boundary l a y e r
using S t r a t f o r d ' s theory i s a s shown i n f i g u r e 3. I n order t o t e s t the secondary flow
theory, t h e experimental boundary l a y e r p r o f i l e was used i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f the
v a r i a t i o n of flow angle, s t e p 3, t h e r e s u l t s being shown i n f i g u r e 4. The data from
t h e secondary flow c a l c u l a t i o n s and t h e observed boundary l a y e r development was f e d back
i n t o t h e through-flow program, s t e p 4, and t h e flow p a t t e r n was then p r e d i c t e d f o r t h e
e n t i r e annulus. Figure 5 shows t h e p r e d i c t e d and experimental a x i a l v e l o c i t y p r o f i l e s
15.8 inches downstream of t h e i s o l a t e d r o t o r row. It i s c l e a r t h a t t h e i n c l u s i o n of
boundary l a y e r e f f e c t s l e a d s t o b e t t e r agreement between t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and experimental
2- 10

r eau1t a.
For t h e present, i t h a s been necessary t o base the c a l c u l a t i o n s on the observed
development of t h e wa 1 boundary l a y e r s . However, h i s , work by Gregory-Smith shows
t h a t if an accurate method of p r e d i c t i o n can 'be developed f o r the annulus wall boundary
l a y e r s , then i t should be p o s s i b l e t o estimate t h e complete flow p a t t e r n i n a turbomachine
and thereby o b t a i n a more r e l i a b l e p r e d i c t i o n o f performance.
Mach Number Limitations
The streamline curvature and matrix through-flow methods have Mach number l i m i t a t i o n s
and a t present, t h e flow p a t t e r n i n a transonic compressor can only be c a l c u l a t e d by
t r e a t i n g the b l a d e rows a s devices with a s p e c i f i e d behaviour and by not placing cal-
c u l a t i n g planes within t h e blade rows. The major d i f f i c u l t y can b e s t be i l l u s t r a t e d by
considering t h e flow i n an axisymmetric convergent-divergent nozzle, a turbomachine w i t h
no blades and no hub. The streamline curvature and matrix methods can both p r e d i c t t h e
flow p a t t e r n when t h e e n t i r e flow i s subsonic, but n e i t h e r method can d e a l w i t h t h e more
g e n e r a l problem when t h e r e is supersonic flow following the t h r o a t and a shock down t o
subsonic flow. It is u n l i k e l y t h a t t h e present methods of flow c a l c u l a t i o n w i l l b e able
t o d e a l with t h i s problem and it may t h e r e f o r e be necessary t o develop a new numerical
method f o r flows which include regions of subsonic and supersonic flows and shocks. I t
may be p o s s i b l e t o extend t o turbomachinery flows the methods o f c a l c u l a t i o n based on
solving t h e time dependent eqyations of motion t o obtain t h e u l t i m a t e steady s t a t e flow
pattern. References (18) and (19) describe a numerical technique f o r c a l c u l a t i n g the
flow i n one-dimensional and two-dimensional convergent-divergent nozzle8 w i t h regions
o f subsonic flow, supersonic flow and a shock. Figure 6 compares t h e numerical s o l u t i o n
f o r t h e pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n i n a one-dimensional nozzle w i t h t h a t obtained a n a l y t i c a l l y .
There i s seen t o be c l o s e agreement between t h e two s o l u t i o n s ; t h e shock is smeared,
but t h e main f e a t u r e 6 of t h e flow a r e preserved. S t a b l e numerical s o l u t i o n s have a l s o
been obtained by Merryweather (19) f o r the flow i n two-dimensional nozzles. It is
important t o r e a l i s e t h a t t h e s e s o l u t i o n s a r e based only on t h e equations of c o n t i n u i t y ,
motion, energy and s t a t e , together with t h e boundary conditions of t h e upstream stagnation
s t a t e and t h e downstream e x i t pressure. It i s hoped t h a t t h i s numerical technique might
be extended t o flows i n turbomachines and t h u s remove the present Mach number l i m i t a t i o n s .
Conclusions
During recent years, two methods have been developed f o r solving the equations
governing the flow i n turbomachines, namely streamline curvature and matrix through-flow
analysis. I n t h i s paper i t has been shown t h a t t h e s e two approaches t o turbomachinery
flow c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e based on t h e same mathematical model; they a r e merely two dSfferent
techniques f o r obtaining numerical s o l u t i o n s t o t h e same s e t o f equations. With t h e
computer programs based on t h e s e methods o f flow c a l c u l a t i o n , i t i s now p o s s i b l e t o
estimate t h e performance of a turbomachine operating on-design o r off-design. However,
t h e accuracy of t h e s e p r e d i c t i o n s is dependent on the mathematical model. There remains
a need f o r more accurate methods f o r p r e d i c t i n g l o s s e s and for p r e d i c t i n g t h e development
of t h e w a l l boundary layers. More work i s a l s o required on t h e e f f e c t s of turbulence on
t h e performance of a blade row, t h e behaviour of a cascade i n an unsteady flow, such a s
t h a t produced by an upstream blade row, and t h e flow i n transonic blade rows. Research
i s being c a r r i e d out on s e v e r a l o f these problems and a s our understanding of t h e flow
improves, then we may expect t o see f u r t h e r improvements i n t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e
performance of turbomachines. I n t h e p a s t , methods of computation were not adequate t o
d e a l w i t h t h e flow model f o r turbomachines, whereas a t present, t h e means of c a l c u l a t i o n
e x i s t and i t is t h e mathematical model of t h e flow which r e q u i r e s f u r t h e r improvement.
 2- 11

References
1. Wu, C-H A general theory of t h r e e dimensional flow i n subsonic and
supersonic turbomachines of a x i a l , r a d i a l and mixed-flow
types,
N.A.C.A. TN 2604, 1952

2. Smith, L.S. The r a d i a l equilibrium equation of turbomachinery,

Trans. A.S.M.E., S e r i e s A, Vol. 88, 1966.
3- Nova, R.A. Streamline curvature computing procedures f o r f l u i d flow
problems.
A.S.M.E., Paper 66 -
WA/GT-3, 1966.

4. S i l v e s t e r , M.E. Three-dimensional compressible flow through a x i a l flow

and turbomachines ,
Hetherington, R. i n 'Numerical Analysis -
An Introduction' Academic Press 1966.
5. Shaalan, M.R.A. Methods of c a l c u l a t i n g slope and curvature of streamlines i n
and f l u i d flow problems,
Daneshyar, H. Cambridge University Engineering Department Report,
CUED/A - Turbo/TR2, 1969.
6. Marsh, H. A d i g i t a l computer program f o r t h e through-flowf l u i d mechanics
i n an a r b i t r a r y turbomachine using a matrix method.
N.G.T.E. Report R282, 1966, a l s o Aero. Res. Coun. Rep. Memor.
3509, 1968.
7. Lieblein, S. Loss and s t a l l a n a l y s i s o f compressor cascades,
T r a n s . A.S.M.E. S e r i e s D, Vol, 81, 1959.
8. swan, W.C. A p r a c t i c a l method of p r e d i c t i n g transonic compressor
performance,
Trans. A.S.M.E., S e r i e s A, Vol. 83, 1961.
9. Horlock, J.H. Some recent research i n turbomachinery,
Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs. Vol. 182, 1968.
10. S t r a t f o r d , B.S. The use of boundary l a y e r techniqges t o c a l c u l a t e t h e blockage
from the annulus boundary l a y e r s i n a compressor,
A.S.M.E., Paper 67 YJA/GT- -
7, 1967.
11. Gregory-Smith, D.G.
Annulus w a l l boundary l a y e r s i n turbomachines,
Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Cambridge University, 1970.

12. Gregory-Smith, D. G.
An i n v e s t i g a t i o n of annulus wall boundary l a y e r s i n a x i a l
flow turbomachines,
To be published by A.S.M.E. M a y 1970.

13 Oxford, J.T.B. A r o t a t i n g cascade wind tunnel and a r o t a t i n g a e r o f o i l i n

r o t a t i o n a l flow,
Ph.D. dissertation, Cambridge University, 19650
U. Hanley, W. T. A c o r r e l a t i o n of end wall l o s s e s i n plane compressor cascades,
Trans. A.S.M.E., S e r i e s A, Vol. 90, 1968.
15 Hoadley, D. Three dimensional turbulent boundary l a y e r s i n an annular
d i ff'user,
Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Cambridge University, 1969.
16. Horlock, J.H. P r i v a t e communication, 1969.
17 0 Hawthorne, W.R. The aerodynamics of turbomachinery,
and Annual Review o f Fluid Mechanics, Annual Reviews Inc.,
Novak, R.A. Vol. l., 1969.
18. Marsh, H. The c a l c u l a t i o n of subsonic and supersonic flows i n nozzles,
and Cambridge ,University Engineering Department Report,
Merryweather, H. CUED/A - Turbo/TR3, 1969.
19. Merryweather, H. The c a l c u l a t i o n o f subsonic and supersonic f l o w s i n ducts,
Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Cambridge University 1969.
I 2-12 .

Acknowledgement
~ The author would l i k e t o thank M r . D.G. Gregory-Smith f o r permission t o quote the
experimental and t h e o r e t i c a l work o f reference (11).
 2- 13

t’
4- -
FIGURE 1 DISTORTED GRID

0 SCALE FEET 5

FIGURE 2 ROTATING CASCADE WIND TUNNEL

2- 14

OUTER WALL
I-
w
W
LL
+Lo

PO SI T I 0 N
I-
W
W
LL

CD

INNER WALL
0.03
I-
W
w 0-02
LL
+a
0-01

0
t-
0.02 I I
W. S'
I A

W
W 0
LL 0.01 0
B

CD ($

0 I I

0 1.0 2-0 3.0

A X I A L DISTANCE FEET
FIGURE 3 ISOLATED ROTOR
BOUNDARY LAYER GROWTH AT Vz/Um ~ 0 . 5
 2- 15

-55

w
E -60
(3
LbJ
Q
-65
w
J
0
z
4 -70 29 30
27 28
RADIUS INCHES

-10

-20

-30

-40 a

13 14 15
RADIUS INCHES
FIGURE 4 ISOLATED ROTOR
SECONDARY F L O W S AT Vz/Um =0.5
 2- 16

W
-J
N
N
0
U
O I z
P a
ii
w z
LL: L(

P
9 a LJ 0
d d d

I-
O W
LD CUW
' 0 LL
II

-
3
>
E
N
rn
3
U

0
F

*
0 0
c')
0
cv 0
.
L
0

'33Sll.J AlI3013A W I X V
 3

MASS FLOW LIMITATION I N SUPERSONIC COMPRESSORS

by Jean FDBI

Office National d'Etudes e t de Eecherohes ABroapatiales

92 - -
CHATILLON Franoe

I
I
3

SUMMARY

Aoourate p r e d i c t i o n of supersonic oompnssor mass flows i s the main

oondition of progress f o r thoso maohinos. As i n t h e o m e of s u p e ~ c
sonlo aircraft a i r - i n l o t s , d i f f e r e n t types of flow p a t t e r n s may
appear. The ohoked ( or u n s t a r t e d ) regime corresponds t o high sub-
sonio or low supersonio r o t o r speeds. The s o n i c ohoking of tho blado
o h a m o l t h r o a t s l i m i t a t e s t h e mass flow. The supersonic (or s t a r t o d )
regime appoars f o r higher supersonic r o t o r Mach numbers. The perio-
d i o i t y of tho shook and expansion wave p a t t e r n , t h a t extends upstream
of t h e r o t o r i n l e t , imposos t h e mass flow. The oorrosponding uniquo
inoidonoa, f u n o t i o n of r o t o r spoed, oan be calculated. For even higher
suporsonio r o t o r speods, tho shook waves are swallomd by the r o t o r :
t h e i n l o t v e l o c i t y i n absolute reference frames beoomes sonio and
mass flow i s independent of r o t o r speed.
The r a n m of v a l i d i t y of these regimes i s given. Valuos of l i m i t
DAB8 flown a m oaloulatod. Ekperimental n a u l t s a r e compared t o

t h e o n t i o a l evaluations .

Lo problame d e . l a p r e v i s i o n p r e c i s e du d e b i t d 3 s oompnsseurs supor-

soniquos o o n s t i t u e l a p i o r r o d'achoppemont du d6veloppement de 00.9

mrohinos. Commo dans l e s p r i s e s d ' a i r de turbomaohinas d ' a v i a t i o n

on w l supersoniquo, dos r6gimes d i f f 6 r e n t s de fonotionnement peuvont
s p p a r a l t r o . Lo rigime rnixte ou d6samorc6 oorresponL? aux v i t e s s o s da
r o t a t i o n faiblement supersoniques. I1 e s t o a r a c t 6 r i s 6 par un blooag.
sonique on mouvement r e l a t i f de l a s o c t i o n de passage minimale des
oanaux interaubos. Le r e g i m e supersoniquo ou amorc6 prend le dessus
lorsque l a v i t e s s e de r o t a t i o n e s t p l u s BlevBe. I1 oorrespond A un
fonotionnement avec une configuration periodique d'ondea de choo
ou de f a i s o e a u de detente remontant en amont de l a g r i l l e . Llinoi-
denoe, fonotion du nombre de Mach de r o t a t i o n , e s t d e f i n i e p a r l a
p e r i o d i o i t e de 1'8ooulement. Un troisihme regime a p p a r a i t pour l e s
v i t o s s o s de r o t a t i o n Moore p l u s 6lev6ea e t oorrespond au blooago
sonique du oanal d'amen6e.

Los conditions d ' e x i s t e n c e e t l e s d e b i t s l i m i t e oorrespondant I?

chaoun do oes r6gimes sont analys6a. Une oomparaison avec des
r6sultat.s exp6rimentau e s t effoctu6e.
 3- 1

1. - INTRODUCTION
--
Aoourate prediction of the mass flow of supersonic compressors i s one of the
main problems i n supersonic oompressor design. The r o l e of oompressibility i n a x i a l
oompressor mass flow l i m i t a t i o n i s visualised on Figure 1 . When , at a given speed of
A t a t i o n , the downstream t h r o t t l e i s progressively closed, t h e f l o w through the com -
pressor decreases and the pressure inoreases u n t i l the surge l i n e i s a t t a i n e d (curve -a-).

As the speed of r o t a t i o n increases, compressibility e f f e c t s appear. The slope of the

pressure vs mass flow ourve inoreases, i.e. the range of mass flow becomes narrower

( oume -b- ). For transonio operation the pressure r i s e ourve may even be reduoed
t o a v e r t i c a l , constant mass flow, line. There would then be j u s t a small v a r i a t i o n
of mass flow near the surge l i n e ( ourve -0- ).

Many of the aerodynamical problems encountered i n the e a r l y supersonio

oompressor research [ l ] a r e due t o t h i s oonstant mass flow operation,at a mass flow

a few peroent lowsr than the expected design mass flow, The oorresponding off-design
losses, due t o wrong angles of attack, reduoed the oompressor efficienoy. It seema

therefore very Important t o estimate oorreotly t h i s unavoidably oonstant mas8 flow

that depends only on r o t a t i o n a l speed of the rotor. When flow angles willbe known

correotly, i t w i l l be possible t o s e t the oompressor blades a t a low l o s s angle

of sttack.

2.- BLADE SHAPES FOR SUPERSONIC COMPRESSORS

Most of the e a r l y designs of supersonio bladings f o r compressors [2] [3] [4]

were based on low drag shook wave patterns derived from the BUSE&U" biplane [5] in
which both oompression and expansion waves are oonfined between two symmetrioal
a i r f o i l s ( ~ g . 2).

bn example of a low drag oasoade designed f o r a supersonio oompreasor [2] is

&ven on f i g u r e 3 . I n t e r n a l oompression is aohieved by means of oompression waves
issued f r o m the upper supface of a blade and foouslng on the angular point of the
next blade. Unftirtunately, experimental r e s u l t s did not oonfirm the t h e o r e t i o a l
prediotions. This oan be e a s i l y understood, sinoe an improved theory of supersonio

oompressor oasoades[J] shows t h a t the lnoident velooity is always p a r a l l e l t o the

blade upper surfaoe and not the lowsr'surfaoe.

A shook wave p a t t e r n suoh as the one of f i g u r e 4 may be m o m satisfaotory.
I n l e t flow is p s r a l l e l t o the blade upper surfaoe and the leading edge shook wave
6 2

is oonfined i n the blade [Link] design operation, the t r a i l i n g edge shook wave def-
l e o t s t h e flow t o a d i r e o t i o n p a r a l l e l t o the downstreaun p a r t of the blade lower eurfaoe.

This shook p a t t e r n is s t r i o t l y reduoed t o two shook waves.

Though these flow oonfigurations seemed very a t t r a o t i v e , expsrimental r e s u l t s

on oompressors mm disappointing. One i s then very n a t u r a l l y l e d t o aesume that t h e r e

oould be a d i f f e r e n t type of flow that t a k e s plaoe i n a c t u a l oompressors, a t l e a e t a t I

moderate supersonio r o t a t i o n a l speeds.

, Casoade wind tunnel expsrimentation shows t h a t t h e r e e x i s t s a o t u b l l y two

d i f f e r e n t f l o w regimes [a]. The s t a r t e d and t h e ohoked o p e r a t i o p of a supersonio

oasoade made of t r a p e z o i d a l blades is shown on f i g u r e 5 . The s t r o n g normal shook
waves shown in t h e ohoked oase gives t h e i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e r e may e x i s t a sonio sectdon
i n s i d e t h e blade ohannel.

Analysis of mass flow l i m i t a t i o n i n supersonic oompressors i n t e n d s t o date-

mine w h a t a r e t h e oonditions f o r ohoked and s t a r t e d operbtions.

3. - STARTED BUDE PASSAGES OR SUPERSONIC REGIME

S t a r t e d blade passages, i.e. supersonio throughflow of the blade ohannele

impose a "unique inoidenoe" [3] [TI. Analysis of t h e supersonio operation of oaaoades

mbde of more and more e l a b o r a t e p r o f i l s w i l l define t h e laws of suoh a regime.

$

3.1. - Wind tunnel t e s t i n g of oompressor blade cascades i n the supersonio reuime

Consider first t h e eupersonio wind tunnel t e s t i n g of a cascade of blades

with zero thiokness and zero oamber ( Fig. 6) . I n t h i s semi- i n f i n i t e obsoade

the most upatream blade induoes a shook wave that gives f o r a l l t h e o t h e r blades f i e x o e p
t e d t h e one near the wind tunnel upper w a l l submitted t o shook wave w a l l r e f l e x i o n )

a flow p a r a l l e l t o the blades. If the casosde is s e t i n suoh a way a s t o induoe a n

expansion f a n , the blades a r e again submitted t o a flow p a r a l l e l t o them ( Fig.7).

Changing the blade s e t t i n g or the i n l e t flow inoidenoe angle r e s u l t s only i n a change

of Maoh number i n f r o n t of t h e cascade. Behind a shock wave Mach number is decreased,

behind an expansion f a n i t is i n c r k s e d .

It has t o be noted t h a t the shock wave or the expansion f a n extends upstream

of the cascade i n l e t l i n e only i f the oomponent of t h e Mach number normal t o the oas-

osde i n l e t is subsonio. I n t h e o t h e r oase, i.e. when the undisturbed wind tunnel

v e l o o i t y has a supersonio component normal t o the oasoade i n l e t , the shook waves or

expansion f a n s e n t e r the blade ohannels ( Fig.8 ). I n t h a t oase t h e casoade does not

i n t e r f e r e with the upstream flow.

 3-3

3.2.- Supereonlo regimes of oompressor r o t o r s

One muet be very oareful i n extending r e s u l t s obtained i n supersonlo r i n d

tunnel t e s t i n g t o a o t u s l supersonio oompressors. The differenoe between oasoade and
rotor operation is mainly the following :
a ) I n wind tunnel t e s t i n g the undisturbed upstream velooity is fixed
t by wind tunnel geometry; the oasosde oontrols the aotual i n l e t velooity and "unipue
inoidenoe" is the r u l e ae long as the blade passages are s t a r t e d (supersonlo regime).
I n r o t o r tests the mass flow is induoed by the motion of the r o t a t i n g blades and
a d j u s t s i t s e l f i n order t o s a t i s f y a l l boundary oonditions.

I
b) I n wind tunnel t e s t i n g semi-infinite oasoades only a r e representp$ [,I,
whereas i n r o t o r s the blade oasoade has n e i t h e r a beginning nor an end.

The unique lnoidenoe oase found f o r wind tunnel t e s t i n g remains v a l i d f o r

the determination of the ma08 flow i n s t a r t e d blade ohannel oonditions.

3.2.1. - Consider first the i d e a l oase of a r o t o r of h e i g t h d a small oompared t o

i t s mdius 2 . The r o t o r has b blades of zero thiokness and zero oamber. "hey are
set to M angle
P with the a x i a l direotion. Supersonlo motion r e l a t i v e t o axe6 movihg

with the r o t o r is assumed.

I n order to aohieve flow periodioity, i.e. suoh that the flow in eaoh blade
ohannel be l d a n t l o a ~the same, the mas8 flow a t t a l n s 8 value for d o h the r e l a t i v e
velooity 1 0 p a r a l l e l t o the blade6 ( Fig.9 ).
This mass flow is then given by

with , f o r the axial velooity,

being t h e angular speed of the rotor.

3.2.2. - The next oase t o be oonsidered is that of a r o t o r that has blades with
a s t r a l g h t upper surfaoe. Again flow periodioity requires suoh an &a1 w l o o i t y that
r e l a t i v e velooity be p a r a l l e l t o these s t r a i g h t blade upper surfaoes. I n this -se,
shook waves can be generated, but near the blade leading edge, f r o m the lower surfaoe
only. These shook waves are always oonfined i n the blade ohannels. ( Fig. 10) .
The mass flow is s t i l l given by equation ( l ) , w h e r e p represents the angle of the
s t r a i g h t blade upper surfaoe with the a x i a l direotion.
3.2.3. - Consider then the oase of blades the upper surfaoe of which is made of
s t r a i g h t l i n e s , the ohange of slope being olose t o the leading edge. The shook pa+
t e r n is made up of a leading edge shook wave that extends upstream of the oasoade
and an expansion fan, induoed by the ohange of alope, t h a t extends aleo upstream and
canoels the deflection given by the shook wave (Fig. 11) .
3- 4

Though t h i s i s t h e simplest case .of a shock p a t t e r n . t h a t extends upstream

of t h e cascade, no,uniform upstream flow can be defined and t h e mean mass f l o w hae

t o be deduced f r o m equation .-

(3)
Jo
where t h e x axis i s p a r a l l e l t o the cascade i n l e t f r o n t , p $ ) a n d 1/ ( )
- c x 2 are the
d e n s i t y and axial v e l o c i t y , f and vx t h e i r mean value, i s the spacing o f t h e

blades ( t-Z r a / h ) .
Since behind t h e l a s t wave of t h e expansion f a n t h e flow beoomes uniform

again and p a r a l l e l t o t h e blade upper surface, the mass flow i s t h e most e a s i e r derived

from equation

where fi and
-
a r e t h e d e n s i t y and v e l o c i t y downsham af t h i s last wave, f4 the

corresponding angle and p/A, t h e d i s t a n c e from the l e a d i n g edge t o t h e upper SUP

f a c e of t h e next blade.

3.2.4. - The most complicated case considered here corresponds t o b l a d e s w i t h

sharp l e a d i n g edge and curved upper s u r f a c e (*) . The l e a d i n g edge of each blade i s

s i t u a t e d then i n s i d e of t h e expansion f a n i s s u e d from the a d j a c e n t blade ( Fig. 12 ).

Flow p e r i o d i c i t y r e q u i r e s such a shock wave and expansion f a n combination

t h a t t h e f l o w becomes a t t h e o u t l e t of t h e shock p a t t e r n as i t was a t t h e i n l e t .

Calculation of such a p e r i o d i c a l shock and expansion p a t t e r n i s not too complicated

i f entropy l o s s e s can be neglected, i.e. whenever the l e a d i n g edge shook wave i s not

too strong. I n t h i s case, t h e s t r e a m l i n e s terminating a t t h e l e a d i n g edges c r o s s

only weak waves.

The mass flow Corresponding t o such a flow p a t t e r n i s obtained i n t h e f c l -

lowing way ( FSg.12 ) : A'B i s t h e Mach l i n e i s s u e d from blade AC t h a t a t t a i n 8

blade A?X1 a t i t s l e a d i n g edge A'. Therefore t h e angle of AB w i t h t h e tangent t c

t h e upper s u r f a c e of blade AC a t p o i n t B i s t h e Maoh angle , i.e. I

(5) -i
fd/nR= /-
If entropy changes along t h e Mach l i n e A'B can be neglected, t h i s l i n e i s a s t r a i g h t

l i n e t h e equation of which i s

where (X;j) are t h e coordinates of point B, the a x i s AX being taken along t h e ohord

(*) The case o f b l u n t l e a d i n g edges or t h a t of l e a d i n g edges with f i n i t e curvature

w i l l n o t be discussed here.
 3- 5

AC of t h e blade and axis AY normal t o it; a n g l e y o i s t h e angle of blade ohord AC

with t h e axial d i r e c t i o n .

Choice of any p o i n t B(X,y) as i n i t i a l point of the Maoh l i n e A'B definee

by means of equations(5) and (6) the l o o a l Maoh number MB .The oorreeponding flow
angle/38 i s defined by

I (7)
I
For this flow p a t t e r n , where conditions a r e uniform along the Maoh l i n e
terminating a t the blade l e a d i n g edgs, the mass flow i s given by

(8)

The m8S8 flow conservation and the energy conservction equations give
V I I

(9)
where a, is the speed of sound i n t h e sta%nation conditions o f the incoming
flow (tepperature -fo). The corresponding r o t o r speed , U , i s given by the
t a n g e n t i a l momentum conservation equation

similar t o t h e mass conservation equation (3) and where d e n s i t y , relative

velocity w and flow angle/3 along the r o t o r i n l e t a r e r e l a t e d by means of the
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s theory of supersonic flows, t o the corresponding values on t h e

blade upper surface. Flow p a t t e r n determination i s s l i g h t l y more complicated

wh6n due t o shock WLVb s t r e n g t h entropy ohanges have t o be considered. This gives
)I

however, second o r d e r c o r r e c t i o n s only.

29.3. - Flow p a t t e r n with expansion waves

It w a s sometimes suggested t o use compressor blades t h a t have conoave i n s t e a d

o f convex upper s u r f a c e s near the leading edges ( Fig. 13 ). The wave p a t t e r n begins
then with an expansion f a n followed e i t h e r by continuous compression waves or d i s c r e t e

shook waves. A s long as entropy change can be neglected, determination of the mean

mass flow i s made as i n the case of blades of f i g u r e 12 .

3.4. - Saturated supersonic rea;ime

Mass flows c a l c u l a t e d i n the above oases cannot exceed the c r i t i c a l mass flow

corresponding t o sonic axial v e l o c i t y a t cascade i n l e t . When r o t o r v e l o c i t y t a k e s high

supersonic values, the compressor i n l e t i s choked and mass flow given by equation ( 1 1 )
3-6

comespond[s t o the condition

M, = 3
The shock and Mach waves a r e confined i n the blade channels and do not extend

i n f r o n t of t h e rotor. I n t h i s s a t u r a t e d supersonic regime, the mass flow i s independent

of t h e r o t o r epeed.

4. - CHOKED OR UNSTARTED OPERATION OF SUPERSONIC COMPRESSORS

The above c a l c u l a t i o n s give the design mass flow expected f r o m supersonio

compressors. Testing of these machines showed t h a t the mass flow w a s a c t u a l l y smaller

than t h e one predicted. T h i s mass flow l i m i t a t i o n may be due t o e a r l y choking of the I

blade passages a t low supersonic v e l o c i t i e s . The same phenomenon i s responsible of

mass flow l i m i t a t i o n i n t r a n s o n i c compressors. High subsonic and low supersonic velo- I

c i t i e s w i l l be oonsidered.

Consider again a c y l i n d r i c a l s e c t i o n of a cornpressor blading ( Fig. 14 ).

vx i s t h e axial v e l o c i t y and u.2 the r o t a t i o n a l v e l o o i t y of the r o t o r .

Angle of a t t a c k of t h e flow, r e l a t i v e t o eaes moving with t h e r o t o r ,

by equation
f, i s defined

If t h e upstream stagnation oonditions i n absolute frames of r e f e r e n c e s are

x, , the compressor i n l e t conditions a r e given by the following r e l a t i o n e

a b s o l u t e Msch number
92-

r e l a t i v e Mach number

(l4) temperature

pressul’e

w h e m h f i e the v e l o c i t y i n t h e mod

4.1.- Mass flow l i m i t a t i o n duo t o choking of blade passaaes

4.1.1.- I s e n t r o p i c choking. - If t h e r e l a t i v e Mach number i s i n the high subsonio rang.,

the blsdo t h r o a t s e c t i o n , s , oan be ohoked a f t e r an i s e n t r o p i c expansion of tho flow.

,
d ~ f i n o stho m l a t i o n botwoen $he flow anglo and r e l a t i v e i n l o t Mach numbor. Axial Mach

C
 These l a s t two equations w i l l held a11 along tho f u r t h e r oaloulatione.

4.1.2. - Choking with shook wave normal t o i n l o t r e l a t i v e v o l o o i t g - As r e l a t i v e veh-

o i t y becomes supersonio,shook waves may appear and move with t h e blades. I n t h e low

supersonio range only normal shook waves appear. It is not fundamentally important t o

descrikie e x a c t l y the shook p a t t e r n , t h a t q u i t e p r o b a b l y i a similar t o the choked con-

f i g u r a t i o n shown on f i g u r e 5, i n o r d e r t o determine the o r i t i c a l mass flow,

As a f i r e t approximation, tho shook waves can bn considered normal t o the

i n l e t r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y ( Eyg.15 ). The Mach number downstream of the shock wave i s

F m m the choking oondition,similar t o equation (15) that r e l a t o s Mach number MLto

/

the flow c o n t r a c t i o n the following r e l a t i o n is obtained

4' '
(19) give the same r e s u l t when i n l e t r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y i s sonio (M,= d ).

4.1.3. - Shock normal t o the mean passage d i r e c t i o n - It is q u i t e hard t o say whether

t h e flow a t t h e entrance of the blade ohannel i s d e f l e c t e d before or a f t e r going

through t h e shook wave. Therefore an o t h e r t h e o r e t i c a l f l o w p a t t e r n is analyzed, where

the shook wave is normal t o t h e mean passage d i r e c t i o n ( F'ig. 16 ). An i s e n t r o p i o
e x p a n s i o n , r e l a t e s i n l e t conditions ( IVw,f )to the oonditions i n f r o n t of the shock

(M,,,,)where angle /3. gives the mean channel d i r e c t i o n . Mass flow conservation during

and again between the downstream f a c e of t h e shock wave and the blade channel t h r o a t
3- 8

4.1.4. - Shook d e f l e o t i o n - A thorohghly d i f f e r e n t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n [8] is obtained

when momentum losses due t o body foroes a r e also taken i n t o aocount [g]. The method

g e n e r a l i z e s t o compressible flows tho equations of hydraulic losses, more o r less

e m p i r i c a l l y used for t h e off-design s t u d i e s of oompressors [IO] [ 111.

I n t h i s t h e o r e t i o a l n p r e s e n t a t i o n the flow d e f l e o t i o n t a k e s plaoe with

momentum oonservation i n t h e eero l i f t d i r e c t i o n of tho blade r o w . If momentum

equation is projooted on t h i s d i r e o t i o n , for a o o n t r o l surfaoe that t a k e s an i n t e g e r
i
number of blade paesagrs, one o b t a i n s ( s u b s o r i p t 1 for t h e z e r o l i f t d i r e o t i o n )

Maas flow oonaervation g i v e s

and energy oonservation -

Sinor p n s e u r e ? i s r e l a t e d t o trmperature7 and d o n s i t y by means of

the gas s t a t e equation

t h e r e follows

Mw
(26)
where t h e Maoh number flw4 of t h e flow having gone through t h e shook-defleotion is

given by t h e oontraotion r a t i o equation <

a) i n the d i r e c t i o n normal t o the zoro l i f t d i r e c t i o n the ohange of momentum

g i v e s t h e body f o r c e s a c t i n g on the f l u i d ;

b) i n t h e no-defleotion oaso ( =yA

), shook-defleotion i s eqUiVQhnt t o

i s e n t r o p i o flow when fl is subsonio’and t o a normal shook wave whenM is supersonio.

% ’41
4.2.- Choioe of t h e model d e s c r i b i n g a o t u a l ohoked f l o w

I n o r d e r t o oompare the above desoribed f o u r t h e o r e t i o a l models, a p p l i o r t l o n

of? t h e theory w i l l be made t o a r o t o r made of trianguaar blades ( Table I ). The i n l e t

r e l a t i v e flow anglesJ3 and axial Maoh numbers Mx oaloulated as functions o f the

r o t o r Msoh number a r e presented i n f i g u r e 17 .

The i s e n t r o p i o evolution (4.1.1 .) i s v a l i d i n the subsonio r e l a t i v e Maoh

numbor range only ( M‘, 1 ). The corresponding ourves a r e continued by thoso

 3- 9

o b t a i n e d w i t h t h o shook normal t o i n l e t v o l o o i t y model (4.1.2.) . Angles h i g h o r t h a n

t h e b l a d e upper s u r f a o e a n g l o o n l y are o o n s i d e r e d ,
P , since f o r ~3=/3"
t h e s u p o r s o n i o regimo t a k e s o v e r ( so0 5 5 , below ).

TABLE I

C h r r a o t o r i s t i o s o f a s u p e r s o n i o comprossor oasoado
(theory)

Brdius r E 227 mm

Number of blrdos n = 44

Blado s p a c i n g t 3294 mm
Blado ohord 0 = 60m

Blado c h a n n e l
throat s o o t i o n s = 14.1 mm

Blade l o a d i n g
edgo a n g l o d = 4O

Blado s o t t i n g a n g l o Po- 60 0

Working gas Air

The o h o i c e betweon t h o s o d i f f e r e n t models i s q u i t e d i f f i c u l t . The exporimon-

t a l r e s u l t s a r e n o t a c c u r a t e enough t o h e l p e f f i o i o n t l y i n t h i s ohoice. However i t oan

be s a i d that a t low Mach numbers experiment shows [ l l ] t h a t shock d e f l e c t i o n typo

l o s s o s a r e i n good agroement w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s . Theroforo t h i s model seoms t o

bo t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e .

4.3. - Prossure l o a s e s due t o ohokinR o f t h o b l r d o p a s s a ~ o s

Duo t o e a r l y choking o f t h e b l a d e p a s s a g e s p r o s s u r o 10ssOS a p p o a r as a r o s u l t

o f t h o o f f - design a t t a c k o f t h e blades.

4.3.1. - For i s e n t r o p i c t u r n i n g o f t h e f l o w (4.1.1.) t h o r o aro o f oourso no l o s s e s .

T h i s i s a r o a s o n why t h i s model d o e s n o t seem r e a l i a t i c .

4.3.2. - For a shock normal t o i n l e t v e l o o i t y t h e p r o s s u r e l o e s e s are t h e o o n v o n t i o n a l

I
ahoak wave t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s e s

(28)

and do n o t t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e o f f - d e s i g n a t t a c k of t h e blados.

4.3.3. - For a shock normal t o d e f l e c t o d v e l o o i t y (4.1.3.) the turning i s isentropio

and t h e l o s s e s independent o f t h e speed o f r o t a t i o n , s i n o e Maoh number i n f r o n t o f

t h e shook wave depends o n s e c t i o n c o n t r a c t i o n r a t i o only.

3-10 '

4.3.4. - I n the i s given [8] by

(29)

and the pressure l o s s e s by

4.3.5. - The t o t a l pressure l o s s e s oorresponding t o t h e f o u r modela a r e represented

on figure 18. From t h e l o s s viewpoint a l s o , t h e shock-defleotion model seems t h e

more adequate.

Sinoe t h e r e i s an overlapping of t h e range of v a l i d i t y of the t h r e e regimes, 1

choked, supersonio and s a t u r a t e d regimes, a f u r t h e r condition has t o be f i x e d i n .

\
~
ordery-to d i s o r i m i n a t r among these regimes.
\\, I t can be said, and experiment seems t o v e r i f y t h i s assumption, t h a t among
\ '

t h e ' t h r e e regimes the one w i l l a c t u a l l y take place t h a t g i v e s t h e s m a l l e s t mass flow

\<
, for the same speed of r o t a t i o n .
\
\
A s an example of suoh a rule, f i g u r e 19 shows t h e v a r i a t i o n of a x i a l Maoh

number 8x as a f u n c t i o d of r o t o r Mach number f o r the oompressor defined by Table I.

For high subsonic or low supersonio operation t h e ohoked model c o n t r o l s

t h e mass flow . T r a n s i t i o n from t h i s regime t o t h e supersonio i s obtained when

r e l a t i v e i n l e t angle i s t h e same f o r both regimes. This corresponds for the r o t o r

\

oonsidered t o the somewhat high Maoh number 1.38 . Then t h e supersonic reglme i s

maintained u n t i l the i n l e t i s choked. Sonic axial v e l o o i t y i s obtained f o r flu=1.73.

6.- ABAW 818 OF BF3SerMET?!l?aL W38UL88 8% U 8 0 F I A W L'IMITATION I N COMPBESSORS

&os4 of t h e experdrnental r e s u l t s published on supersonic compressors show

evidenoe of unstarted opmration . Th8rO e x i s t s however some r e s u l t s published by

UJ
dd [12] [13] [14] for whioh t r a n s i t i o n from the ohoked t o t h e supersonio regime
c

OM .b shown.

The compressor i s a s i n g l e stage, oonstant seotion, a x i a l flow compressor.

Freon - 12 w a s used as working gas. The main i n t e r e s t of t h i s work comes f r o m the

shadowgraphs of the flow i n t h e rotor.

Table I1 gives t h e main d a t a of t h i s oompressor, the mean s e o t i o n o f

whioh i s analyzed. The blading of this s e o t i o n i s represented on f i g u r e 20

and f i g u r e 21 compares t h e axial Maoh number vs r o t o r Maoh number diagram obtained

experimantally t o the t h e o n t i c a l o a l o u l a t i o n s based on Table 11.

The s a t i s f a c t o r y oorrep3ondance between theory and experiment i s oonfirmed

by the shadographs shown on t h e same figure.f 141 .The normal shook t h a t appeamat
blade entrance f o r r o t o r speeds lower than 9000 r.p.m. disappears a t higher speeds.
 3-11

TABLE I1

NACA aupernonio oompnsaor f o r flow visualizatbon I: 123

Tip diameter 405 nm
Hub-tip r a t i o 0.75
Number of blades 46
Chord of blade rt/mesn m o t i o n 58 mm
Throat t o spacing X&biO 0.475
Angle of t a n g e n t ' t o blade upper
surfaoe a t leading edg. 60 O

working gss b o a - 12
Isentropio oonsturt 1.125

7. - CONCLUSION
Analysis of t h e o r e t i o a l and experimental mass flow performanoes of s u p e r

sonio compressors shows t h a t a t a given spmed of r o t a t i o n the oompnasor operates

with constant mas8 flow owr the most p a r t of the pressure vs mass flow o h m o t e -

r i s t i o . The u i r l w l l c i t y of the inooming flow depends on the speed of r o t a t i o n

only :

- f o r high subsonio or low aupersonio spoeds, a ohoked regime appears a d

maas flow i s limited by the ohoking of blade ohannels ; l o s s e s oorrespon-
ding t o the off-design angle of a t t a c k have t o be taken i n t o aooount if

oorrect values of the mass flow have t o be orloulated;

- rt higher supersonio speeds the blade channels a r e s t a r t e d ; flow periodi-

c i t y oontrols the mass flow; a x i a l Maoh number is usually proportional t o

r o t o r Mroh number;

- r t very high r o t o r speeds, the i n l e t ohmnel is ohoked; the oompressor

mass flow i s independent of the r o t o r speed.

Further experimrntal i n w a t i g r t i o n s a r e neoessary t o oonfirm the validity

of the resumptions made.

-=---
3- 12

REFERENCES
Q.K. SEROW
Recent progress in aerodynamic design of axial flow compressors in the United States.
Trans ASME Journal of Engineering for Power, July 1966
[Link] I
herschallaxialverdichter .
Lilienthal Gesellschaft Bericht 171, 1943
J.R. ERWIN & A. FERRI
The Supersonic Compressor.
- -
In W.R. HAWTHORNE Aerodynamics of Turbines and Compressors High Speed Asrodyna-
mics and Jet Propulsion, vol X, Prinoeton University presp,1964
[ 41 J. CALMON
Le fonctionnement des grilles de compression dans le domaine transsonique.
L'ABronautique et l'Astronautique, vol. 17, no 1, 1970
[51 A. BUSEMA" I
Atti del V Convegno Volta
-
Accad. Nag1 Lincei Roma, 1935
[ 61 J. FABRI, J. PAULON. 0. JANSSENS
Use of supersonic cascades made of blades of simple geometrio shapes for cascade wind tun-
nel performance evaluation.
-
ASME Bruxelles meeting 1970
71 J. CHAUVIN, F. BWGELMANS & A. JANIGRO
Supersonic Compressors. ,
Von Kbrmbn Institute for Fluid Mechanics, CR 7, 1967
J. FABRI, R. SIESTRUNCK
La limitation du debit dans les compresseurs supersoniques
Entropie no 1 1 , Sept-Oct. 1966
[91 M.H. VAVRA
Aerothermodynamics and flow in turbomaohines.
John Wiley & sons, New-York, 1960
B. ECKERT
Axial und Radialkomspressoren.
Springer Verlag, Berlin 1953
Y. LE BOT, J. PAULON, P. BELAYCUE ,
Theoretical and experimental determination of pressure losses in a single stage axial flow
compressor.
A W Bruxelles meeting 1970
Th.J. COLDBERG, E. BOXER & P.T. BERNOT
Experimental investigation of an axial flow Supersonic Compressor having rounded leading
-
edge blades wich an 8-percent mean thiokness chord ratio.
NACA RM L 53 G 16,1953
[Link]
Experimental investigation of an axial flow supersonic compressor having sherp leading
edge blades with an 8-percent thickness - chord ratio.
NACA RM L 54 K 16, 1955
Th.J. COLDBERG & [Link]
Use of shadow-graph technique in the analysis of the performance of two supersonic axial
flow compressor rotors operating over a mean radius relative inlet Mach number range
of 0.85 to t . 7
NACA Rbl L 56 A 0 5 , 1958
 3- 13

SYMBOLS
CO v e l o c i t y of sound, upstream s t a g n a t i o n oonditions
A blade l e a d i n g edge
B o r i g i n of the Mach l i n e a t t a i n i n g t h e leading edge of adjacent blade
blade chord
C blade t r a i l i n g edga
C3 constant pressure s p e c i f i c h e a t
dm mass flow between o y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e s of r a d i u s r and r + dr
&I c r i t i c a l mass flow between o y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e s of r a d i u s r and r + d r
dr height of compressor between c y l i n d r i c a l s u r f a c e s of r a d i u s r and ra-+ dr
Ya Mach number at p i n t B
MM Mach number corresponding t o v e l o c i t y i n r o t o r coordinates
M; Mach number corresponding t o M w a f t e r a normal shock wave
,Mx axial Mach number a t r o t o r i n l e t
MA mean Mach number of t h e incoming absolute flow
n number of r o t o r blades
p pressure a t r o t o r i n l e t
pa pressure i n s e c t i o n ( 1 ) of t h e blade ohannrl
P, s t a g n a t i o n pressure of t h e incoming flow
Pw s t a g n a t i o n pressure of flow i n r o t o r coordinates
s t h r o a t s e c t i o n of blade ohannel
t blade spacing
T gas temperature a t r o t o r i n l e t
To s t a g n a t i o n temperature of incoming flow
T, gas temperature i n s e c t i o n ( 1 ) of t h e blade channel
U rotor velocity
-V, a x i a l velocity at rotor i n l e t
Vx mean axial v e l o c i t y a t r o t o r i n l e t
W v e l o c i t y i n r o t o r coordinates
We v e l o c i t y a t point B , r o t o r coordinates
W4 v e l o c i t y i n s e c t i o n ( 1 ) of the blade channel , r o t o r coordinates
x a b s c i s s a measured along axial d i r e c t i o n
X a b a c i s s a measured along blade chord AC
y o r d i n a t e measured along r o t o r i n l e t
Y o r d i n a t e measured along a x i s Ay normal t o ohord AC

d blade l e a d i n g edge angle

angle of v e l o c i t y W ( r o t o r coordinates) with axial d i r e c t i o n
PO angle o f blade reference d i r e c t i o n with u r i a l d i r e c t i o n
angle of tangent t o blade upper surface a t point B with a x i a l d i r e c t i o n
/38 angle of v e l o c i t y a t s e c t i o n ( 1 ) with a x i a l d i r e c t i o n
p4 i s e n t r o p i c constant
angle of tang8nt t o bkade upper surface with the chord blade
Arw s t a g n a t i o n pressure loss ( r o t o r coordinates)
d e n s i t y a t rotor i n l e t
f
mean d e n s i t y a t r o t o r i n l e t
p~ d e n s i t y a t p o i n t B
p. dr oe tnos ri t angular
w
y of incoming flow i n s t a g n a t i o n conditions
speed
fi M80h 8ngle
3- 14

0
.-
L Over speed
0
L
Q1
L
3
r/l
m
Q,
t
L
speed

\(a) Reduced speed

Mass Flow
Fig.l Characteristics of a conventional axial compressor

Compression Expansion
waves' waves
7

Fig. 2 Busemann biplane (Ref. 5)

3
0
3
3

$
P
R
U
3

.e.
U

c
U
3
B
3-16

Supersonic r e g i m e

t , .:

Choked regime
Fig.5 Wind tunnel testing of suDersonic compressor cascade
 3-17

Shock wave Wall reflected

due to the First blade shock wave

-- //%U//-

Su person i c/

F k / - -7s\Inlet shock wave

deflected velocity

Fig.6 Wind tunnel t e s t i n g o f a cascade of s t r a i g h t blades

Expansion Fan due Wall reflected

to the First blade expansion waves
\

Supersonic
Flow deflected velocity

7777777777727777727777
Fig.7 Wind tunnel t e s t i n g of a cascade of s t r a i g h t blades with flow expansion

Swallowed
shock wave
/ / / U / / / / / / / / // / / / / / / / / / // ////A

Supersonic
A.

/ / / / / / ’ / / I/ ’ -

/Expansion Fan

Fig.8 Wind tunnel t e s t i n g of a cascade of s t r a i g h t blades at high Mach number

3- 18

4
d

M
.r(
E

.-U
Y
 3- 19

n
I- Y .d

2
M
.d
E

0)
P
3- 22

X Shock on
ef lecled velocity
=L t
4 .
//
Shock on inlet
,f
a,
n velocity
0 6
1,

.4

02
Q
0
I _T--l 1
Rotor Mach number Mu
2

Fig. 17(b) Comparison of a x i a l Mach numbers corresponding t o t h e vsrious flow Patterns

 3-23

Shock on deflected velocity

C
.-PI
U
ic
LL
al
0
U
ul
ul
0
d

'I
UL
ul
ul
0,

a
L C

Fig. 18 Comparison of pressure losses corresponding t o the various flow patterns

1 1.5
Rotor Mach number M u

Fig. 19 Ma88 flow limitation in a supersonic ComPressor

3-24

3
t
L
Q,
n
E3
- C
5
U

2
I
0
U *
0 N

nf 6
c
3
 4

T R A N S O N I C C O M P R E S S O R C A S C A D E S

H. GRIEPENTROG t

G u t e h o f f n u n g s h c t t e S t e r k r a d e A.G.

t f o r m e r l y P r o j e c t E n g i n e e r , von Karman I n s t i t u t e ,
Rhode S a i n t Genese, Belgium
4

SUMMARY

B l a d i n g s w i t h i n l e t and o u t l e t s u b s o n i c flows, b u t p r e s e n t i n g a l o c a l s u p e r s o n i c r e g i o n
a r e u s e d i n a l l of t h e advanced a x i a l c o m p r e s s o r s t o d a y . P r e d i c t i o n of t q e i r performance
and performance o p t i m i s a t i o n a r e t h e r e f o r e a must.

The g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s of t h e c o m p r e s s i b l e flow e f f e c t s i n c a s c a d e a r e d i s c u s e e d , t o g e t h e r
w i t h t h e i n f l u e n c e of c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y on t h e performance of compressor c a s c a d e . The
n o t i o n s of c r i t i c a l and choking Mach number a r e i n t r o d u c e d , t o g e t h e r w i t h a p h y a i c a l
d e s c r i P t i o n of t h e flow i n t h e b l a d e p a s s a g e , where f o u r d i s t i n c t r e g i o n s c a n b e d i g t i n -
g u i s h e d ( s u b s o n i c i n l e t and o u t l e t flow f i e l d , s u p e r s o n i c flow f i e l d , s o n i c l i n e r e g i o n
a n d shock-boundary l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n r e g i o n ) .
The e v a l u a t i o n of t h e c r i t i c a l and c h o k i n g Mach number i s t h e n t r e a t e d , as w e l l as t h e
e f f e c t s of c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y on l o s s e s , t u r n i n g and s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e . Some remarks
a r e made on t h e d e s i g n of t r a n s o n i c c a s c a d e s .
The four r e g i o n s o f flow d e t a i l e d above a r e t h e n d e a l t w i t h i n d e p e n d e n t l y . A r e v i e w i r
made of t h e e x i s t i n g t h e o r i e s and e x p e r i m e n t a l c o r r e l a t i o n s , and t h e i r l i m i t of a p p l i -
c a t i o n for c a s c a d e flows i s d e f i n e d . A s e m i - e m p i r i c a l model, v a l i d for c a s c a d e flows,
i s p r e s e n t e d lor t h e shock-boundary l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n r e g i o n .
A p a r t i c u l a r method of c a l c u l a t i o n , d e v e l o p e d by t h e a u t h o r a t VKI, add b a s e d on t h e
a n a l y s i s of t h e flow r e g i o n s i s t h e n p r e s e n t e d . T h i s method s t a r t s from t h e incompres-
s i b l e flow f i e l d , i n a b l a d i n g , o b t a i n e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y or e x p e r i m e n t a l l y , and e n a b l e s
t o c a l c u l a t e t h e c o m p r e s s i b l e flow f i e l d , w i t h a l o c a l s u p e r s o n i c r e g i o n , t a k i n g f u l l y
i n t o k c c o u n t t h e s h o c k - i n t e r a c t i o n r e g i o n . The v a l i d i t y of t h e method i s l i m i t e d t o
h i g h s o l i d i t y c a s c a d e s , of any d e f l e c t i o n . Comparison w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s shows
t h e method t o be s a t i s f a c t o r y .
 4

a s p e e d o f sound
A area
b streamtube width
C blade chord
C
P
s t a t i c pressure rise coefficient -
P2'Pl
POl'P1
g pitch
h blade height
H32 form f a c t o r
i i n c i d e n c e a n g l e w i t h r e s p e c t t o camber l i n e
M Mach number
P s t a t i c pressure
PO t o t a l pressure
r recovery f a c t o r
8 d i s tan ce
s throat of blading
th
t thickne 8s
UBV v e l o c i t y components i n x,y d i r e c t i o n
W relative velocity
X,Y Cartesian coordinates

a absolute flow angle

8 r e l a t i v e flow angle
Y r a t i o of s p e c i f i c heat o r s t a g g e r angle
62 momentum l o s s t h i c k n e s s o f b o u n d a r y l a y e r
d I' d e 1" o p e r a t o r
e hodograph c o o r d i n a t e
e a i r t u r n i n g a n g l e 81-82
P mass d e n s i t y
a solidity
0 camber a n g l e
potential
6 stream f u n c t i o n
c,n,c coordinates f o r sink-source distribution
POl'P02
w t o t a l pressure loss coefficient
POl'Pl
Subscripts
0 t o t a l conditions
1 upstream of cascade
2 downstream o f cascade
OD f r e e stream c o n d i t i o n s
C c ompre 8 8 i b l e
CH choking conditions
CR c r i t i c a l conditions
i incompressible
e local
MAX maximum v a l u e
MIN minimum v a l u e
PS pressure side
ss suction side
Superscripts
A
c o n d i t i o n s downstream o f shock
sonic conditions
* perturbation value
4

LIST OF FIGURES
1 Sketch o f c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y e f f e c t s i n a compressor cascade
2 Schlieren p i c t u r e of a transonic cascade
3 P r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r d i f f e r e n t i n l e t Mach n u m b e r s
4 D e p e n d e n c e of l o c a l Mach number o n i n l e t Mach n u m b e r
5 C r i t i c a l Mach n u m b e r i n f u n c t i o n o f minimum s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e
6 L i m i t v a l u e s o f c r i t i c a l Mach n u m b e r i n f u n c t i o n o f t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e
7 C h o k i n g Mach n u m b e r f o r r e a l f l o w c o n d i t i o n s i n c a s c a d e
8 X n f l u e n c e of Mach n u m b e r o n t o t a l p r e s s u r e loss I

9 I n f l u e n c e o f Mach number o n t u r n i n g a n g l e
10-11 S t a t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e i n f u n c t i o n o f Mach n u m b e r
12 Data f o r BTB b l a d e
13 I n f l u e n c e o f b a c k p r e s s u r e o n t o t a l p r e s s u r e loss
14 Tangent gas r e l a t i o n
15 Karman-Tsien p r e s s u r e c o r r e l a t i o n formula
16 Comparison o f Karman-Tsien r u l e and P r a n d t l - G l a u e r t r u l e with experiments
17 I n f l u e n c e o f c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y on c a s c a d e p a r a m e t e r
18 Comparison o f P r a n d t l - G l a u e r t t r a n s f o r m a t i o n and experimental r e s u l t s
19 P r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n c a l c u l a t e d by improved l i n e a r i z a t i o n and by P r a n d t l - G l a u e r t
r u l e i n comparison w i t h measurements
20 Comparison o f t h e method o f Imbach w i t h m e a s u r e m e n t s
21 S k e t c h f o r f l u x a n a l y s i s method
22 R e s u l t s o f t h e method o f Uchida
23 C u r v i l i n e a r c o o r d i n a t e system i n cascade
24 Velocity distribution along a potential l i n e
25 Supersonic flow pocket
26 Expansion c o r r e l a t i o n
27 S k e t c h of s h o c k b o u n d a r y l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n
28 Model f o r s h o c k b o u n d a r y l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n
29 Shock i n t e n s i t y c o r r e l a t i o n
30 Theoretical pressure distribution
31 Correlation for displacement phase
32 Nomogram f o r d i s p l a c e m e n t p h a s e
33 Sketch f o r calculation procedure
34 Comparison of p r e d i c t e d and measured v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n
 4- 1

TRANSONIC COMPRESSOR CASCADES

H. Griepentrog

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N

The a p p e a r a n c e of h i g h d u t y m a t e r i a l s f o r t h e a x i a l c o m p r e s s o r c o n s t r u c t i o n a l l o w s
t h e d e s i g n of m a c h i n e s w i t h h i g h r o t a t i o n a l s p e e d s , r e s u l t i n g a l s o i n h i g h v e l o c i t i e s
r e l a t i v e t o t h e b l a d i n g s . F o l l o w i n g t h e c l a s s i c a l l a w o f E u l e r , an i n c r e a s e o f t h e
c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l s p e e d r a i s e s a l s o t h e e n e r g y i n p u t p e r s t a g e , l e a d i n g t o smaller and more
compact m a c h i n e s .

The e x t r e m e o f t h i s d e s i g n t r e n d i s t h e s u p e r s o n i c a x i a l c o m p r e s s o r w i t h e i t h e r sub-
s o n i c o r s u p e r s o n i c a x i a l v e l o c i t i e s . But d u e t o t h e u n f a v o r a b l e o p e r a t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s -
t i c s ( no o f f d e s i g n o p e r a t i o n p o s s i b i l i t y f o r t h e f i r s t t y p e ) , t h i s e x t r e m e c a n o n l y
b e u s e d v e r y seldom f o r a p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n . The d e s i g n e r w i l l be f o r c e d t o u s e t h e
f l o w f i e l d w i t h s u b s o n i c i n l e t a n d o u t l e t Mach numbers and l o c a l s u p e r s o n i c r e g i o n s i n -
s i d e o f t h e c a s c a d e t o combine h i g h e n e r g y i n p u t i n t o t h e f l u i d and a w i d e marge o f
o p e r a t i o n f o r t h e compressor. A cascade working i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r flow f i e l d i s c a l l e d
'transonic cascade'.

We f i n d a l s o t h i s t r a n s o n i c f l o w f i e l d i n t h e s u p e r s o n i c a x i a l c o m p r e s s o r o f t h e
shock-in-rotor type - t h e s u p e r s o n i c c o m p r e s s o r t y p e g i v i n g , up t o now, t h e b e s t r e s u l t s
f o r t h e s t a t o r b l a d i n g , which h a s t o a c c e p t i n l e t Mach numbers o f t h e o r d e r o f M I = 0.80
-
+ 0.90.
The a i m o f t h i s n o t e i s t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e p h y s i c a l f l o w b e h a v i o u r i n t r a n s o n i c
c a s c a d e s . A d i s c u s s i o n w i l l b e i n c l u d e d on t h e t h e o r e t i c a l methods a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e
p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e l o c a l v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e b l a d e s u r f a c e .

2. COMPRESSOR CASCADE I N COMPRESSIBLE FLOW FIELD

I n t h i s c h a p t e r some g e n e r a l f e a t u r e s o f c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w e f f e c t s i n c a s c a d e a r e
d i s c u s s e d t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y on t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of com-
p r e s s o r cascades.

An i n c r e a s e of t h e i n l e t v e l o c i t y o f a c a s c a d e i n t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w f i e l d
r e s u l t s i n a s i m i l a r i n c r e a s e of t h e l o c a l v e l o c i t i e s on t h e b l a d e s u r f a c e f o l l o w i n g
E u l e r s e q u a t i o n . I f t h e i n l e t v e l o c i t y i s r a i s e d t o h i g h e r v a l u e s e x c e e d i n g t h e incom-
p r e s s i b l e f l o w r a n g e , t h e l o c a l o v e r v e l o c i t i e s on t h e b l a d e c o n t o u r a r e i n c r e a s e d more
than proportional t o Eulers equation while t h e l o c a l undervelocities increase l e s s than
p r o p o r t i o n a l . T h i s b e h a v i o r r e s u l t s from t h e s a t i s f y i n g o f t h e c o n t i n u i t y e q u a t i o n
p Q * v Q= c o n s t .

The i n l e t Mach number d e t e r m i n i n g t h e l i m i t b e t w e e n t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w Pange

where a change o f p ' c a n b e n e g l e c t e d a n d t h e c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w r a n g e i s a f u n c t i o n o f
e v e r y p a r t i c u l a r c a s c a d e . P r i n c i p a l l y , t h i s l i m i t Mach number d e p e n d s p a r t i c u l a r l y on
t h e s h a p e o f t h e l e a d i n g e d g e , on t h e c u r v a t u r e o f t h e s u c t i o n s i d e and t h e i n c i d e n c e
flow angle.

A f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e of t h e i n l e t v e l o c i t y w i l l l e a d t o a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l i m i t value
o f t h e c a s c a d e , d e f i n e d a s t h e c r i t i c a l Mach number M C R , where s o n i c v e l o c i t y e x i s t s a t
o n e p o i n t on t h e b l a d e c o n t o u r . With a c o n t i n u i n g r a i s e o f , t h e i n l e t Mach number s u p e r -
s o n i c r e g i o n s w i l l b e f o r c e d , embedded i n t h e s u b s o n i c f l o w f i e l d t h r u t h e c a s c a d e . These
s u p e r s o n i c f l o w p o c k e t s w i l l grow w i t h an i n c r e a s e o f i n l e t Mach number and f i n a l l y merge
i n t o a f l o w r e g i o n e x t e n d i n g from t h e s u c t i o n s i d e t o t h e p r e s s u r e s i d e o f t h e two n e i g h -
bouring b l a d e s forming a passage. This region i s l i m i t e d t o t h e upstream subsonic flow
f i e l d by t h e s o n i c l i n e , which i s p o s i t i o n e d a t t h e e f f e c t i v e t h r o a t o f t h e b l a d e p a s s a g e .
The s m a l l e s t i n l e t Mach number c a u s i n g a s o n i c l i n e i n t h e c a s c a d e i s o a l l e d t h e c h o k i n g
Mach number, M C H , o f t h e c a s c a d e d e t e r m i n i n g a l s o t h e maximum mass f l o w v h i c h c a n p a s s
t h e c a s c a d e , f o r g i v e n p r e s s u r e and d e n s i t y o f t h e i n l e t f l o w f i e l d .

The s u p e r s o n i c r e g i o n o r p o c k e t s a r e c l o s e d downstream p y a q u a s i - n o r m a l s h o c k , T h i s
g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t c a n b e made h e r e r e g a r d i n g t h e p u r p o s e of t h i s n o t e a l t h o u g h t h e o r e -
t i c a l l y t h e problem i s n o t y e t s o l v e d f o r p o t e n t i a l flows whether a n o n - i s e n t r o p i c ( w i t h
s h o c k s ) d i f f u s i o n from s u p e r s o n i c t o s u b s o n i c f l o w i s p o s s i b l e o r n e c e s s a r y o r n o t . Con-
s i d e r i n g a l s o t h i s v i s c o u s e f f e c t s on t h e b l a d e s u r f a c e , a s h o c k w i l l p r o b a b l y a l w a y s
p e r f o r m t h e d i f f u s i o n . F o r t h e c a s e o f M 1 2 MCH t h e s h o c k s p a n s t h e whole b l a d e p a s s a g e
which w i l l g i v e some i n t e r e s t i n g a p p l i c a t i o n s .

I n f i g u r e 1 t h e above d e s c r i b e d p r o c e s s i s s k e t c h e d s c h e m a t i c a l l y . T h i s s k e t c h i s
i l l u s t r a t e d w i t h S c h l i e r e n p i c t u r e s o f a r a t h e r c o n v e n t i o n a l NACA 6 5 ( 1 1 . 3 A218b)09 b l a -
d i n g f o r a s l i g h t l y n e g a t i v e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e . F o r a Mach number of M 1 = .736 l o c a l s u p e r -
s o n i c p o c k e t s a r e i n d i c a t e d on t h e s u c t i o n s i d e n e a r t h e t r a i l i n g edge and more p r o n o u n c e d
a t t h e l e a d i n g edge on t h e p r e s s u r e s i d e . An i n c r e a s e o f t h e i n l e t v e l o c i t y t o M 1 = .767
shows t h e p o i n t where t h e s u p e r s o n i c p o c k e t s a r e c l o s e t o merge. T h i s c o n d i t i o n i s ob-
t a i n e d a t M 1 = .82b 1. MCH. A small non p e r i o d i c i t y i n t h e t h r e e p a s s a g e s shown i n f i g , 2 c
4- 2

i n d i c a t e s a n i n f l u e n c e o f t h e i n l e t stream f i e l d o f t h e two u p p e r c a s c a d e s by t h e l o c a l
s u p e r s o n i c f l o w f i e l d f o r m e d on t h e s u c t i o n s i d e o f t h e l o w e s t b l a d e .

F i g u r e 3 shows t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s o f l o c a l s t a t i c p r e s s u r e on t h e s u r f a c e o f a h i g h
d e f l e c t i o n b l a d e e x t r e m e l y w e l l s u i t e d f o r t h e u s e i n t h e t r a n s o n i c f l o w r e g i o n . The
l o c a l s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r a t i o p2/po1 i s p l o t t e d i n f u n c t i o n o f t h e n o n d i m e n s i o n a l i z e d chord
d i s t a n c e x / c . T h e p a r a m e t e r o f t h e s e t o f c u r v e s i s t h e i n l e t Mach n u m b e r . L o c a l s o n i c
v e l o c i t i e s a r e r e a c h e d f i r s t a t a n i n l e t Mach number b e t w e e n M 1 = .70 a n d M 1 = . 8 0 .

F o r t h e c o o r d i n a t e p o s i t i o n x / c = .35 on t h e s u c t i o n s i d e o f t h e b l a d e , t h e l o c a l M
n u m b e r ( c a l c u l a t e d w i t h t h e d a t a o f f i g . 3 ) i s p r e s e n t e d i n f u n c t i o n o f t h e i n l e t Mach
n u m b e r M1 i n f i g . 4. T h i s p l o t i n d i c a t e s t h e l i n e a r , v a r i a t i o n o f t h e l o c a l Mach n u m b e r
w i t h t h e i n l e t Mach n u m b e r i n t h e f l o w r a n g e n o t i n f l u e n c e d b y c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y e f f e c t s .
The ‘ i n c o m p r e s s i b l e ’ f l o w r a n g e e x t e n d s u p t o M 1 2 . 5 2 5 w h i c h i s a n e x z r e m e l y h i g h v a l u e .
F o r Mach n u m b e r s M 1 > . 5 2 5 t h e l o c a l Mach n u m b e r g r o w s o v e r l i n e a r l y (c < (t) crest
1.
From t h e s e r a t h e r g e n e r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f c o m p r e s s i h l e f l o w s i n c a s c a d e i t c a n b e
d e d u c e d t h a t t w o l i m i t i n l e t Mach n u m b e r s w i l l d e t e r m i n e t h e b e h a v i o r o f a c a s c a d e i n
t r a n s o n i c flows:
a ) t h e c r i t i c a l Mach n u m b e r i n d i c a t i n g t h a t a s m a l l r i s e o f t h e i n l e t v e l o c i t y w i l l c r e a t e
s h o c k s on t h e b l a d e s u r f a c e ;
b ) t h e c h o k i n g Mach n u m b e r i n d i c a t i n g t h e maximum mass f l o w .

F u r t h e r m o r e , f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e f l o w f i e l d i n t h e b l a d e p a s s a g e f o u r r e g i o n s
have t o be considered:
a) subsonic i n l e t and o u t l e t flow f i e l d ( M < 1);
b) supersonic flow f i e l d ( M > 1);
c) sonic l i n e ( M = 1);
d) shock-boundary l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n .

Following t h i s p a r t i t i o n , t h e p r e d i c t i o n methods w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d .

F o r m u l a e f o r a r o u g h e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e c r i t i c a l a n d t h e c h o k i n g Mach n u m b e r a r e p r e -
s e n t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g . The k n o w l e d g e o f these v a l u e s i s o f e x t r e m e n e c e s s i t y f o r t h e
f i r s t choice of a s u i t a b l e t r a n s o n i c compressor cascade.

2.1 C r i t i c a l Mach number

The c r i t i c a l Mach n u m b e r f o r t h e i n l e t f l o w f i e l d i s o b t a i n e d’ * i f a t o n e p o s i t i o n o f
t h e b l a d e c o n t o u r t h e v e l o c i t y i s s o n i c . T h i s p o s i t i o n i s a l s o t h.e P ? i . n t f o r t h e minimum
l o c a l s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e c o e f f i c i e n t cPYIN. H e n c e , u s i n g t h e c l. a. S S l C! a 1 g a s d y n a m i c r e l a -
,
t i o n s t h e c r i t i c a l i n l e t Mach n u m b e r i n u n c t i o n o f c p, M I N i s :

/r
L
PMIN-P~ X
with ‘PMIN - pol-pl
and PMIN P

The e q u a t i o n (1) c a n b e u s e d d i r e c t l y f o r t h e determination of M1 with t h e h e l p of

incompressible flow r e s u l t s . For t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n i t h a s t o b e supposgff t h a t t h e c o m p r e s -
s i b i l i t y e f f e c t s w i l l not change t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e minimum s t a t i c p r e s s u r e . The r e l a t i o n
( 1 ) i s p l o t t e d i n f i g . 5 and can b e u s e d f o r a f i r s t e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e c r i t i c a l hlach
number o f a c a s c a d e .

S c h o l z ( r e f , 1) p r o p o s e d t w o l i m i t v a l u e s f o r t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e c r i t i c a l Mach
n u m b e r w i t h i n c o m p r e s s i b l e d a t a . A maximur, l i m i t v a l u e o f t h e c r i t i c a l Mach nu!qbcr w i l l
b e o b t a i n e d w i t h t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e v e l o c i t y r a t i o w 2 / w l i s n o t i n f l u e n c e d 6 y com-
p r e s s i b i l i t y e f f e c t s . Hence, t h e p e a k v e l o c i t y on t h e b l a d e s u r f a c e w i l l b e s o n i c f o r an
i n l e t Mach n u m b e r h i g h e r t h a n i n r e a l i t y a n d i t c a n b e w r i t t e n

and r e s u l t i n g

or
1
1-c (2b)
PMINi
 4- 3

The l i m i t v a l u e i n d i c a t i n g t h e c r i t i c a l Mach number s m a l l e r t h a n i n r e a l i t y i s o b t a i n e d

w i t h t h e assumption t h a t t h e s t r e a m l i n e form w i l l n o t change i n i n c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w s .
Hence ,

-
p 1.81
> (-1
W1
= 1

and

This i s an i m p l i c i t r e l a t i o n f o r MY. S c h o l z ( r e f , 1) g i v e s a n a p p r o x i m a t e s o l u t i o n :

MYCR > = -2 s i n ( J l-c

PEIINi

The r e l a t i o n s ( 2 b ) a n d ( 3 a ) a r e p l o t t e d i n f i g . 6 . C a s c a d e s w i t h h i g h e r s o l i d i t i e s w i l l
be c l o s e r t o equation ( 3 a ) , while cascades w i t h small s o l i d i t i e s w i l l b e b e t t e r repre-
s e n t e d by r e l a t i o n ( 2 b ) , s u p p o s i n g t h a t f o r b o t h c a s e s t h e same b l a d i n g i s u s e d .

T h e s e e q u a t i o n s c a n o n l y g i v e a f i r s t e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e c r i t i c a l Mach n u m b e r . A m o r e
s o u n d r e s u l t c a n o n l y b e o b t a i n e d w i t h one o f t h e p r o c e d u r e s o f p r e d i c t i o n of l o c a l
v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n , p r e s e n t e d i n c h a p t e r s 4 a n d 5.

2.2 C h o k i n g Mach number

The c h o k i n g Mach n u m b e r d e t e r m i n e s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e t h r o a t l e n g t h o f t h e c a s c a d e ,
t h e maximum mass f l o w r a t e w h i c h c a n p a s s t h e c a s c a d e . U s i n g t h e o n e d i m e n s i o n a l c o n t i -
n u i t y e q u a t i o n , t h e c h o k i n g Mach n u m b e r c a n b e p r e d i c t e d b y

and

I n f i g u r e 7 t h e f u n c t i o n ( h a ) i s shown, T h i s f i g u r e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e c a s c a d e i n r e a l
f l o w w i l l a l w a y s b e c h o k e d f o r i n l e t Mach n u m b e r s s m a l l e r t h a n i n d i c a t e d b y t h e i s e n t r o -
p i c e q u a t i o n ( 4 a ) due t o v i s c o u s f l o w e f f e c t s and l o c a l s u p e r s o n i c r e g i o n s a t t h e pro-
f i l e l e a d i n g edge w i t h downstream s h o c k s changing t h e p o t e n t i a l flow i n t o a n o n i s e n t r o p i c
type.
2.3 T o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s

The c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y e f f e c t s o n t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e loss i s m ' a i n l y d u e t o t h e q h o c k -

b o u n d a r y l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n f o r M 1 > M I C R . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e l o c a l p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t s on
t h e b l a d e s u r f a c e i n c r e a s e w i t h t h e i n l e t Mach n u m b e r ( s e e f i g . 3 ) w h i c h r e s u l t s i n a
h i g h e r l o a d i n g o f t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r c o u p l e d w i t h i n c r e a s e d t o t a l p r e s s u r e loss.

A c o m p e n s a t i n g e f f e c t e x i s t s d u e t o t h e f a v o r a b l e i n f l u e n c e o f c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y on
t h e momentum l o s s t h i c k n e s s o f t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r . T a k i n g t h e r e l a t i o n g i v e n b y R o t t a
( r e f . 21, t h e r a t i o o f t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e a n d c o m p r e s s i b l e momentum loss t h i c k n e s s f o r
t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r s i s :

H e n c e , t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e loss w i l l b e i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e i n l e t Mach n u m b e r f r o m t h e
o p t i m u m p o i n t o f o p e r a t i o n , u p t o t h e c r i t i c a l i n l e t Mach n u m b e r , T h i s s t a t e m e n t i s v e r i -
f i e d w i t h t h e m e a s u r e n e n t s on a d o u b l e c i r c u l a r a r c b l a d i n g With t h e p a r a m e t e r s

camber a n g l e @ = 11.2O
maximum t h i c k n e s s ( t / c ) m a x = '6%
pitch/chord r a t i o s / c = .92b
stagger angle y = 450
p r e s e n t e d i n r e f . 3 . The t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t i s p l o t t e d i n f u n c t i o n o f t h e
incidence angle i n f i g . 8 f o r t h i s blading.

Up t o a n i n l e t Mach n u m b e r o f !Il= .78, t h e r e i s p r a c t i c a l l y n o c h a n g e i n t o t a l p r e s -

s u r e l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t b e t w e e n i = lo a n d i = 5' l i k e i t c o u l d b e e x p e c t e d f r o m t h e f o r e -
g o i n g q u a l i t a t i v e d i s c u s s i o n . For i n c i d e n c e a n g l e s smaller o r l a r g e r t h a n t h e s e l i m i t s ,
4-4

t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e loss i n c r e a s e s c o n s i d e r a b l y due t o l o c a l s u p e r s o n i c r e g i o n s on t h e
s u c t i o n s i d e f o r p o s i t i v e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e a n d on t h e p r e s s u r e s i d e f o r n e g a t i v e i n c i d e n c e
a n g l e s w i t h shock-boundary l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n l o s s e s , A f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e of t h e i n l e t
Mach n u m b e r t o 1.11 = .gO w i l l d i m i n i s h f u r t h e r t h e o p e r a t i o n r a n g e , w h i l e f o r i = 5 O t h e r e
i s n o c h a n g e i n t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s v a l u e . F o r Mach n u m b e r s h21 > M I C R a l s o a t t h e
optimum p o i n t a s h a r p i n c r e a s e o f t o t a l p r e s s u r e loss o c c u r s .

I t c a n b e s t a t e d t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y on t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f
t h e c a s c a d e m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f m a i n l y by a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e o p e r a t i n g r a n g e w i t h d s h i f t
of t h e optimum i n c i d e n c e a n g l e t o h i g h e r v a l u e s .

The o p e r a t i n g r a n g e o f a c a s c a d e w i l l r e d u c e w i t h a n i n c r e a s e o f M 1 . For t h e e x t r e m e
Mi 1. 1, t h e cascade w i l l o p e r a t e a t one incidence a n g l e only which i s a unique f u n c t i o n I
o f t h e i n l e t Mach number o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r c a s c a d e .

2.4 Turning angle

The e f f e c t i v e t u r n i n g a n g l e o f a c a s c a d e i s v e r y c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e b o u n d a r y
l a y e r b e h a v i o r on t h e b l a d e . H e n c e , t h e g e n e r a l t r e n d v a l i d f o r t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y i n -
f l u e n c e o n t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e loss i s a l s o v a l i d f o r t h e t u r n i n g a n g l e . I n f i g u r e 9 t h e
t u r n i n g a n g l e i n f u n c t i o n o f t h e i n c i d e n c e a n g l e i s shown f o r t h e c a s c a d e d i s c u s s e d
a b o v e , Up t o M 1 .78 t h e e f f e c t i v e t u r n i n g i s p r a c t i c a l l y n o t a l t e r e d . A d r o p i n t u r n i n g
a n g l e o c c u r s f o r M 1 > M I C R due t o t h e shock induced s e p a r a t e d boundary l a y e r .

2.5 S t a t i c pressure rise

The s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e i n a c a s c a d e i s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e t u r n i n g a n g l e a n d t h e
t o t a l p r e s s u r e loss. I n f i g , 1 0 t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s e t h r e e p a r a m e t e r s i s p r e s e h t e d
i n f u n c t i o n o f t h e i n l e t Mach n u m b e r f o r a n i n c i d e n c e a n g l e i = 5'. The s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
r i s e c o e f f i c i e n t d r o p s o n l y s l i g h t l y f o r M 1 > M I , T h i s e f f e c t i s more p r o n o u n c e d f o r
m e a s u r e m e n t s shown i n f i g . 11 o n a c a s c a d e w i t h EWCA 6 5 b l a d e s ( r e f . 4 ) .

2.6 Some r e m a r k s on t h e d e s i g n o f t r a n s o n i c c a s c a d e s

The a d a p t a b i l i t y o f a c o m p r e s s o r c a s c a d e f o r i t s u s e i n t h e h i g h s u b s o n i c f l o w f i e l d
i s d e t e r m i n e d b y t h e c r i t i c a l Mach n u m b e r M1 a n d t h e c h o k i n g Mach n u m b e r MiCH, w h i c h
s h o u l d a t t a i n t h e h i g h e s t v a l u e p o s s i b l e . Bog! c h a r a c t e r i s t i c Mach n u m b e r s a r c u n i q u e
f u n c t i o n s of t h e c a s c a d e c o n f i g u r a t i o n , i . e . , t h e b l a d e e h a p e , t h e s t a g g e r a n g l e a n d t h e
s o l i d i t y . T h e s e c a s c a d e p a r a m e t e r s i n f l u e n c e a l s o t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r c o n d i t i o n s on t h e
b l a d e s u r f a c e and end walls, which d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t i v e f l o w s e c t i o n i n t h e cascade.

The c r i t i c a l Mach n u m b e r i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e i n t o t a l p r e s s u r e
l o s s d u e t o s h o c k b o u n d a r y l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s . The m a g n i t u d e o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
d e p e n d s p r i m a r i l y o n t h e l o c a l Mach n u m b e r a h e a d o f t h e s h o c k , The v a l u e o f t h i s Mach
number i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e b l a d e c o n t o u r c u r v a t u r e u p s t r e a m of t h e s h o c k . A m i n i m i z a t i o n
o f t h i s convex c u r v a t u r e r e s u l t s a l s o i n a d e c r e a s e o f t h e shock boundary l a y e r i n t e r -
a c t i o n loss o r i n a h i g h e r c r i t i c a l Mach n u m b e r o f t h e c a s c a d e . T h i s p h i l o s o p h y h a s b e e n
a p p l i e d b y N A S A ( r e f . 5 ) i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e M u l t i p l e C i r c u l a r A r c b l a d e . For t h i s
b l a d i n g t h e s u c t i o n s i d e i s c o n s t r u c t e d o f two c i r c l e s , r e p a r t i n g t h e t o t a l c u r v a t u r e
i n t o a small c u r v a t u r e f o r t h e forward b l a d e p a r t and a h i g h c u r v a t u r e f o r t h e back p a r t
o f t h e b l a d e . The p r e s s u r e s i d e c o n s i s t s o f a c o n s t a n t c u r v a t u r e c o n t o u r . The c h o i c e o f
t h e r e p a r t i t i o n h a s t o b e p e r f o r m e d i n s u c h a way t o g e t a n o p t i m u m o f o v e r a l l p r e f i l e
losses - low s h o c k boundary l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n l o s s e s i n t h e f r o n t p a r t and no s e p a r a t i o n
i n t h e s u b s o n i c b a c k p a r t o f t h e b l a d e . The g a i n i n t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s d u e t o s m a l l
i n t e r a c t i o n l o s s e s can e a s i l y b e o f f s e t , b y h i g h s e p a r a t i o n l o s s e s , Obviously, a cascade
w i t h a h i g h c r i t i c a l Mach n u m b e r h a s a l s o a h i g h c h o k i n g Mach n u m b e r .

The e x a c t d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e . c h o k i n g Mach number i s o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e f o r

t h e d e s i g n o f a b l a d e r o w f o r a g i v e n mass f l o w , A m a l a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e s t a t o r t o t h e
mass f l o w r e q u i r e d c a n f o r c e t h e r o t o r t o s t a l l . F o r t h e c a s e o f a s u p e r s o n i c c o m p r e s s o r
of t h e shock-in-rotor t y p e , t h i s danger i s extremely pronounced, because t h e supersonic
r o t o r h a s p r a c t i c a l l y n o m a r g e i n mass f l o w , i n d e e d .

The t y p i c a l f l o w c o n d i t i o n s , a s t a t o r f o r a s u p e r s o n i c c o m p r e s s o n h a s t o a c c e p t , a r e
a n i n l e t Mach n u m b e r i n t h e r a n g e o f M 1 = .80 a n d a r e q u i r e d t u r n i n g o f t h e o r d e r 0 = 6 0 ° .
These v a l u e s are v a l i d f o r t h e shock-in-rotor t y p e and s u b s o n i c s t a t o r c o n f i g u r a t i o n .

I n f i g . 1 2 a n e x a m p l e f o r a b l a d i n g s u i t a b l e f o r t h e s e e x t r e m e c o n d i t i o n s i s shown
( T h i s b l a d i n g h a s b e e n d e s i g n e d a n d t e s t e d a t t h e v o n Karman I n s t i t u t e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
p r o g r a m o f a s u p e r s o n i c a x i a l c o m p r e s s o r - r e f . 6 ) . The g e o m e t r i c a l t h r o a t i s p l a c e d n e a r
t h e l e a d i n g e d g e f o l l o w e d b y a c o n t i n u o u s d i v e r g e n t c h a n n e l . The r e s u l t i n g b l a d e c o n s i s t s
o f a s t r a i g h t e n t r a n c e s e c t i o n f o l l o w e d b y a c o n s t a n t c u r v a t u r e c o n t o u r . The t r a i l i n g
e d g e i s b l u n t e d . I n f i g . 7 t h e c r i t i c a l Mach n u m b e r f o r t h i s b l a d i n g i s c o m p a r e d w i t h
c l a s s i c a l o n e s . A n u n u s u a l h i g h l i m i t Mach n u m b e r i s o b t a i n e d f o r t h i s b l a d i n g , d u e t o
t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e d e s i g n c r i t e r i a m e n t i o n e d above by f o r m i n g t h e e n t r a n c e s e c t i o p
w i t h a s t r a i g h t p a r t ( l o w l o c a l Mach n u m b e r ) a n d p l a c i n g t h e t h r o a t c l o s e t o t h e i n l e t
s e c t i o n ( h i g h c h o k i n g Mach n u m b e r ) . The t h e o r e t i c a l c h o k i n g Mach n u m b e r M I C H I 1 f o r t h i s
d e s i g n h a s n o t b e e n a c h i e v e d d u e t o a s m a l l d i s p l a c e m e n t o f t h e g e o m e t r i c a l t h r o a t down-
 4-5

stream f r o m t h e l e a d i n g e d g e p l a n e . A l s o t h e c o r r e c t e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r
t h i c k n e s s d i m i n i s h i n g t h e e f f e c t i v e f l o w s e c t i o n p l a y s an i n p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e r e g i o n
Mi 1, w h e r e a t i n y c h a n g e o f f l o w s e c t i o n p r o d u c e s a l a r g e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e Mach n u m b e r .

With t h i s b l a d i n g an i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e h a s been found f o r changing t h e back p r e s -

s u r e when t h e c a s c a d e i s o p e r a t e d a t c h o k e d c o n d i t i o n s ( r e f . 2 ) . An i n c r e a s e o f t h e b a c k
p r e s s u r e , hence an i n c r e a s e of t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e , d e c r e a s e s t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e
l o s s o f t h e c a a c a d e . The a p p l i c a t i o n o f b a c k p r e s s u r e i s p o s s i b l e d u e t o t h e e x i s t e n c e
of a s o n i c l i n e s e p a r a t i n g t h e u p s t r e a m a n d t h e d o w n s t r e a m f i e l d . I n f i g . 1 3 t h e t o t a l
p r e s s u r e loss c o e f f i c i e n t i s p l o t t e d i n f u n c t i o n o f t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e c o e f f i c i e n t .
An a p p r o x i m a t e l y l i n e a r r e l a t i o n e x i s t s b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o p a r a m e t e r s . T h i s phenomenon
can b e e x p l a i n e d p h y s i c a l l y w i t h t h e [Link] o f t h e shock t e r m i n a t i n g t h e super-
s o n i c r e g i o n i n t h e b l a d e p a s s a g e w i t h a n i n c r e a s e o f t h e b a c k p r e s s u r e , The u p s t r e a m
movement o f t h e s h o c k r e s u l t s i n a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e l o c a l Mach n u m b e r u p s t r e a m o f t h e s h o c k ,
H e n c e , t h e s h o c k b o u n d a r y l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n l o s s e s a r e s m a l l e r . The maximum b a c k p r e s s u r e ,
c l o s e t o s p i l l a g e of t h e cascade, i s given with t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e shock c l o s e t o t h e
I sonic line.

Very r e c e n t l y , t h e u s e o f choked b l a d i n g s w a s p r o p o s e d as i n l e t g u i d e v a n e s ( r e f . 8 ) .
F o r t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n u s e was made of t h e s u p e r s o n i c r e g i o n i n t h e b l a d e p a s s a g e , p r e v e n t i n g
any u p s t r e a m i n f l u e n c e of a downstream p e r t u r b a t i o n , l i k e t h e n o i s e r a d i a t e d f o r w a r d from
t h e f a n o r f i r s t compressor s t a g e .

But i n g e n e r a l a choked b l a d i n g a t t h e design p o i n t should always b e avoided, This

demand a s k s f o r p r e c i s e p r e d i c t i o n m e t h o d s o f l o c a l v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n o n t h e b l a d e
surface.

3 . MATHEMATICAL SOLUTIONS F O R COMPRESSIBLE FLOWS I N GENERAL AERODYNAMICS

I n t h i s c h a p t e r , w e s h a l l g i v e o n l y a v e r y b r i e f s u r v e y on t h e c l a s s i c a l methods f o r
t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of compressible nonviscous subsonic flows, necessary t o understand t h e
c a l c u l a t i o n methods f o r compressible p o t e n t i a l flows i n cascades.

The p o t e n t i a l f l o w e q u a t i o n i s a n o n l i n e a r p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n o f t h e
e l l i p t i c t y p e f o r t h e subsonic flow i n a plane x,y:

F o r t h i s t y p e o f e q u a t i o n g e n e r a l s o l u t i o n s c a n b e f o u n d o n l y f o r s p e c i a l eases. P a r t i -
c u l a r l y , b e c a u s e o f t h e n o n l i n e a r i t y , s o l u t i o n s c a n n o t b e s u p e r p o s e d a s f o r t h e incom-
p r e s s i b l e f l o w . H e n c e , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p r o d u c i n g a d d i t i o n a l s o l u t i o n s by s i m p l e a l g e b r a
is eliminated.

I n general, t h r e e d i f f e r e n t approaches a r e used f o r t h e solution of equation (6):

1) l i n e a r i z a t i o n o f t h e p o t e n t i a l f l o w e q u a t i o n s ;
2 ) d e v e l o p m e n t i n power s e r i e s o f t h e p o t e n t i a l f l o w e q u a t i o n ;
3 ) hodograph method.

3.1 L i n e a r i z a t i o n m e t h o d s

For t h e l i n e a r i z a t i o n of t h e compressible p o t e n t i a l flow equation, t h e p o t e n t i a l 0

i s replaced by

0 = 0- + 0' = wm*x + 0' (7)

w h e r e 0- i s t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e b a s i c f l o w a n d 0' i s a s m a l l p e r t u r b a t i o n p o t e n t i a l .
N e l g e c t i n g t h e s e c o n d a n d h i g h e r o r d e r terms i n t h e d e r i v a t i v e s o f 0', t h e p o t e n t i a l
equation (6) is simplified t o

O b v i o u s l y , t h i s e q u a t i o n i s v a l i d f o r t h e t o t a l p o t e n t i a l 0 a n d f o r t h e p e r t u r b a t i o n po-
t e n t i a l 0 ' = 4-wm*x w i t h w m = c o n s t a n t . H e n c e , e q . ( 8 ) c a n b e w r i t t e n a s

with
B2 =I 1 - MZ

The s u b s c r i p t c i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s e q u a t i o n i s v a l i d f o r c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w . With t h e
affine transformation

xi = x Y i = BYc 0' = A@' (10)

i C

t h e e l l i p t i c a l e q u a t i o n (14- 1) c a n b e c o n v e r t e d i n t o t h e L a p l a c e e q u a t i o n
4- 6

f o r a n i n c o m p r e s s i b l e p e r t u r b a t i o n p o t e n t i a l @:(yy). The f a c t o r A h a s s t i l l t o b e d e t e r -
mined.

U s i n g t h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , t h e p e r t u r b a t i o n v e l o c i t i e s U' and v ' are

H e n c e , w i t h e q . (11) a n d (12) r e s u l t s o f t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w f i e l d , w h i c h a r e
r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o o b t a i n , c a n b e t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o t h e c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w f i e l d . The mag-
n i t u d e o f M, d e t e r m i n e s t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y . W i t h t h e c h o i c e o f t h e
parameter A d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s can be performed. Three of t h o s e a r e
discussed i n t h e following.
2
The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w i t h A = l - F l m w i l l g i v e f o r a n i n c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w f i e l d a r o u n d
a s l e n d e r body t h e c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w by d i s t o r t i o n o f t h e body and t h e a n g l e o f a t t a c k
with:

Th s t a h i c p r e s s u r e p ' d i s t r i b u t i o n a r o u n d a p r o f i l e c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d b y u s i n g t h e
Bernoulli equation (ref. 9 )

P' = P - P,
and
c
P POl'P1
S -2 -
U'
wm (13)
Hence, w i t h eq. (12)

1
-=
A
- 1-M,
1
2

T h i s r e l a t i o n i s n o r m a l l y named t h e ' G o e t h e r t r u l e ' .

The f i r s t r u l e o f P r a n d t l - G l a u e r t assumes e q u a l b o d i e s f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t i n compres-

s i b l e and=mpressible flow

The s e c o n d r u l e o f P r a n d t l - G l a u e r t a s s u m e s t h e same p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o n t h e b l a d e
s u r f a c e bor t h e c o m p r e s s i b l e a n d i n c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w f i e l d :

cPc
- = 1
C (16 1
Pi

T h i s r e l a t i o n g i v e s t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f o r %he b l a d e contour:

-O=C . - E - = - 1
ai ei

The f i r s t o f t h e t w o P r a n t l - G l a u e r t r u l e s i s o f i n t e r e s t t o s t u d y t h e b e h a v i o r o f a
g i v e n b l a d i n g o v e r a r a n g e o f d i f f e r e n t Mach n u m b e r s , w h i l e t h e s e c o n d c a n h e l p t o f i n d
a p r o f i l e w h i n h h a s t h e same l i f t c o e f f i c i e n t f o r d i f f e r e n t Mach n u m b e r s .

A d i f f i c u l t y f o r a p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n e x i s t s a l w a y s d u e t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n s made
for the linearization:
 4-7

T h e f i r s t t h r e e a s s u m p t i o n s a r e i n c l u d e d i n [Link] l a s t t w o o n e s . N o r m a l l y , t h e s e a s s u m p -
t i o n s cannot be f u l f i l l e d with t h e t y p e o f b l a d i n g used i n compressor cascades.

3.2 Power s e r i e s

We c o n s i d e r i n t h i s n o t e o n l y t h e d e v e l o p m e n t i n p o w e r s e r i e s o f t h e Ilach n u m b e r .
Another p o s s i b i l i t y i s t h e expansion i n s e r i e s of a parameter d e s c r i b i n g t h e tangent of
t h e p r o f i l e c o n t o u r a g a i n s t t h e m a i n f l o w d i r e c t i o n . The l a s t p r o c e d u r e i s o f p a r t i c u l a r
i n t e r e s t f o r s l e n d e r b o d i e s . B u t we a r e l o o k i n g h e r e f o r a p r o c e d u r e t o b e u s e f u l f o r
t h i c k b o d i e s i n o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e small p e r t u r b a t i o n method d i s c u s s e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g
chapter.

' L e t u s c o n s i d e r a g a i n a two d i m e n s i o n a l f l o w i n t h e p l a n e x , y f o r which t h e p o t e n -

t i a l e q u a t i o n s c a n b e w r i t t e n as ,

@XX + @yy = 2 ( Q x x 9 x + ~ ; y Q y + 2 9 x y ~ x O y 5) 2nT (17)

2 2
w h e r e a' i s a f u n c t i o n o f w 2 = Qx+O d e t e r m i n e d w i t h t h e c o m p r e s s i b l e g a s f l o w c o n d i t i o n s
as Y

Knowing t h a t a n i n c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w a r o u n d a b o d y i s q u a l i t a t i v e l y n o t t o o d i f f e r e n t f r o m
t h e subsonic compressible flow, t h e s o l u t i o n of t h e l e f t hand s i d e of eq. ( 1 7 ) , t h e
L a p l a c e e q u a t i o n 8 +Q = 0, can be t a k e n as a f i r s t appproximation f o r t h e p o t e n t i a l
x x YY
f l o w e q u a t i o n . The s o l u t i o n f o r Q ( x , y ) o f t h i s f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n i s t a k e n a s t h e f i r s t
f a c t o r o f an e x p a n s i o n i n series o f e q . ( 1 7 ) ( r e f . 9 ) :
2
Q ( x , y ) = o o ( X , y ) + 0 , ( x , y ) M m + QZM; + ... (18)
E q u a t i o n (18) i s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o e q . (17). A f t e r a n a r r a p g e m e n t w i t h t h e p o w e r s o f M _2 ,
a s y s t e m o f l i n e a r d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s i s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e f u n c t i o n s Ok(x,y)

..............
('k'xx + (ok)yy = 2nTk(x,Y)

o n l y t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s 00, 4 1 , ...,
The r i g h t h a n d s i d e s o f t h e s y s t e m o f P o i s s o n ' s
@k,l.
e q u a t i o n (19) 2 r i k ( x , y ) i n c o r p o r a t e

Inserting t h e a p p r o p r i a t e boundary c o n d i t i o n s

aQ0 340 x = m
-= - = o at y = m
ax ay

ao
- = o a t s o l i d boundary ( n i s
an normal t o t h e boundary

ao, ao2
-=-=
an an
... = - = aok
an
0 a t s o l i d boundary

t h e s o l u t i o n s o f t h e s y s t e m (19) a r e d e t e r m i n e d .

S a u e r ( r e f . 9 ) p r o p o s e s t o c o n s i d e r n o t o n l y t h e s o l u t i o n O o ( x , y ) as a n i n c o m p r e s -
s i b l e o n e , b u t a l s o t h e f o l l o w i n g a p p r o x i m a t i o n s Q k ( x , y ) . For t h e l a t t e r c a s e a d d i t i o n a l
4-8

s o u r c e s a n i s i n k s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d i n t h e f l o w f i e l d w i t h t h e s t r e n g t h T ( x , y ) . T h i s means
t h a t a l s o t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e p r o f i l e h a s t o i n c l u d e s o u r c e s a n d s i n k s io f u l f i l l t h e
boundary c o n d i t i o n a t t h e b l a d e c o n t o u r . Hence, t h e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s a r e

4 k ( x , ~ )= 11 T ~ ( F , ~ )a n ~ X - C ) ~ + ( Y - ~ dEdn
) ~ (20)

Now t h e f u n c t i o n s O k ( x , y ) a r e n o t a n y l o n g e r c o n s i d e r e d a s f a c t o r s o f t h e s e r i e s e x p a n -
s i o n (18), b u t a s s u c c e s s i v e a p p r o x i m a t i o n s f o r e q . (17). The a p p r o x i m a t i o n Ok,l(x,y) is
i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e r i g h t h a n d s i d e o f e q . (17) t o o b t a i n O k ( x , y ) a n d f o l l o w i n g f r o m (20.)
Ok(x,y). A p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n of t h i s procedure h a s been found f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of
compressible flows i n cascades.

The p r o c e d u r e t o d e v e l o p t h e c o m p r e s s i b l e p o t e n t i a l f l o w e q u a t i o n i n a s e r i e s o f
Mach n u m b e r h a s t h e a d v a n t a g e o f n o t t o b e r e s t r i c t e d t o s l e n d e r b o d i e s . B u t u n f o r t u n a t e l y ,
t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e method c o n v e r g e s .
,
3 . 3 Hodograph method
I n c h a p t e r E . l t h e c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w e q u a t i o n s h a v e b e e n l i n e a r i z e d by n e g l e c t i n g
some h i g h e r o r d e r t e r m s , H e n c e , t h e r e s u l t i n g l i n e a r d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s a r e v a l i d
o n l y a p p r o x i m a t e l y f o r s t r e a m f i e l d s c l o s e t o t h e main p a r a l l e l stream f i e l d .

Another t y p e of l i n e a r i z a t i o n i s t h e u s e o f a hodograph method, t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n

o f t h e 4 o r Y f u n c t i o n s f r o m t h e x , y p l a n e i n t o t h e v e l o c i t y p l a n e u , v o r w , 0 . The l i n e a r
d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s o b t a i n e d i n t h i s way a r e e x a c t . T h e y a r e a l s o v a l i d f o r h i g h
p e r t u r b a t i o n s t r e a m f i e l d s a n d i n t h e r a n g e M = 1.

Two t y p e s o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a r e p o s s i b l e f o r a p l a n e a n d i r r o t a t i o n a l f l o w
t h e M o l e n b r o e k t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , w h i c h c o n v e r t s on$y t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s a n d n o t
t h e f u n c t i o n s 4 and Y , g i v i n g t h e streamfunction i n t h e w,9 p l a n e w i t h 9 = a r c cos(u/w);

t h e Legendre t r a n s f o r m a t i o n which c o n v e r t s n o t o n l y t h e v e l o c i t y components b u t a l s o

t h e 0 and Y f u n c t i o n s :

(1- -
V2

a2 4uu
uv
+ 2 - 4uv + (1-I.,
a2
U2
OVV = 0 (22)

w i t h 4 = x$x + Y$y - $.

The d i f f i c u l t y f o r t h e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e h o d o g r a p h method i s t h a t t h e
p r o b l e m of f l o w p a s t g i v e n b o u n d a r i e s i s s u s c e p t i b l e t o a d i r e c t t r e a t m e n t ,

A s i g n i f i c a n t s i m p l i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e hodograph method h a s b e e n
obtained w i t h an approximation of t h e pressure-density r e l a t i o n p = p ( p ) by a hypothe-
-
t i c a l r e l a t i o n f o r a l i m i t e d r a n a e o f v e l o c i t y , l i k e t h e w e l l known t a n g e n t - g a s r e l a t i o n
~

l e a d i n g t o t h e Karman-Tsien c o r r e c t i o n formula.

For t h e t a n g e n t gas r e l a t i o n t h e i s e n t r o p i c r e l a t i o n p*pl/’ = const. i s approached

by a s t r a i g h t l i n e i n t h e p l a n e p = p ( l / p ) ( f i g . 13) :

P - P, = a,
2
P,
2
(<
1
- -1P1 (23)

I n t r o d u c i n g (23) i n t o t h e B e r n o u l l i e q u a t i o n , w e g e t

w2 - w,2 = am P, 1
(-.-
-+)
P Pm
2 2
W i t h p 2 - a 2 = p;a2 = pi-ag which i s v a l i d [Link] o f

we o b t a i n from eq.(24)

w2 - a2
2
= wm - am 2
w2 = a
2
- 2
a.

Using t h e s e r e l a t i o n s , t h e eq. (21) c a n b e w r i t t e n a s ( r e f . 10) :

 4-9

T h i s e q u a t i o n c a n b e r e d u c e d i n t o t h a t o f a n i n c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w b y d e f i n i n g a new v a r -
i a b l e wi w i t h t h e r e l a t i o n

I n t r o d u c i n g t h i s u n i q u e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n wi
a
a n d w 1 t h e e q u a t i o n ( 2 6 ) i s transf0rme.d
. into

Comparing e q s ( 2 6 ) a n d ( 2 8 ) it i s e v i d e n t t h a t f o r M = 0 i n eq. ( 2 6 ) b o t h t h e r e l a -
t i o n s are i d e n t i c a l . Hence, eq. ( 2 8 ) i s t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n f o r an i n c o m p r e s s i b l e
f l u i d i n t h e h o d o g r a p h p l a n e wi,tl.

The i m p o r t a n c e o f t h i s r e s u l t i s t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e now t o o b t a i n m o r e e a s i l y r e s u l t s
i n t h e p h y s i c a l p l a n e f o r g i v e n b o u n d a r i e s . Knowing t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e r e s u l t s f o r a
g i v e n p r o f i l e Jli = J l i ( x i , y i ) , t h e v e l o c i t y components ui a n d v i c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d t o
g i v e Jli = Jli(wi,O). T h i s f u n c t i o n h a s t h e s a m e f o r n l i k e JI = J l ( w , O ) , d u e t o t h e t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n ( 2 7 ) u s e d . The c o m p r e s s i b l e s o l u t i o n , f o u n d b y r e p l a c i n g W i and w, w i l l g i v e
t h e body s h a p e i n t h e p h y s i c a l p l a n e , by i n t e g r a t i n g :

The b o d y f o r m w i l l b e s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e o n e .

To p e r f o r m t h i s p r o c e d u r e , w e have t o s o l v e two s t e p s . F i r s t , a r e l a t i o n between

t h e corresponding v e l o c i t i e s i n t h e compressible and incompressible flow f i e l d h a s t o b e
e s t a b l i s h e d . Second, a r e l a t i o n between t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p r o f i l e s h a p e s h a s t o b e
f o r m u l a t e d.

3.3.1 Corresponding v e l o c i t i e s

A r e l a t i o n between t h e corresponding v e l o c i t i e s i s obtained u s i n g t h e e q s (25) and

(27) :
W.

with 2
1.l m
A=czT m
(30)

The d e t a i l e d d e r i v a t i o n w h i c h i s p u r e l y m a t h e m a t i c a l c a n b e f o u n d i n r e f . 10.

S i m i l a r t o t h e Prandtl-Glauert r u l e , w e can a l s o c o n s t r u c t a s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e
c o e f f i c i e n t c o r r e c t i o n formula w i t h eq. (29) :

Cn:
(31)

T h i s f o r m u l a i s t h s o - c a l l e d Karman-Tsien p r e s s u r e c o r r e c t i o n formula. In fig. 15 the

eq. ( 3 1 ) i s p l o t t e d i n form o f a graph.

The e q . ( 3 1 ) o f c o u r s e d o e s n o t r e p r e s e n t e x a c t l y t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e c o m p r e s s i b i -
l i t y on t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f a n , a i r f o i l , b e c a u s e t h e p r o f i l e s f o r which t h e c p
v a l u e s a r e compared a r e s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t .

F o r t h e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f e q . ( 3 1 ) i t i s u s e f u l t o know t h a t c o u n t e r a c t i n g
e r r o r s e x i s t , w h i c h seem t o n e a r l y c a n c e l e a c h o t h e r . The l i n e a r p r e s s u r e d e n s i t y r e l a -
t i o n o v e r e s t i m a t e s t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y e f f e c t s . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y
c o r r e c t i o n o f t h e p r o f i l e c o o r d i n a t e s w i l l p r o d u c e a t h i c k e r p r o f i l e . Hence, u s i n g t h e
thinner incompressible p r o f i l e , we s h a l l be c l o s e r t o r e a l i t y .
4- 10

3.3.2 Profile coordinate correction

The d e t a i l e d d e r i v a t i o n o f t h e c o r r e c t i o n p a r a m e t e r c a n b e f o u n d i n r e f , 1 0 . Here
t h i s procedure i s outlined only very b r i e f l y .

The c o r r e s p o n d i n g p o i n t s i n t h e x , y p l a n e a r e b e s t r e p r e s e n t e d by c o m p l e x q u a n t i t i e s :

z = x + iy, zi = xi + i y i
and b

F (zi) = $i + iJli
%
F(zi) = Oi - i6i (32)

These r e l a t i o n s g i v e the c o n n e c t i o n between z and zi:

with

The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e c o r r e c t i o n t e r m o n z i i s s m a l l , s p e c i a l l y f o r m o d e r a t e Mach n u m b e r s .
F o r M -+ 0 , i t a p p r o a c h e s z e r o , t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e c o n t o u r z 3 z i'

3.3.3 Conclusions
F o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e Karman-Tsien r u l e i t s h o u l d b e h e l d i n mind t h a t t h i s
r u l e i s a l s o r e s t r i c t e d t o small p e r t u r b a t i o n s due t o t h e l i n e a r p r e s s u r e d e n s i t y r e l a -
t i o n . B u t t h e r u l e i s n o t l i k e t h e o n e o f P r a n d t l - G l a u e r t l i m i t e d t o s m a l l Mach n u m b e r s
shown i n f i g . 1 6 .

4. M A T H E f l A T I C A L SOLUTIOHS FOR SUBSONIC COMPRESSIBLE FLOW I N CASCADES

B a s e d o n t h e r e l a t i o n s d e v e l o p e d f o r i s o l a t e d a i r f o i l s , we s h a l l d i s c u e a t h e i r a p -
p l i c a t i o n f o r c a s c a d e s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r , o u t l i n i n g t h e i r main a s s u m p t i o n s and
restrictions.

4.1 Prandtl-Glauert r u l e f o r cascades

F o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e P r a n d t l - G l a u e r t r u l e s d e v e l o p e d i n c h a p t e r 3.1 f o r s i n g l e
a i r f o i l s t o compressor cascades, w e have t o consider t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n
f a c t o r s on t h e c a s c a d e p a r a m e t e r s a n d t h e p r o f i l e c o n t o u r .

The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w f i e l d i n t o t h e c o m p r e s s i b l e o n e d e m a n d s
a s h o r t e n i n g of t h e y-coordinate with t h e f a c t o r 6 = , The r e s u l t i s a c a s c a d e
w i t h a smaller p i t c h chord r a t i o s/g and a h i g h s t a g g e r a g g l e y ( f i g . 17) :

(34 1
!
m

The s u b s c r i p t i i n d i c a t e s h e r e , a n d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g , t h e d i m e n s i o n s i n t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e
flow f i e l d of a cascade working i n t h e compressible flow.

The p i t c h c h o r d r a t i o i s

For t h e determination of t h e p r o f i l e contour i n t h e incompressible flow f i e l d , w e

can use e i t h e r t h e c o n d i t i o n o f e q u i v a l e n t s t a t i c p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o r e q u i v a l e n t
p r o f i l e c o n t o u r s . F o r cpi = c p c t h e p r o f i l e c o n t o u r h a s t o b e c h a n g e d a c c o r d i n g t o

H e n c e , t h e p r o f i l e i s t h i c k e r a n d more c a m b e r e d i n t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w f i e l d . A l s o
t h e r e l a t i v e i n l e t and o u t l e t flow a n g l e s a r e changed a t i n f i n i t y upstream and downstream
o f t h e c a s c a d e ( r e f . 1) :

w i h ul 2 = ~ 1 . 2b e ~c a u s e in the x-direction t h e r e i s no i n f l u e n c e of c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y .
 4- 11

I n f i r s t approximation it can be s t a t e d t h a t t h e d e f l e c t i o n w i l l be h i g h e r f o r t h e
c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w d u e t o t h e sane l i f t p e r b l a d e b u t a smaller p i t c h c h o r d r a t i o .

F o r t h e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n i t i s more s u i t a b l e t o u s e t h e s e c o n d c a s e , t h e p r o f i l e
f o r m c o n s t a n t w i t h t h e Mach n u m b e r . Now, t h e p e r t u r b a t i o n v e l o c i t y c o m p o n e n t v i s c o n s t a n t ,
w h i l e t h e component U h a s t o be changed a c c o r d i n g t o
U.

(38)

The a x i a l v e l o c i t y c o m p o n e n t s h a v e t o b e e q u a l i n t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e c a s e u p s t r e a m a n d
downstream o f t h e c a s c a d e :

This r e l a t i o n r e s u l t s i n t h e following function f o r t h e flow angle v e l o c i t y at cascade

i n l e t and o u t l e t plane :

To c o n c l u d e , t h e f o l l o w i n g s t e p s a r e n e c e s s a r y t o u s e t h e a b o v e o u t l i n e d m e t h o d s :
1) t h e c a s c a d e p a r a m e t e r s y , o h a v e t o b e c h a n g e d a c c o r d i n g t o e q . ( 3 4 ) a n d ( e q . ( 2 5 ) ;
2) t h e i n l e t a n g l e h a s t o b e t r a n s f o r m e d f o l l o w i n g eq. (40);
3 ) t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d w i t h e q . (15) a n d t h e o u t l e t a n g l e
w i t h eq. ( 4 0 ) .

For t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e Prandtl-Glauert t r a n s f o r n a t i o r s it should always b e h e l d

i n mind t h a t t h e s m a l l p e r t u r b a t i o n t h e o r y i s t h e b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n . Hence, o n l y f o r small
c a m b e r e d and t h i n p r o f i l e s s u f f i c i e n t r e s u l t s w i l l b e o b t a i n e d . F o r t r a n s o n i c c o m p r e s s o r
cascades designed f o r t h e t i p s e c t i o n s of a r o t o r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s are mostly s a t i s f i e d .
A n o t h e r r a t h e r a n n o y i n g p a r a m e t e r i s t h e Mach n u m b e r M m d e t e r m i n i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e
c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y ; T h i s Mach n u m b e r i s c h a n g i n g t h r o u g h t h e b l a d e p a s s a g e a n d n o t c o n s t a n t
l i k e f o r i s o l a t e d a i r f o i l s . N o r m a l l y , t h e i n l e t Mach n u m b e r i s t a k e n a s M-. B u t a s l i g h t
i m p r o v e m e n t c o u l d b e o b t a i n e d b y u s i n g a n a v e r a g e Mach n u m b e r o f o u t l e t a n d i n l e t stream-
field.

I n f i g . 1 8 some e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s a r e c o m p a r e d w i t h m e a s u r e m e n t s , A c o m p a r i s o n
o f t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e a n d c o m p r e s s i b l e t h e o r e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n s shows t h a g o o d improvement
o f t h e l a t t e r , A d i r e c t comparison w i t h t h e measurements is n o t p o s s i b l e , due t o v i s c o u s
flow and t h r e e dimensional flow e f f e c t s n o t considered i n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n .
B u t i n g e n e r a l , i t seems t h a t t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n d o e s n o t t a k e s u f f i c i e n t l y i n t o a c c o u n t
t h e h i g h e r l o c a l Mach n u m b e r r e g i o n s .

To d i m i n i s h $ h i s d i f f e r e n c e o f p r e d i c t i o n a n d m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e s u c t i o n p e a k v e l o -
c i t y , it h a s b e e n p r o p o s e d b y d i f f e r e n t a u t h o r s ( r e f , 11, 1 2 ) t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t a l s o
h i g h e r o r d e r terms f o r t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e p o t e n t i a l f l o w e q u a t i o n i n s t e a d o f o n l y t h e
f i r s t one f o r t h e l i n e a r i z e d s o l u t i o n .

S p r e i t e r a n d A l k s n e ( r e f . 11) h a v e shown f o r s i n g l e a i r f o i l s t h a t t h e c o m p r e s s i b l e
flow e q u a t i o n , t a k i n g i n t o a c c o u n t second and f i r s t o r d e r terms, can b e w r i t t e n as

The f a c t o r (l-Mi-C$x) c a n b e k e p t c o n s t a n t w i t h i n s m a l l s t e p s a n d t h e eq. ( 4 1 ) c a n b e con-

s i d e r e d as a l o c a l l y l i n e a r i z e d d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n .

For cascade flow, F o t t n e r ( r e f , 1 2 ) performed t h e l o c a l l i n e a r i z a t i o n based on t h e

P r a n d t l - G l a u e r t r u l e a n d o b t a i n f o r t h e v e l o c i t y d i s ~ t r i b u t i o n:
I

with

wf = r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y a t t h e camber l i n e
yt = c o o r d i n a t e of t h e t h i c k n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n .
I n f i g u r e 19 t h e p r e s s u r e c o e f f i c i e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n o n t h e s u c t i o n s i d e i s c o m p a r e d
for:
4- 12

1 ) The i n c o m p r e s s i b l e p r e s s u r . e d i s t r i b u t i o n ;
2) The c a l c u l a t i o n s o f t h e P r a n d t l - C l a u e r t r u l e f o r t h e determination of t h e e q u i v a l e n t
c a s c a d e geometry ( e q . 34, 35, 4 0 ) ;
3 ) C a l c u l a t i o n of t h e l o c a l v a r i a b l e c a s c a d e g e o m e t r y w i t h t h e P r a n d t l - G l a u e r t r u l e ;
4) L o c a l l i n e a r i z a t i o n f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e l o c a l l y v a r i a b l e e q u i v a l e n t c a s c a d e
g e o m e t r y ( e q . 42).

A c o n s i d e r a b l e improvement i s obtained w i t h t h e use of t h e a d d i t i o n a l terms s p e c i a l l y

f o r t h e h i g h e x c e s s s p e e d s . The i n f l u e n c e o f l o c a l s h o c k s c a n n o t b e p r e d i c t e d w i t h t h i s
m e t h o d , of c o u r s e ,

4.2 Expansion i n series

Two m e t h o d s o n l y a r e m e n t i o n e d h e r e u s i n g t h e a p p r o x i m a t i v e p r o c e d u r e s d e s c r i b e d
i n c h a p t e r 3.2. The a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e m e t h o d s i s n o r m a l l y r e s t r i c t e d t o t h i c k p r o f i l e s
d u e t o t h e i r b a s i c a s s u m p t i o n s . They a r e n o t v a l i d f o r s u p e r s o n i c r e g i o n s .

4.2.1 Method of P r i c e ( r e f . 13)

P r i c e e x t e n d s t h e M a r t e n s e n method ( r e f . 1 4 ) - originally f o r incompressible flows

t o c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w s by s u c c e s s i v e l y a p p r o x i m a t i n g t o t h e c o m p r e s s i b l e p o t e n t i a l equa-
-
t i o n b y a P o i s s o n e q u a t i o n l i k e it h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r 3 . 2 . The i n c o m p r e s s i b l e
s o l u t i o n i s used f o r t h e first approximation of t h e flow p o t e n t i a l .

a M a r t e n s e n ' s m e t h o d , t h e b l a d e i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y a s e t o f v o r t i c e s on t h e b l a d e
c o n t o u r . The m e t h o d i s o n l y v a l i d f o r b l a d e c o n t o u r s h a v i n E n o d i s c o n t i n u i t y , i . e . , t h e
s e c o n d d e r i v a t i v e . P a l ( r e f . 1 5 ) h a s changed t h e method t o a l l o w f o r one d i s c o n t i n u i t y ,
t h e t r a i l i n g edge.

I n c h a p t e r 3.2 w e have seen t h a t t h e compressible p o t e n t i a l flow equation can b e

w r i t t e n as :

(43)

where F ( x , y ) c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d as t h e s t r e n g t h of a p l a n e s o u r c e - s i n k d i s t r i b u t i o n o v e r
t h e w h o l e f l o w f i e l d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c h a n g e o f volume f l o w due t o l o c a l c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y
e f f e c t s i n t h e flow f i e l d .

On t h e b o u n d a r i e s of t h e f l o w f i e l d , t h e b l a d e c o n t o u r s , a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e s o r s i n k s
have t o b e d i s t r i b u t e d t o r e d u c e t h e normal v e l o c i t y i n d u c e d by t h e f l o w f i e l d s o u r c e s
a n d s i n k s t o z e r o . The p o t e n t i a l , d u e t o t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e s o l u t i o n ( $ 0 i n c h a p t e r 3 . 2 1 ,
t h e s o u r c e a n d s i n k d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e f l o w f i e l d a n d on t h e b l a d e c o n t o u r s a r e u s e d
t o c a l c u l a t e t h e r i g h t hand s i d e o f eq. ( 4 3 ) . T h i s w i l l b e c o n t i n u e d i t e r a t i v e l y u n t i l
t h e process converges.

The s o u r c e a n d s i n k s t r e n g t h i n t h e f l o w f i e l d r e q u i r e d i s , f o l l o w i n g r e f . 13 :

This source and s i n k s t r e n g t h induces a t t h e p r o f i l e boundary a normal v e l o c i t y w n ( X )

w i t h X a c o o r d i n a t e d e s c r i b i n g t h e p r o f i l e by i n c r e a s i n g f r o m 0 2n : -

The l i n e s o u r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e b l a d e i s g i v e n w i t h eq. (45

m(A) s t r e n g t h of l i n e s o u r c e .

W i t h t h e r e s u l t s of t h e e q u a t i o n s ( 4 4 , 4 5 , 4 6 ) t h e d e r i v a t i o n s o f t h e p o t e n t i a l
@(E,n) a r e r e c a l c u l a t e d a n d i n t r o d u c e d i n t o e q . ( 4 4 ) t o g i v e a new Fl(6.n). The p r o c e s s
 4- 13

The m a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s f o r t h e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n i s t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e e q u a -
t i o n s g i v i n g t h e d e r i v a t i v e s o f @, I n g e n e r a l , t h e c o n t i n u o u s v o r t e x a n d s o u r c e - s i n k
d i s t r i b u t i o n i s r e p l a c e d by a s e t o f p o i n t v o r t i c e s a n d s o u r c e s . But t h e r e i s a g e n e r a l
d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e b e h a v i o r o f a l i n e v o r t e x a n d a p o i n t v o r t e x which g e t s i m p o r t a n t f o r
t h i n p r o f i l e s ; we c o n s i d e r i n t h i s n o t e .

Close t o a p o i n t v o r t e x t h e induced v e l o c i t y t e n d s t o i n f i n i t y , while c l o s e t o a

l i n e vortex, t h e v e l o c i t y tends t o 2 yf2.

Hence t h e u s e o f t h i s m e t h o d t o t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f c o m p r e s s o r c a s c a d e s i s v e r y res-
t r i c t e d , d u e t o t h e u s e o f p o i n t v o r t i c e s a n d M a r t e n s e n ' s i n c o m p r e s s i b l e s o l u t i o n . Up t o
now, n o p u b l i s h e d r e s u l t s a r e a v a i l a b l e o f t h i s p r o c e d u r e ,

4.2.2 N e t h o d o f Imbach ( r e f . 16)

The m e t h o d o f I m b a c h i s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r o f " e x p a n s i o n i n s e r i e s " d u e t o

i t s c l o s e r e s e m b l a n c e w i t h t h e method o f P r i c e , a l t h o u g h i t i s b e t t e r s u i t e d f o r a p r e s e n -
t a t i o n with t h e f l u x a n a l y s i s methods,

Imbach i s u s i n g t h e c l a s s i c a l s o l u t i o n f o r t h e L a p l a c e e q u a t i o n b y s u p e r p o s i t i o n a l s o
i n t h e c o m p r e s s i b l e c a s e . The f l o w t h r o u g h t h e c a s c a d e i s c o n s t r u c t e d b y a p a r a l l e l m a i n
tgBl+tg62
flow tgBm = 2
a n d a c i r c u l a t i o n f l o w a r o u n d t h e p r o f i l e . The l a s t one i s pro-
d u c e d b y a v o r t e x d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e b l a d e c o n t o u r , w h i c h i s c o r r e c t e d f o r t h e compres-
s i b i l i t y e f f e c t s r e p r e s e n t e d w i t h a source-sink d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e passage flow v i o l a t i n g
t h e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s o n t h e b l a d e (w = 0 ) d u e t o a n a d d i t i o n a l i n d u c e d v e l o c i t y
n
component.

The s o u r c e - s i n k d i s t r i b u t i o n i s c a l c u l a t e d a c c o r d i n g t o a c h a n g e o f v o l u m e f l o w
a l o n g a stream l i n e . Hence, f o r t h e f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n t h e s t r e a m l i n e f o r t h e incompres-
s i b l e f l o w w i l l b e u s e d . The d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e v o l u m e f l o w o f t w o f l o w s e c t i o n s o f
a s t r e a m t u b e w i t h t h e w i d t h Ay-cos6 i s :

w*Ay COS6 - w ~ ~ A y * c o s B=1

F'
I
q ( C . 0 ) dF'
0
9
(47)

with F' equal t o t h e p a s s a g e s e c t i o n i n which t h e s o u r c e s and s i n k s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d .

U s i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s f o r c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w s , t h e e q u a t i o n ( 4 7 ) c a n b e e x p r e s s e d as

I
0
r e l a t i n g t h e s o u r c e - s i n k s t r e n g t h i n t h e f i e l d F ' w i t h t h e i n l e t Elach n u m b e r Kl.
+
The a d d i t i o n a l v e l o c i t y i n d u c e d b y t h i s s o u r c e - s i n k d i s t r i b u t i o n i s
F'

with 0

H e n c e , t h e l o c a l v e l o c i t y c o m p o n e n t s a r e t h e sum o f t h e t e r m s d u e t o t h e m a i n f l o w ,
t h e v o r t e x d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e b l a d e c o n t o u r a n d t h e s o u r c e - s nk d i s t r i b u t i o n n t h e f l o w
field :

v ( z ) = vm + v ( z ) + v ( z )
Y 9
u(z) = U- + U ( z ) + U ( 2 )
Y 9

The v o r t e x d i s t r i b u t i o n o n t h e p r o f i l e c o n t o u r i s d e t e r m i n e d w i t h t h e f u l f i l l m e n t o f :
1) t h e c o n d i t i o n s a t i n f i n i t y u p s t r e a m : U(--) = w(--)cosB1
v(--) = w(--)sing,
2 ) t h e v e l o c i t y component normal t o t h e b l a d e contour has t o be zero
3) t h e Kutta condition.

Knowing t h e c o r r e c t e d v e l o c i t i e s i t i s p o s s i b l e t o t r a c e a new s e t o f s t r e a m l i n e s ,
w h i c h a g a i n w i l l d e t e r m i n e a new s i n k - s o u r c e d i s t r i b u t i o n .
I 4-14

_- R e s u l t s f o r a t u r b i n e c a s c a d e a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n f i g . 20 f o r M 1 = .20 a n d M 2 = .60.
I The a g r e e m e n t b e t w e e n c a l c u l a t e d a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l v a l u e s i s s u f f i c i e n t . A s l i g h t o v e r -
e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e h i g h s u c t i o n s i d e v e l o c i t i e s i s shown.

4.3 F l u x a n a l y s i s
The f l u x a n a l y s i s method c o n s i d e r s t h e c a s c a d e b u i l t up o f a n i n f i n i t e number o f
c h a n n e l s i n s t e a d o f an i n f i n i t e number o f i s o l a t e d a i r f o i l s . Hence, t h i s a p p r o a c h i s pay-
t i c u l a r l y s u i t a b l e f o r h i g h s o l i d i t ; . low s t a g g e r c a s c a d e s . A l s o , t h e r e i s n o r e s t r i c t i o n
on t h e maximum v a l u e o f t h e camber a n g l e f o r t h e b l a d e s .

4.3.1 Method o f T r a u p e l ( r e f . 17)

The method p r o p o s e d by T r a u p e l c o n s i s t s o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e $,$ n e t t h r o u g h

a b l a d e c h a n n e l u s i n g t h e c o n t i n u i t y r e l a t i o n t o g e t a unique f u n c t i o n between t h e i n l e t
Mach number, t h e l o c a l Mach number a n d t h e l o c a l f l o w s e c t i o n :
- 1

W i t h f i g . 2 1 a p o t e n t i a l l i n e i s drawn i n t h e s m a l l e s t s e c t i o n o f t h e b l a d e c h a n n e l from
A t o B. T h i s l i n e i s d i v i d e d i n t o two p a r t s -
i n t h e f i r s t =sumption t h e two p a r t s a r e
e q u a l which i s o n l y t r u e i f t h e v e l o c i t y i s c o n s t a n t a l o n g AB -
following t h e r e l a t i o n :

A$ = wl*Fl = w*F (51)

with F1 3 Abl*h, F = Ab-h

p o i n t t h e r a t i o Ab/Abl a n d w i t h e q . ( 5 O ) t h e v e l o c i t y r a t i o w / w l
t u r e n e t o f s t r e a m l i n e s a n d p o t e n t i a l l i n e s , t h e n it i s v a l i d
M"/My -
A mean s t r e a m l i n e i s drawn u p s t r e a m a n d downstream o f t h e l i n e AB d e t e r m i n i n g a t e a c h
For a quadra- .
A$ = A$ = w * A s

and w i t h eq. (51)

I n t h i s manner p o t e n t i a l l i n e s a r e o b t a i n e d f o r one o f t h e two s t r e a m t u b e s . The po-

t e n t i a l l i n e s can be extended o v e r t h e second s t r e a m t u b e which a l l o w s a l s o a c a l c u l a t i o n
o f w / w l a t a n y p l a c e on t h i s t u b e w i t h w / w l = A
Wl*AS
=
Ab 1
-
f o r A$ = A$. On t h e o t h e r h a n d ,
AS
w/wl c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d w i t h t h e f u n c t i o n ( 5 0 ) a t t h i s p l a c e . The r e s u l t i n g v a l u e w i l l
p r o b a b l y b e d i f f e r e n t from t h e f i r s t o n e . A c o r r e c t i o n o f t h e f i r s t g u e s s e d s t r e a m l i n e
i s n e c e s s a r y u n t i l an agreement i s o b t a i n e d .

T h i s p r o c e d u r e c a n b e c o n t i n u e d by c u t t i n g i n t o h a l v e s t h e f i r s t two s t r e a m t u b e s a n d
a p p l y i n g t h e same p r o c e s s l i k e a b o v e . F o r r e g i m e s w i t h h i g h v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t s on t h e
c o n t o u r , it i s a d v i s a b l e t o d i m i n i s h f u r t h e r t h e n e t s i z e .

T h i s method c a n b e a p p l i e d a l s o f o r s u p e r s o n i c f l o w s i f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s h o c k waves
a r e n e g l e c t e d . Some d i f f i c u l t i e s c a n a r i s e i n t h e i n l e t o r o u t l e t s e c t i o n w h e r e t h e p o s i -
t i o n o f t h e s t a g n a t i o n s t r e a m l i n e is, n o t known a p r i o r i .

4.3.2 Method o f U c h i d a ( r e f , 18)

U c h i d a i s u s i n g t h e same p r o c e d u r e l i k e T r a u p e l ( r e f . 171, b u t more a d a p t e d t o t h e

n u m e r i c a l t r e a t m e n t w i t h a d i g i t a l c o m p u t e r due t o t h e u s e o f t h e p o t e n t i a l flow e q u a t i o n
i n c u r v i l i n e a r c o o r d i n a t e s . Some d i f f i c u l t i e s w i l l o c c u r f o r t h e c o n v e r g e n c e o f t h e so-
l u t i o n s i n t h e n e i g h b o u r h o o d o f M 2 = 1.

I n f i g . 22 some c a l c u l a t e d r e s u l t s a r e shown f o r a t u r b i n e c a s c a d e i n d i c a t i n g t h e
Mach number e f f e c t . The c a s c a d e p a r a m e t e r s a r e m e n t i o n e d i n t h e d i a g r a m .

4.3.3 T r a n s f o r m a t i o n method b a s e d on f l u x a n a l y s i s

I n r e f . 19 a method h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d b a s e d on t h e p r o p o s a l o f O s w a t i t s c h a n d
Ryhming ( r e f . 2 0 ) . F o r h i g h s o l i d i t y c a s c a d e s w i t h s m a l l s t a g g e r a n g l e s i t c a n b e s u p p o s e d
t h a t t h e s t r e a m l i n e c u r v a t u r e i s g i v e n by t h e b l a d e o r c h a n n e l form. The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e
c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y on t h e s t r e a m l i n e form c a n b e n e g l e c t e d , Hence, f o r t h e known i n c o m p r e s -
s i b l e s t r e a m l i n e f i e l d t h e p o t e n t i a l l i n e s f o r c o n s t a n t p o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e A$ c h a n g e
t h e p o s i t i o n f o r t h e c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w f i e l d compared t o t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e one.
 4- 15

The t w o g o v e r n i n g f l o w e q u a t i o n s , t h e c o n t i n u i t y e q u a t i o n a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n o f i r r o -
t a t i o n a l i t y are w r i t t e n i n c u r v i l i n e a r c o o r d i n a t e s ( f i g . 23) f o r incompressible flow

w i t h 6 = 8. t h e a n g l e o f t h e s l o p e o f t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e s t r e a m l i n e . For t h e compressible
c a s e w i t h t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f B C = Bi = B :

The f i r s t o n e o f t h e s e t w o s y s t e m s o f e q u a t i o n s i s c o r r e c t , w h i l e t h e s e c o n d o n e i s o n l y
a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n d u e t o 6 = si.

The f o l l o w i n g p r o c e d u r e i s d e v e l o p e d w i t h t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e
s o l u t i o n i s known, T h i s s o l u t i o n c a n b e o b t a i n e d e i t h e r f r o m e x p e r i m e n t c l r e s u l t s o r
t h e o r e t i c a l ones. T h i s freedom i s o f extreme importance f o r t h e t r e a t n e n t of high deflec-
t i o n b l a d e s where t h e i n f l u e n c e of v i s c o u s e f f e c t s i s predominaxt and no v a l i d method i s
a c t u a l l y a t hand f o r a t h e o r e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e v i s c o u s e f f e c t s (normally s e p a r a t e d
t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r ) .

To g e t a c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e a n d c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w f i e l d t h e r e c a n
be used e i t h e r t h e c o n t i n u i t y equations (53a) (54a) o r t h e conditions of t h e i r r o t a t i o n a l i t y
( 5 3 b ) ( 5 4 b ) . The f i r s t a p p r o a c h r e s u l t s i n a n i n t e g r a t i o n a l o n g a s t r e a m l i n e w h i c h w i l l
b e r a t h e r i n a c c u r a t e d u e t o t h e long i n t e g r a t i o n d i s t a n c e w i t h a n a p p r o x i m a t e s o l u t i o n .
More a p p r o p r i a t e i s a n i n t e g r a t i o n a l o n g a p o t e n t i a l l i n e u s i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s ( 5 3 b ) a n d
( 54b

T h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e l o c a l v e l o c i t y a n d t h e i n l e t Mach n u m b e r i s e s t a b l i s h e d
w i t h t h e c o n t i n u i t y equation a p p l i e d between t h e i n l e t s e c t i o n and t h e p o t e n t i a l l i n e
f o r w h i c h t h e eq. ( 5 5 ) i s u s e d .

The l o c a l f l o w s e c t i o n A = n * h i s d e t e r m i n e d f o r a known b l a d e h e i g h t h a n d t h e
l e n g t h of t h e p o t e n t i a l l i n e between t h e s u c t i o n and p r e s s u r e s i d e o f t h e b l a d e ,

It i s assumed a second o r d e r polynomial f o r t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n a l o n g t h e

potential line :
2
w(ei) = a$i + b$i + d (56)

The v a l i d i t y o f t h i s a s s u m p t i o n h a s b e e n v e r i f i e d b y a f i n i t e d i f f e r e n c e c a l c u l a t i o n o f
t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w f i e l d i n r e f . 2 1 . An e x a m p l e i s shown i n f i g . 24. The c o n s t a n t s
a, b and d a r e determined w i t h t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s

and t h e c o n d i t i o n of i r r o t a t i o n a l i t y

The s o l u t i o n o f t h e c o n t i n u i t y e q u a t i o n
Qi=n

paw
i l
* ~ * c o s B ~=
I
Qj=O
p * w i ( Q i ) dJli (57)

w i l l g i v e t h e l e n g t h n.

For the compressible s o l u t i o n a l s o a second order polynomial c p r e p r e s e n t t h e

v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n along a streamline, nondimensionalized with a :
4- 16

(58)

The c o n s t a n t s A a n d B a r e d e t e r m i n e d s i m i l a r t o t h e i n c o m p r e s s i b l e s o l u t i o n , An i n t r o d u c -
t i o n o f e q . ( 5 8 ) w i t h t h e known l e n g t h n a n d mass f l o w p l * w c * g * c o s 6 l i n t o t h e c o m p r e s s i -
b l e c o n t i n u i t y e q u a t i o n w i l l g i v e an i m p l i c i t equation f o r ' M X x . The c o r r e s p o n d i n g Mach
n u m b e r a t t h e p r e s s u r e s i d e o n t h e same p o t e n t i a l l i n e i s f o u n 8 . S w i t h e q . ( 5 5 ) .

Some r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d w i t h t h i s m e t h o d , w h i c h i s a l s o v a l i d i p t h e s u p e r s o n i c f l o w
range, i f t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s e s due t o skocks a r e n e g l e c t e d , are p r e s e n t e d i n
.chapter 7.

5 . SUPERSONIC FLOW RANGE

' With t h e methods p r e s e n t e d above, t h e f l o w f i e l d u p s t r e a m o f t h e s o n i c l i n e and
d o w n s t r e a m o f t h e l o c a l s h o c k c a n b e d e s c r i b e d . Downstream o f t h e s o n i c l i n e , a s u p e r -
s o n i c expansion d e v e l o p s forming s u p e r s o n i c flow p o c k e t s which can e x t e n d r a t h e r l o n g
i n t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of chord f o r h i g h l y staggered and high p i t c h chord r a t i o cascades.
F o r h i g h s o l i d i t y c a s c a d e s c r i t i c a l a n d c h o k i n g Mach n u m b e r s a r e v e r y c l o s e ; a s u p e r s o n i c
flow f i e l d e x t e n d s o v e r t h e whole b l a d e p a s s a g e .

The m e t h o d s o f f l u x a n a l y s i s a r e v a l i d a l s o i n t h e s u p e r s o n i c f l o w f i e l d due t o t h e
d o u b l e s o l u t i o n o f t h e c o n t i n u i t y e q u a t i o n . Hence, a s p e c i a l t r e a t m e n t f o r t h e s u p e r s o n i c
flow c a l c u l a t i o n i s n o t necessary,

I n t h e s u p e r s o n i c f l o w p o c k e t s embedded i n t h e s u b s o n i c f l o w , a P r a n d t l - M e y e r e x p a n -
s i o n e x i s t s on w h i c h a c o m p r e s s i o n p r o c e s s i s s u p e r p o s e d d u e t o t h e e x p a n s i o n l i n e s r e -
f l e c t e d as compression l i n e s from t h e s o n i c l i n e ( f i g . 2 5 ) .

I n s t e a d o f h a v i n g t o p e r f o r m t h e r a t h e r t e d i o u s a n d complex work o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n on t h e b l a d e p r o f i l e i n s u c h a s u p e r s o n i c f l o w p o c k e t , w h i c h c a n
o n l y b e e x e c u t e d w i t h a n i t e r a t i v e p r o c e s s , b e c a u s e t h e s o n i c l i n e i s n o t known, F o t t n e r
( r e f . 1 2 ) e s t a b l i s h e d an e m p i r i c a l r u l e f o r t h e p r e d i c t i o n of t h e p r e s s u r e r a t i o p / p o l
i n t h i s r a n g e ( f i g . 2 6 ) . M e a s u r e m e n t s o f p / p o l i n f u n c t i o n o f t h e s l o p e v a r i a t i o n Aac
can be approximated w i t h a s t r a i g h t l i n e :

2
PO 1
=' 0.5283 - 0 , 8 6 1 1 Aac (59)

O f c o u r s e , t h i s r e l a t i o n s h o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d a s a t e n t a t i v e o n e b e c a u s e t h e u s e o f some
a d d i t i o n a l measurements ( r e f . 4 ) i n c a s c a d e s w i t h NACA b l a d e s i n d i c a t e d a h i g h e r d i f f e r e n c e
between t h e Prandtl-Meyer e x p a n s i o n and t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s t h a n p r e d i c t e d by r e f .
12. Also t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f Prandtl-Meyer c a l c u l a t i o n and measurements i s n o t o n l y due t o
t h e r e f l e c t e d c o m p r e s s i b l e waves b u t a l s o t o t h e boundary l a y e r which d e c r e a s e s t h e e f -
f e c t i v e s l o p e v a r i a t i o n on t h e b l a d e c o n t o u r .

6. SHOCK-BOUNDARY LAYER I N T E R A C T I O N
A g r e a t number o f t h e o r e t i c a l a n d a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s a r e p u b l i s h e d f o r t h e p r o b l e m s
o f shock-boundary l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n . But most o f t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t r e a t t h e c a s e o f
a n o r m a l s h o c k on a f l a t p l a t e or t h e i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s d u e t o s h o c k s c r e a t e d b y com-
pression corners o r forward facing steps. A use of t h e i r r e s u l t s f o r t h e treatment of
s h o c k s on p r o f i l e s i s e x t r e m e l y r e s t r i c t e d d u e t o t h e i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e s e
cases.

I n f i g . 2 7 a s c h e m a t i c m o d e l o f t h e i n t e r a c t i o n p r o c e s s i s s h o w n , T h e c a s e w i t h se-
p a r a t i o n i s p r e s e n t e d , b e c a u s e i t i s t h e u s u a l o n e f o r c a s c a d e s . The p r e s s u r e r i s e i n t h e
f r e e stream t h r o u g h a n e a r l y n o r m a l s h o c k p r o d u a e s a s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r
c o n n e c t e d w i t h an i n c r e a s e i n b o u n d a r y l a y e r t h i c k n e s s . T h e i n c r e a s e o f t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r
t h i c k n e s s f o r m s a wedge s h a p e d c o n t o u r w h i c h g e n e r a t e s a weak o b l i q u e s h o c k , t h e u p s t r e a m
l e g o f t h e b i f u r c a t e d n o r m a l s h o c k . The s e c o n d l e g o f t h i s s h o c k i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r t o ' t h e
flow d i r e c t i o n or under a s m a l l a n g l e t o form a s u p e r s o n i c downstream tongue, confirmed
by m e a s u r e m e n t s o f S e d d o n ( r e f . 2 2 ) .

With t h e a c t u a l ' s t a t e o f knowledge t h e f l o w c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n r e g i o n

cannot b e t r e a t e d p u r e l y t h e o r e t i c a l l y . Empirical s o l u t i o n s have t o be usea.

The i n t e r a c t t o n p r o c e s s c a n b e d e s c r i b e d w i t h t h r e e p a r a m e t e r s , s k e t c h e d i n f i g , 28 :
1) s h o c k i n t e n s i t y c / p
2 ) displacement phase K
3 ) boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s growth.

The s h o c k i n t e n s i t y i s f o u n d e m p i r i c a l l y b y p l o t t i n g t h e p r e s s u r e b a t i o z / p 0 1 i n
f u n c t i o n o f t h e r a t i o p / p 0 1 . T h i s c o r r e l a t i o n i s shown i n f i g . 2 9 f o r c o n d i t i o n s on d i f -
f e r e n t c u r v a t u r e s tog,ether w i t h t h e t h e o r e t i c a l normal shock s o l u t i o n and a s e p a r a t i o n
c r i t e r i o n of Pearcey ( r e f . 23).
 4-17

For a p r e s s u r e r a t i o p l / p o l > .45 t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e downstream o f t h e shock f o l -

lows t h e t r e n d o f t h e normal shock and no s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e boundary l a y e r below t h e
s h o c k h a s t o b e e x p e c t e d . The s m a l l d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t i n g i s m a i n l y d u e t o t h e b o u n d a r y
l a y e r e f f e c t and t h e r e a c c e l e r a t i o n o r r e d i f f u s i o n of t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e immediately
d o w n s t r e a m o f t h e s h o c k f o r a c o n v e x o r c o n c a v e s u r f a c e ( s e e f i g . 3 0 ) . T h i s i s shown
t h e o r e t i c a l l y f o r a n o n v i s c o u s f l o w by Z i e r e p ( r e f . 2 4 ) . F o r v a l u e s p 1 / p 0 1 < .45 s e p a r a -
t i o n i s i n d i c a t e d b e c a u s e t h e growth o f t h e s e p a r a t i o n b u b b l e p r e v e n t s a f u r t h e r compres-
s i o n d o w n s t r e a m o f t h e s h o c k d u e t o a d i m i n i s h i n g o f t h e f l o w s e c t i o n . The s e p a r a t i o n
c r i t e r i a of P e a r c e y , e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h m e a s u r e m e n t s o n s i n g l e a i r f o i l s :

g i v e s t h e s l o p e of t h e c u r v e s f o r c a s c a d e s r a t h e r good, a l t h o u g h t h e f l o w s e p a r a t e s i n
c a s c a d e s a l r e a d y f o r s m a l l e r s h o c k u p s t r e a m E!ach n u m b e r t h a n f o r i s o l a t e d a i r f o i l s d u e t o
t h e h i g h e r p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t downstream of t h e shock f o r c a s c a d e s .

The e x t e n s i o n o f t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t p h a s e K i s m a i n l y a f u n c t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l b o u n d a r y
l a y e r momentum loss t h i c k n e s s , c o n f i r m e d b y m e a s u r e m e n t s i n a n a x i s y m m e t r i c a l n o z z l e b y
L i t t l e ( r e f . 25). and t h e shock i n t e n s i t y . A c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e s e parameters i s
p r e s e n t e d i n f i g . 31. A c r o s s p l o t o f t h e s e r e s u l t s i s shown i n f i g . 3 2 t o G i v e a nomo-
gram f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f K i n f u n c t i o n o f 6 2 a n d c / p .

The i n c r e a s e i n b o u n d a r y l a y e r t h i c k n e s s i n t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t p h a s e c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d
r i t h any i n t e g r a l method, by assuming a l i n e a r i n c r e a s e o f t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e from p t o
pewhich i s j u s t i f i e d by e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a .

With t h e s e t h r e e p a r a m e t e r s d e t e r m i n e d it i s p o s s i b l e t o d e s c r i b e t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e
d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e shock boundary l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n region, Also, it i s j u s t i f i e d f o r
a f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n t o s u p ~ i o s et h a t t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r d o w n s t r e a m o f t h e s h o c k t h i c k e n s
by t h e c o n s t a n t v a l u e o f boundary l a y e r i n c r e a s e i n t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t p h a s e .

7 . EXAMPLE F O R TRAIlSONIC CASCADE

F o r a h i g h d e f l e c t i o n b l a d e s u i t a b l e f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n as a s t a t o r b l a d i n g f o r a
s u p e r s o n i c a x i a l c o m p r e s s o r of t h e s h o c k - i n - r o t o r t y p e , t h e p r e d i c t e d p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u -
t i o n s a r e compared w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s . A l s o , t h i s a l l o w s u s t o e s t a b l i s h a p r e d i c -
t i o n method c o n s t r u c t e d o f t h e f o r e g o i n g p r o c e d u r e s .

The p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e c a s c a d e a r e ( f i g . 12):
e q u i v a l e n t camber a n g l e = 50'7
'es
stagger angle y = 30'
solidity U = 3
geometric i n l e t angle 4:ss' 58O
geometric o u t l e t angle B; = oo

Due t o t h e h i g h l o a d i n g o f t h i s c a s c a d e , we s h a l l s t a r t w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l i n c o m p r e s s i b l e
r e s u l t s t o c o n s i d e r a l s o a p a r t o f t h e v i s c o u s e f f e c t s . The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n i n t o t h e com-
p r e s s i b l e r a n g e i s p e r f o r m e d w i t h t h e method o f c h a p t e r 4.2.3 p a r t i c u l a r l y s u i t e d f o r t h i s
t y p e of b l a d i n g . This' t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w i l l a l w a y s g i v e a s u b s o n i c and s u p e r s o n i c s o l u t i o n
a l o n g t h e b l a d e ( v a l u e s a a n d b i n f i g . 3 3 ) . I f s o n i c c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t on t h e b l a d e s u r -
f a c e , t h e two l i n e s a and b w i l l c r o s s , while i n t h e l e a d i n g edge r e g i o n and t h e o u t l e t
p l a n e t h e r e s p e c t i v e s u b s o n i c s o l u t i o n i s v a l i d , t h e two s o l u t i o n s a a n a b c a n o n l y b e
c o n n e c t e d by a normal shock downstream o f t h e s o n i c p o i n t .

I n t h e f o l l o w i n g t h e two s o l u t i o n s a and b w i l l b e c o r r e c t e d f o r t h e i n f l u e n c e of
t h e c o m p r e s s i b i l i t y o n t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r momentum loss t h i c k n e s s w i t h e a . ( 5 ) . A p p l y i n g
t h i s p r o c e d u r e , it i s assumed t h a t t h e p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t on t h e b l a d e w i l l n o t c h a n g e i t s
i n f l u e n c e o n t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r w i t h t h e Mach n u m b e r . W i t h t h i s c o r r e c t i o n t h e s o l u t i o n s
a' and b ' are o b t a i n e d i n f i g . 33.

The p o s i t i o n o f t h e s h o c k i s f o u n d i t e r a t i v e l y . F o r a c h o o s e n p o i n t x / c on t h e c u r v e
a ' ) t h e p r e s s u r e $ downstream o f t h e shock, t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t phase K a n d t h e boundary l a y e r
t h i c k n e s s i n c r e a s e i s d e t e r m i n e d w i t h t h e p r o c e d u r e o u t l i n e d i n c h a p t e r 6. F o r t h e new
b o u n d a r y l a y e r t h i c k n e s s d o w n s t r e a m o f t h e s h o c k , t h e s o 1 u t i o n . b ' i s r e c a l c u l a t e d . The
pressure $ should be equal with t h i s solution at 7
r epeated,
(X+K) . If n o t , t h e p r o c e d u r e h a s t o b e

I n f i g u r e 34 t h e t h e o r e t i c a l r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d i n t h e a b o v e o u t l i n e d way a r e c o n p a r e d
w i t h experimental results.
4- 18

8. COBCLUSIONS
T h i s n o t e h a s p r e s e n t e d , i n a n i n t r o d u c t o r y w a y , some a s p e c t s o f c o m p r e s s o r c a s c a d e s
working i n t h e t r a n s o n i c flow range.

The d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p e r f o r m a n c e b e h a v i o r o f a c a s c a d e w i t h i n c r e a s i n g i n l e t I,:rrch
number h a s shown t h e d e c r e a s e o f o p e r a t i o n r a n e e . H e n c e , a n e x a c t i n v e r s e o r d i r e c t
m e t h a a is n e c e s s a r y f o r a s a t i s f a c t o r y d e s i g n .

D i r e c t methods are, w i t h t h e a c t u a l knowledge, n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w s

i n compressor cascades. For t h e i n d i r e c t procedures, i.e. ,
t h e p r e d i c t i o n of t h e p r e s s u r e
d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r a g i v e n b l a d i n g , t h e r e a r e two p r i n c i p a l Groups o f methods a v a i l a b l e f o r
t h e p o t e n t i a l f l o w c a l c u l a t i o n , s u p e r s o n i c a s w c l l a s s u b s o n i c . The f i r s t o n e c a n b e a p -
p l i e d t o h i g h p i t c h - c h o r d r a t i o , h i g h s t a e g e r c a s c a d e s w i t h t h i n s m a l l cambered b l a d e s ,
t y p i c a l f o r t h e t i p s e c t i o n o f a r o t o r . The m e t h o d s o f t h e s e c o n d g r o u p a r e v a l i d f o r h i g h
s o l i d i t y , l o w s t a g g e r a n g l e c a s c a d e s . The t y p e o f b l a d i n C i s n o r m a l l y n o t r e s t r i c t e d . A
method f o r a n i n t e r m e d i a t e t y p e o f c a s c a d e i s s t i l l m i s s i n g .

For shock boundary l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n r e g i o n s a n approach f o r an e m p i r i c a l s o l u t i o n

h a s been p r e s e n t e d , a l t h o u g h t h i s one h a s t o b e c o n s i d e r c d as a t e n t a t i v e o n e . Some
f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s necessary t o completely understand t h e i n t e r a c t ion of a n e a r l y
normal shock w i t h a t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r .

9 . LIST OF REFERENCES
1. SCHOLZ, t i , : A e r o d y n a m i k d e r S c h a u f e l g i t t e r , Band I .
V e r l a g G. Braun, K a r l s r u h e , 1965.

2. ROTTA, J . C . : I n t r o d u c t i o n t o t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r c a l c u l a t i o n s .
VKI L e c t u r e S e r i e s 5 , 1969.

3 . K O N D O , l i . , MIEJOTA, M . , Y A M A Z A K I , N . , PURUKAWA, N . : H i g h s p e e d t e s t s c f c o m p r e s s o r
c a s c a d e s w i t h d o u b l e c i r c u l a r arc blude s e c t i o n s .
N a t i o n a l A e r o s p a c e L a b . , TR 1 5 2 , 1 9 6 8 .

4 . VAN DEB BRAEMBUSSCUE, €7.: T h e o r e t i c a l and experimental study o f choking i n cascadcs i n

t h e Mach number r a n 6 e .6 t o 1 . 2 .
V K I PR 6 9 - 2 5 0 , 1969.

5 . HONSARRAT, N.T. & KEEBAN, 14.J.: Experimental e v a l u a t i o n of t r a n s o n i c s t a t o r s ; pre-

l i m i n a r y a n a l y s i s and design r e p o r t .
NASA CR 5 4 6 2 0 , 1 9 6 7 .

6. CHAUVIH, J. & BREUGELMANS, F . : R e s e a r c h on t h e u s e o f b l u n t t r a i l i n c c d g e b l a d e s i n

supersonic compressor s t a g e s .
S c i e n t i f i c R e p o r t N o 1, G r a n t AF E O A R 65-65, V K I , 1 9 6 5 .

7 . BHEUCELMANS, F. & SIEVERDING, C.: Cascade d a t a f o r h i g h c a n b e r b l u n t t r a i l i n g edge

I
blades. N 17, 1 9 6 6 .
VKI I

8. CIIESTIITT, D.: I l o i s e r e d u c t i o n b y means o f i n l e t g u i d e v a n e s c h o k i n g i n a x i a l f l o w

compressors. UASA TN D 4 6 8 2 , J u l y 1968.

9 . SAUER, R . : X i n f c h r u n g i n d i e t h e o r e t i s c h e Gasdynamik, 3. A u f l .
a e r l i n , 1960.

1 0 . SHAPIRO, A . B . : The d y n a m i c s a n d t h e r m o d y n a m i c s o f compressible f l u i d flow.

The R o n a l d P r e s s Company, 1 9 5 4 .
I
11. SPREITER, J.R. & ALKSNE, A.Y.: T h i n a i r f o i l t h e o r y b a s e d on a p p r o x i m a t e s o l u t i o n o f
t h e t r a n sonic flow equation.
NACA R 1 3 5 9 , 1 9 5 8 .

1 2 . FOTTBER, L . : A s e m i - e m p i r i c a l a p p r o a c h o f t h e t r a n s o n i c f l o w p a s t c a s c a d e s i n c l u d i n g
shock and v i s c o u s e f f e c t s .
AGARD CP 34, 1968.

13. PRICE, D . : Two d i m e n s i o n a l c o m p r e s s i b l e f l o w a r o u n d p r o f i l e s i n c a s c a d e ,

P r o c . S e m i n a r o n A d v . P r o b l e m s i n T u r b o m a c h i n e r y , V K I , !.larch 2 9 - 3 0 , 1 9 6 5 , P a r t I .

1 4 . MARTEIJSEN, E. : Berechnung d e r D r u c k v e r t e i l u n g an G i t t e r p r o f i l e n i n e b e n e r P o t e n t i a l -
striimung n i t e i n e r Fredholmschen I n t e g r a l g l e i c h u n g .
Arc. R a t . M e c h . A n a l . , 3, 1959, p p 2 3 5 - 2 7 0 .
1 5 . PAL, P. U n t e r s u c h u n g e n G b e r d e n I n t e r f e r e n z i n f l u s s b e i S t r h u n g e n d u r c h Tandem-Schau-
felgitter. I n g e n i e u r - A r c h i v , Bd 3 4 , 1965.

1 6 . I M B A C H , H.E.: D i e Berechnung d e r kompressiblen, r e i b u n g s f r c i e n Unterschallstr6mung

d u r c h r z u m l i c h e G i t t e r a u s S c h a u f e l n s u c h g r o s s e r D i c k e u n d s t a r k e r W6lbung.
[Link].f:r t h e o r e t i s c h e Turbomashcinen an d e r E.T.H., Z G r i c h , n r 8 , 1 9 6 (.
 4- 19

17. TRAUPEL, W.: T h e r m i s c h e T u r b o m a s c h i n e n , Bd I .

Springer Verlag 1962.

18. U C H I D A , S.: C a l c u l a t i o n of c o m p r e s s i b l e c a s c a d e f l o w by t h e method o f f l u x a n a l y s i s .

[Link]. Sc., 1954.

19. GRIEPENTROG, H . : P r E d i c t i o n s d e s performances des g r i l l e s d’aubes t r a n s s o n i q u e s &

haute d e f l e x i o n e t f a i b l e allongement.
Ph.D. T h e s i s , U n i v . L i $ g e - V K I , 1 9 6 9 ; V K I TN 5 9 , 1969.

20. OSWATITSCH, K. & R Y H M I N G , I . : f i b e r d e n Kompressibilitgteinfluss b e i e b e n e n S c h a u f e l -

g i t t e r n s t a r k e r Umlenkung.
DVL B e r i c h t 2 8 , 1 9 5 7 .

21. ROTTIERS, H . : O p t i m i z a t i o n o f b l u n t t r a i l i n g e d g e b l a d e s a t l o w s p e e d ( p o t e n t i a l
flow c a l c u l a t i o n ) .
V K I PR 6 9 - 2 3 7 , 1969.

22. SEDDON, J . : The f l o w p r o d u c e d b y i n t e r a c t i o n o f a t u r b u l e n t b o u n d a r y l a y e r w i t h a

n o r m a l s h o c k wave o f s t r e n g t h s u f f i c i e n t t o c a u s e s e p a r a t i o n .
A R C R & 1.1 3 5 0 2 , 1 9 6 0 .

23. PEARCEY, Ii.11.: Sone e f f e c t s ’ o f s h o c k i n d u c e d s e p a r a t i o n o f t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r s

i n t r a n s o n i c flow p a s t a e r o f o i l s .
ARC R & M 3 1 0 8 , 1 3 5 9 .

24. ZIEREP, J . : D e r s e n k r e c h t e V e r d i c h t u n g s s t o s s a m g e k r z m m t e n P r o f i l .
D V L B e r i c h t 51, 1 9 6 3 .

25. LITTLE, B.H., J r : L f f e c t s o f i n i t i a l t u r b u l e n t b o u n d a r y l a y e r o n s h o c k i n d u c e d

s e p a r a t i o n i n t r a n s o n i c flow.
V K I TN 39, 1 9 6 7 .
4- 20

f
Y

Fig.1 Flow region i n t r a n s o n i c cascade

MI = 0.161

Fig.a(a) y = 47.4 U = 1 6,= 5 7 . 9

4-22

7 -

M1 = 0.824

MI = 0.835

Fig. 2(b) y = 47. Z0 cr =1 ,8, = 5 1 . 9

 4-23

1.0

0.9

0.7

0.t

a5

0.3

Fig. 3 ( a ) Blade l o c a l s t a t i c pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n

Fig.3(b) Blade l o c a l s t a t i c pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n

4-24

Figure 4
 4-25 ,

-2 -4 -6 -E -10
fCp 1ih)min

Figure 6

Figure I
4-26

[Link]

e
Or2 -
[Link] -
O.'lS -

0.10 -

OQ -

42

Figure 8 Figure 9

0.4

ao

-0.4

-0.3

-4
Figure 10
 4-27

[Link] General cascade performances CI, = 70

 Y
Y
9b
l-

\ 3c
74
4

d = 3
ffODEL 8TS.
C = 60 mrn ( tor te& i n C-2)

ss suction side
CL comberline
t chord

Fig. 12 Stator blading configuration

 4-29

.VP
Figure 14
4-30

Figure 15

I i
OExperiment
-Korrnon-Tsien
-1.0 ---Prondt I - Glauert

-0.8
CP

4 6
Sonic Line

4 4I
o.e 0.4 0.6 0
Moo

Figure 16
 4-31

Figure 17

M,= 0.2 5 0.55 0.60 0.65

= 1.0
W
_. 4.1

wt
4 .O
,= ob
= 0'

1.6

q.4
yc :1.0
4.a :10'

1.0
\I t ob
at
-0.5 QS -0.5
X
IC
CIS -0. s
x/c o.s
-Q 5 0.5

section side
Q pressure side

Figure 18
4-32

I
----- incompressibel ~

-- Prandtl- Glauert rule

Ecui va lent incompr essible cascade
geometry according t o Prandtl-
Glauert rule.
Ve locity d istr ibut ion occ o rd ing t o
local linearisation.
-.- Equivalent incompressible cascade f
geometry and velocity distribution
according t o local linearisation.
o measurement by DFL No. 0269

- 4 3 -0,2 -0,l 0 0,1 0,2 0,3

Profile NACA 65- (12Alo) 06

Fig.19 P r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n c a l c u l a t e d by improved l i n e a r i s a t i o n and by Prandtl-Glauert r u l e i n comparison

with measurements
 4-33

Figure 20

Figure 21

. 4.

Fig. 22 Velocity Distributions

 4-34

Fig. 23 Streamlines net in a cascade

1 .a

,
9

.a

.7

Figure 24
 4-35

Figure 25

expansion waves

016
P /Po
015

approxim. function Eq. (9 )

0
0 2 6 10 12 14 16 18 20
A
Fig.26 Measured supersonic expansion along t h e p r o f i l e contour i n cascades
4-36

Fig.27 Sketch of shock boundary layer interaction region

Shl Sh2
Fig.28 Model of shock boundary layer interaction region
 P 37

Fig. 29 Shock intensity correlation

4- 3a

Figure 30(a)

Figure 30(b)

.76

.7 2

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 _-
62 s h l

Fig. 31 Shock i n t e n s i t y versus displacement phase

 439

18 16 1L 12 10 8 6 4 2 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7
x(mm) 62shl

Fig.32 Displacement phase c o r r e l a t i o n

-
P

o we

(I

Fig. 33 Sketch for: t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e p r e d i c t i o n method

4- 40

1.(
-
P
PO

..
(

.i

.6

.5

.4

.3
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 -6 .7 .8 .9 s
- 1.0
C

Fig.34(a) Comparison between calculated and measured velocity distribution

1.(
-
P
PO

..
C

.I

.i

.€

.5

.4

.3
.1 .2 .3 .4 .s .6 .7 .8 .9 -
s
C
Fig.34(b) Comparison between calculated and measured velocity distribution
 5

S E C O N D A R Y F L O W L O S S E S

I N A X I A L C O M P R E S S O R S

H. GRIEPENTROG t
Gutehoffnungshctte Sterkrade A . G .

f o r m e r l y P r o j e c t E n g i n e e r , von Karman I n s t i t u t e ,
Rhode S a i n t G e n s s e , Belgium
5

S U M M A R Y

The i m p o r t a n c e o f s e c o n d a r y f l o w s a n d l o s s e s i n h i g h l y l o a d e d c o m p r e s s o r i s s t r e s s e d .
Tde v a r i o u s t y p e s o f p o s s i b l e s e c o n d a r y f l o w s a r e d e s c r i b e d , a n d t h e t h r e e m o s t u s u a l
m o d e l s , r e p r e s e n t i n g t h o s e f l o w s a r e p r e s e n t e d , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r l i m i t a t i o n s . The
s o u r c e s o f t h e l o s s e s i n d u c e d by t h e s e c o n d a r y f l o w s a r e t h e n i d e n t i f i e d , w i t h t h e
r e l e v a n t c a s c a d e p a r a m e t e r s , and t h e c l a s s i c a l semi-empirical f o r m u l a o f l o s s e v a l u a t i o n
( H o w e l l , V a v r a , E h r i c h a n d D e t r a , e t c . ) a r e p r e s e n t e d . Comparing t h e p r e d i c t i o n s made
w i t h t h o s e f o r m u l a s w i t h a c t u a l d a t a on h i g h l y l o a d e d c o m p r e s s o r b l a d i n g , i t c a n b e con-
c l u d e d t h a t t h e y f a i l i n p r e d i c t i n g c o r r e c t l y t h e l o s s e s f o r h i g h camber a n d / o r low
a s p e c t r a t i o b l a d i n g s . A new model f o r s e c o n d a r y f l o w i s i n t r o d u c e d , b a s e d on b o u n d a r y
l a y e r g r o w t h on t h e hub o r c a s i n g a n d a h o r s e - s h o e v o r t e x m o d e l ( a s s u g g e s t e d by C a r t e r
and Cohen) a n d a f o r m u l a i s d e r i v e d , which a p p e a r s t o b e v a l i d f o r a l a r g e r r a n g e of
b l a d i n g c o n f i g u r a t i o n . E f f e c t s o f s e c o n d a r y f l o w on o u t l e t f l o w d i r e c t i o n a r e t h e n
t r e a t e d , F i n a l l y , t h e methods a v a i l a b l e t o reduce secondary f l o w l o s s e s a r e d i s c u s s e d
and t h e n t h e r a n g e o f a p p l i c a t i o n i s d e f i n e d .
 5

LIST OF SYMBOLS

aspect r a t i o
chord
lift coefficient
drag coefficient
blade height
blade height o f replacement blade
pressure
dynamic pressure
pitch
Cartesian co,ordinate system
velocity components
relative f l o w angle
boundary l a y e r thickness
t o t a l pressure l o e s coefficient
density
solidity
camber angle
vorticity components

Subscripts
stagnation point conditions
induced
meridional
secondary flow effect
u p 8 t ream
downstream
5

LIST OF FIGURES

1 Radial total pressure loss distribution

2 Secondary flow elements
3 Inviscid model
4 Viscous model
5 Titanium dioxyde traces in compressor cascades
6 Corner vortex
7 Horse-shoe vortex
0 Spanwise t o t a l pressure loss
9 Cascade model system
10 Ws/Wt = f(e -f)
11 Comparison of empirical formulae for secondary flow drag coefficient in a cascade
12 Comparison of measured and predicted secondary flow
13 Comparison of measured and predicted spanwise outlet flow angle distribution
14 Measured spanwise outlet flow angle distribution for a highly loaded compressor
cascade
15 Influence of meridional contraction
 5- 1

SECONDARY FLOW LOSSES IN AXIAL COMPRESSORS

H. Griepentrog

1. I N T R O D U C T I O N

I n r e l a t i o n with t h e design of high s p e c i f i c energy turbomachines, t h e secondary

f l o w e f f e c t s a r e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p o r t a n c e . I n f i g u r e 1, t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e loss d i s -
t r i b u t i o n a l o n g t h e b l a d e h e i g h t i s shown f o r t h e r o t o r b l a d i n g o f a s u p e r s o n i c compres-
s o r o f t h e t y p e s h o c k - i n - r o t o r , which i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r t h e new g e n e r a t i o n o f s m a l l
a x i a l c o m p r e s s o r s . For t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n , w h i c h h a s t o b e known f o r
t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f any t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l o r q u a s i - t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l f l o w c a l c u l a t i o n
m e t h o d i n a n a x i a l m a c h i n e , o n e must t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t t h e s h o c k l o s s e s , p r o f i l e l o s s e s ,
m i x i n g l o s s e s d u e t o t h e b l u n t e d t r a i l i n g e d g e o f t h i s b l a d i n g and t h e s e c o n d a r y loss.
In f i g u r e l b , t h e m e a s u r e d t o t a l p r e s s u r e loss d i s t r i b u t i o n i n d i c a t e s , f o r d i f f e r e n t
v a l u e s o f b a c k p r e s s u r e , t h e h i g h amount o f s e c o n d a r y loss f o r t h i s t y p e o f b l a d i n g ,
which h a s , a c t u a l l y , a n a s p e c t r a t i o f a r below u n i t y .

I n t h e f o l l o w i n g , w e s h a l l s k e t c h t h e p h y s i c a l b e h a v i o u r of s e c o n d a r y f l o w and t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y i s d i s c u s s e d o f u s i n g some t h e o r e t i c a l and e m p i r i c a l methods f o r t h e p r e -
d i c t i o n o f t h e s e c o n d a r y loss f o r h i g h cambered b l a d i n g s w i t h low a s p e c t r a t i o s .

2. PHYSICAL PICTURE OF SECONDARY FLOW

' S e c o n d a r y f l o w ' i n t h e t u r b o m a c h i n e r y domain i s n o r m a l l y d e s c r i b e d as t h e d i f f e r e n c e

b e t w e e n t h e r e a l f l o w a n d t h e two d i m e n s i o n a l f l o w i n a c a s c a d e o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
t h e r e a l f l o w and t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l f l o w t h r o u g h a s t a g e c o n s t r u c t e d by d i v i d i n g t h e f l o w
s e c t i o n i n t o a number o f s t r e a m t u b e s w i t h a x i s y m r n e t r i c two d i m e n s i o n a l flow. Hence, t h e
secondary flow i s due t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of t h e s i d e w a l l o r c a s i n g boundary l a y e r w i t h
t h e main t h r o u g h f l o w .

The d i f f e r e n t f l o w f e a t u r e s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e d e s i g n a t i o n ' s e c o n d a r y f l o w ' c a n b e

s p l i t down, u s i n g f i g u r e 2 :

1) c a s c a d e s e c o n d a r y f l o w ,
2 ) trailing vortices,
3 ) t i p l e a k a g e flow i n u n s h r o u d e d b l a d i n g s ,
4 ) radial flows,
5 ) s c r a p i n g flow e f f e c t s i n u n s h r o u d e d b l a d i n g s .
Two p a i r s o f v o r t i c e s a r e formed i n t h e downstream f l o w f i e l d o f a b l a d e row. A p a i r
o f c o r n e r v o r t i c e s p l a c e d i n t h e c o r n e r formed by t h e s u c t i o n s i d e o f t h e b l a d i n g and
t h e c a s i n g a n d a p a i r o f b u l k v o r t i c e s i n t h e main s t r e a m .

The b u l k v o r t i c e s o r c a s c a d e s e c o n d a r y v o r t i c e s a r e d u e t o t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r up-
stream o f t h e c a s c a d e . A r e l a t i v e l y sound r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h i s f l o w c a n b e o b t a i n e d
u s i n g t h e model o f a g y r o s c o p e . The b o u n d a r y l a y e r u p s t r e a m o f t h e c a s c a d e c a n b e r e -
p r e s e n t e d w i t h a v o r t e x s h e e t . A t u r n i n g of t h e s e v o r t e x f i l a m e n t s a r o u n d a n a x i s p a r a l l e l
t o t h e b l a d e s p a n r e s u l t s i n a v o r t e x p a i r p a r a l l e l t o t h e f l o w d i r e c t i o n downstream o f
t h e cascade.

The v o r t e x s h e e t a t t a c h e d t o t h e t r a i l i n g e d e o f t h e c a s c a d e b l a d i n g o r i g i n a t e s
from a v a r i a b l e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c i r c u l a t i o n a l o n g t h e b l a d e s p a n d u e t o a v a r i a b l e cam-
b e r of t h e b l a d i n g o r a non-uniform i n l e t v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n . A v o r t e x s h e e t i s un-
s t a b l e i n r e a l f l o w a n d r o l l s up i n t o a s i n g l e v o r t e x . I n o u r c a s e , a v o r t e x p a i r i s
formed i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n . I n r e a l f l o w m e a s u r e m e n t s , i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o
d i s t i n g u i s h t h e t r a i l i n g e d g e v o r t e x from t h e c o r n e r v o r t e x formed by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of.
t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r a c c u m u l a t e d i n t h e c o r n e r o f t h e s u c t i o n s i d e of t h e b l a d e and end w a l l ,

The t i p l e a k a g e f l o w i s due t o two e f f e c t s . The s l o t b e t w e e n c a s i n g o r s h a f t and

b l a d e s a l l o w s f o r a p a r t o f t h e mass f l o w n o t t o p a r t i c i p a t e a t t h e e n e r g y e x c h a n g e . In
a d d i t i o n , a t i p v o r t e x i s formed due t o t h e p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e on t h e s u c t i o n a n d p r e s -
sure side of t h e blade.

The s c r a p i n g f l o w v o r t e x i s formed by t h e r e l a t i v e m o t i o n b e t w e e n t h e c a s i n g and t h e

b l a d e s . Ths e f f e c t i s o f a c e r t a i n i m p o r t a n c e o n l y f o r h i g h c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l s p e e d s .

In a s i m i l a r way t o t h e o v e r t u r n i n g i n t h e s i d e w a l l b o u n d a r y l a y e r , low e n e r g y
m a t e r i a l i s t r a n s p o r t e d a l o n g t h e b l a d e s p a n , m a i n l y i n t h e r e a r p a r t o f t h e b l a d e . The
d i r e c t i o n a n d ,amount o f r a d i a l f l o w d e p e n d s on t h e t y p e o f b l a d e d e s i g n ( f r e e v o r t e x o r
forced vortex, s t a t o r o r rotor).
5-2

Secondary flow models

The complex mechanism o f s e c o n d a r y f l o w s i s n o t c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r s t o o d up t o now,

b e c a u s e it i s p r i n c i p a l l y a t h r e e d i m e n s i o n a l boundary l a y e r problem. T h i s boundary
l a y e r s e p a r a t e s a n d r c l l s up i n t o a v o r t e x , a p r o b l e m which c a n n o t b e s o l v e d w i t h t h e
a c t u a l knowledge.
The r e s e a r c h i n s e c o n d a r y f l o w h a s made c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o g r e s s t h a n k s t o t h e u s e of
two d i f f e r e n t m o d e l s : t h e i n v i s c i d model a n d t h e v i s c o u s model, s k e t c h e d i n f i g s . 3 and
4. R e c e n t l y , it h a s b e e n f o u n d o u t t h a t t h e s e two m o d e l s f a i l t o d e s c r i b e t h e secondary
f l o w f o r h i g h l y l o a d e d b l a d i n g s w i t h a low a s p e c t r a t i o . A t h i r d model s h o u l d b e u s e d
b a s e d on t h e a n a l o g y w i t h a r e c t a n g u l a r bend ( r e f . 2).

The i n v i s c i d model n e g l e c t s t h e v i s c o u s e f f e c t s i n t h e b l a d e p a s s a g e . Only t h e i n -

f l u e n c e o f t h e n o n u n i f o r m i t y o f t h e f l o w u p s t r e a m o f t h e c a s c a d e i s c o n s i d e r e d on t h e
downstream f l o w . The two c a s c a d e s e c o n d a r y v o r t i c e s , p a r a l l e l t o t h e downstream f l o w d i -
r e c t i o n , a r e formed. An a n a l y t i c a l t r e a t m e n t i s p o s s i b l e as shown by t h e c l a s s i c a l p a p e r s
of S q u i r e a n d W i n t e r a n d Hawthorne ( r e f s 1 and 3 ) . S q u i r e and W i n t e r f o u n d a r e l a t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e v o r t i c i t y downstream o f t h e c a s c a d e , t h e camber a n g l e o f t h e b l a d e and t h e
velocity gradient i n direction z :

E, = - 26
au

with t h e assumption t h a t t h e v o r t i c i t y i s z e r o i n d i r e c t i o n of t h e upstream flow,

Due t o t h e v e r y r e s t r i c t i v e a s s u m p t i o n s n e c e s s a r y t o a r r i v e a t e q . ( 1 1 , t h e i n v i s c i d
model c a n o n l y b e u s e d f o r t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e f l o w i n h i g h a s p e c t r a t i o and s m a l l
cambered b l a d i n g s . The model c a n n o t b e u s e d f o r t h e b l a d i n g n e c e s s a r y f o r s m a l l h i g h
s p e c i f i c energy turbomachines.

The v i s c o u s model t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e v i s c o u s e f f e c t s i n s i d e o f t h e c a s c a d e . The

d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c o r n e r v o r t i c e s ( f i g . 4) which a r e d e t e r m i n e d w i t h t h i s model, c a n b e
d e s c r i b e d p h y s i c a l l y u s i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n o f e q u i l i b r i u m between t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s
c r e a t e d by t h e c u r v a t u r e o f t h e s t r e a m l i n e s and t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t b e t w e e n two
n e i g h b o u r i n g b l a d e s . The b o u n d a r y l a y e r f l u i d on t h e end w a l l s h a s t o s u p p o r t t h e same
p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t a s t h e main f l o w , b u t t h e k i n e t i c e n e r g y i s s m a l l e r . Hence, t h e boun-
d a r y l a y e r m a t e r i a l i s d e f l e c t e d from t h e p r e s s u r e s i d e t o t h e s u c t i o n o f a b l a d e c h a n n e l .
I n t h e c o r n e r formed by t h e s u c t i o n s i d e a n d t h e end w a l l , t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r m a t e r i a l
a c c u m u l a t e s and t h e c o r n e r v o r t e x i s formed by t h e i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e main f l o w . The
c r e a t i o n o f t h e c o r n e r v o r t e x c a n be d e s c r i b e d b y r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r on t h e
end w a l l by a v o r t e x s h e e t . The d e f l e c t i o n o f t h i s v o r t e x s h e e t i n t h e c o r n e r b e t w e e n
end w a l l and b l a d e r e s u l t s i n a s e l f - i n d u c e d r o l l up o f t h e v o r t e x s h e e t ,

T h i s d e s c r i p t i o n i s c o n f i r m e d by t h e f l o w v i s u a l i z a t i o n w i t h t i t a n i u m d i o x y d e p r e -
s e n t e d i n f i g u r e 5.

An a n a l y t i c a l t r e a t m e n t o f t h e f l o w d e s c r i b e d by t h e v i s c o u s model i s n o t p o s s i b l e
i n t h e a c t u a l s t a t e o f knowledge.

3. SECONDARY FLOW LOSS

The c a s c a d e s e c o n d a r y models t r e a t e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a p t e r c a n a g i v e a p h y s i c a l
d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e s e c o n d a r y flow, b u t n o t o f t h e s e c o n d a r y l o s s e s i n w h i c h t h e t u r b o -
machine d e s g i n e r i s i n t e r e s t e d i n . Most p r o b a b l y , t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s w i l l h a v e a
c e r t a i n i n f l u e n c e on t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e s e c o n d a r y l o s s :

1) t h e c a s c a d e s e c o n d a r y v o r t i c e s and c o r n e r v o r t i c e s ,
2) t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e c o r n e r v o r t i c e s w i t h t h e main f l o w ,
3 ) t h e s e p a r a t i o n on t h e s i d e w a l l .
D e t r a ( r e f . 4 ) h a s shown t h a t t h e e n e r g y bounded i n t h e v o r t i c e s c a n b e n e g l e c t e d i n
comparison t o t h e o t h e r t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s e s o c c u r i n g i n t h e b l a d e passage.

L o u i s ( r e f . 5 ) c o u l d show e x p e r i m e n t a l l y t h a t o n l y t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t h e c o r n e r
v o r t i c e s w i t h t h e main f l o w h a s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e t o t a l p r e s -
s u r e l o s s . The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e c a s c a d e v o r t e x p a i r c a n b e n e g l e c t e d .

Hence, i t c a n be assumed t h a t most o f t h e s e c o n d a r y l o s s e s a r e o r i g i n a t i n g o f two

f a c t o r s , whose f l u i d m e c h a n i c s c a n n o t b e d e s c r i b e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y w i t h a c t u a l knowledge.
We a r e forced t o use empirical o r , a t t h e b e s t , semi-empirical r e l a t i o n s .

A c o m p r e h e n s i v e r6sum6 o f t h e c l a s s i c a l e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n s can b e f o u n d i n r e f . 1.

With t h e i n v i s c i d model o f S q u i r e and W i n t e r , we know t h a t t h e v o r t i c i t y downstream

o f t h e c a s c a d e i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e d e f l e c t i o n a n g l e o f t h e c a s c a d e . Hence, t h e t o t a l
pressure losses a r e proportional t o e2.

A l s o , t h e camber a n g l e o f a b l a d e c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d as a n i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e l o a d i n g
of t h e b l a d i n g and t h e end w a l l s .
 5-3

Using t h i s c o n d i t i o n , Howell ( r e f . 6 ) h a s e s t a b l i s h e d t h e r e l a t i o n f o r t h e induced

d r a g due t o s e c o n d a r y flow :

w i t h measurements of c l a s s i c a l compressor c a s c a d e s .

F o l l o w i n g S c h o l z ( r e f , 7), i t can be supposed i n f i r s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n t h a t t h e secon-

d a r y l o s s e s a r e a u n i q u e f u n c t i o n of t h e b l a d e t u r n i n g . T h a t means, t h e r a t i o of secon-
d a r y l o s s e s t o t o t a l l o s s e s i n c r e a s e s w i t h a d e c r e a s e of t h e b l a d e h e i g h t . G e n e r a l l y ,
t h e b l a d e h e i g h t i s n o t used a s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c parameter, but t h e r a t i o h / c , t h e a s p e c t
r a t i o . T h i s r a t i o a l s o t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t t h e l e n g t h o f t h e flow p a t h on which t h e p a r -
t i c l e s of t h e end w a l l boundary l a y e r a r e t r a v e l l i n g t o form t h e c o r n e r v o r t e x .
Vavra ( r e f . 8 ) g i v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n u s i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e of t h e a s p e c t r a t i o
and t h e camber a n g l e on t h e s e c o n d a r y d r a g c o e f f i c i e n t :
2
'Di s
= .04 CL 2h (3)

A t h i r d p a r a m e t e r , t h e s o l i d i t y U of t h e c a s c a d e , can i n f l u e n c e t h e s e c o n d a r y l o s s e s ,
a l t h o u g h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l e v dence of i t s i n f l u e n c e i s c o n t r a d i c t o r y . E h r i c h and Detra
( r e f . 9 ) a r e u s i n g t h i s p a r a m e t e r i n t h e form : A.R. = Ago * h / s . The f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n
i s proposed :

R e l a t i o n s ( 3 ) and (4) a r e a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s o f c l a s s i c a l com-

p r e s s o r b l a d e s , i . e . , w i t h a s p e c t r a t i o s h / c > 1 and camber a n g l e s 0 30°.
A t t h e von Karman I n s t i t u t e a method t o p r e d i c t t h e s e c o n d a r y flow loss i n f u n c t i o n
o f t h e t u r n i n g a n g l e and a s p e c t r a t i o was d e v e l o p e d ( r e f . 10) u s i n g a model t h a t can be
p l a c e d between t h e v i s c o u s and t h e i n v i s c i d model. T h i s i n t e r m e d i a t e p o s i t i o n o c c u r s due
t o t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f t h e boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s b u i l d up i n t h e c a s c a d e p a s s a g e ,
b u t n o t of t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e end w a l l and t h e s u c t i o n s i d e boundary l a y e r .

The c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e end w a l l boundary l a y e r i s b a s e d on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t a

mean l o a d i n g of t h e p r e s s u r e and s u c t i o n s i d e l o a d i n g a t midspan e x i s t s on t h e end w a l l s ,
due t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n of a c o n s t a n t s t a t i c p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t o v e r t h e span. The boundary
l a y e r t h i c k n e s s i s determined a t t h e t r a i l i n g edge, u s i n g t h e d i f f u s i o n f a c t o r r e l a t i o n
w i t h Buri's separation c r i t e r i o n a s determination of t h e blade loading.

The i m p o r t a n t i n f l u e n c e of t h e boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s on t h e s i z e a n d ' p o s i t i o n o f

t h e c o r n e r v o r t e x h a s been p r o v e d amongst o t h e r by measurements o f Senoo ( r e f . 11). He
c o u l d show t h a t t h e s i z e of t h e v o r t e x and t h e d i s t a n c e between t h e c e n t e r of t h e v o r t e x
and t h e e n d w a l l s r i s e s w i t h t h e boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s ( f i g . 6).
Assuming a l i m e a r v a r i a t i o n of t h e v e l o c i t y d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e boundary l a y e r a t
t h e b l a d e o u t l e t p l a n e , t h e c i r c u l a t i o n a l o n g t h e b l a d e span can be a p p r o x i m a t e d by t h e
model of a h o r s e - s h o e v o r t e x ( f i g . 7 ) . The d i s t a n c e between t h e two t r a i l i n g v o r t i c e s
i s f i x e d i n f u n c t i o n o f t h e boundary l a y e r t h i c k n e s s P i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e l i f t
of t h e o r i g i n a l b l a d e and t h e r e p l a c i n g b l a d e u s i n g t h e h o r s e - s h o e model, i s t h e . s a m e .
The f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n i s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e r a t i o o f r e p l a c e m e n t b l a d e h e i g h t m d r e a l
blade height

I n f i g u r e 8 t h e c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s o f t h e v o r t e x c e n t e r s a r e compared w i t h t h e measure-
ments. A s a t i s f a c t o r y c o r r e s p o n d e n c e i s o b t a i n e d .
Using a p r o p o s a l of Carter and Cohen ( r e f . 1 2 ) t h e whole c a s c a d e s y s t e m i s r e p l a c e d
by t h e model b l a d e s a s shown i n f i g . 9. The i n d u c e d d r a g due t o t h e t r a i l i n g edge vor-
t i c e s and t h e i r images i s c a l c u l a t e d i n r e f . 1 0 w i t h l e s s r e s t r i c t i o n s t h a n i n r e f . 1 2 .
c = & U 2 1-h'/h

Dis GEz7
The s e c o n d a r y flow loss c o e f f i c i e n t , . o 8 , can be c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g t h e f o r m u l a

W i t h t h e above b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d method, t h e s e c o n d a r y loss h a s been c a l c u l a t e d f o r d i f -

f e r e n t c a s c a d e s . A s u f f i c i e n t agreement h a s been o b t a i n e d between c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s and
measured ones.
5-4

I n f i g u r e 1 0 , t h e r a t i o o f s e c o n d a r y l o s s t o t h e t o t a l c g s c a d e loss i s shown i n
f u n c t i o n o f t h e main p a r a m e t e r s i n f l u e n c i n g t h e s e c o n d a r y f l o w : 8 a n d c / h . The s e c o n d a r y
l o s s i s c a l c u l a t e d w i t h t h e a b o v e d e s c r i b e d method u s i n g t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s o b t a i n e d a t
midspan, o r t a k e n d i r e c t l y from measurements i f a s u r e d i s t i n c t i o n between p r o f i l e l o s s
a n d s e c o n d a r y l o s s c o u l d b e made. The c u r v e shows f o r small v a l u e s o f 9 ( c / h ) a n i n c r e a s e
of t h e secondary l o s s of p a r a b o l i c type. For h i g h e r v a l u e s of 8 ( c / h ) , t h i s r a t i o t e n d s
t o a p p r o a c h a c o n s t a n t v a l u e . The b l a d e f o r m s u s e d i n t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s up t o now f o r
c o m p r e s s o r b l a d e s w e r e a l l i n t h e r a n g e o f 8 = 30°, c / h 2 . 5 , t h a t means, 8 ( c / h ) 2 . 2 5 rud.
Hence, t h e a p p r o a c h t o a c o n s t a n t v a l u e c o u l d n o t b e p r e d i c t e d .

The f o r m u l a e (21, ( 3 ) a n d ( 4 ) r o u g h l y g i v e t h e same r e s u l t s f o r c l a s s i c a l b l a d e s .

I n f i g u r e 11, t h e e q u a t i o n s o f Vavra a n d D e t r a a n d E h r i c h a r e compared. Almost i d e n t i c a l
r e s u l t s a r e o b t a i n e d f o r t h e two r e l a t i o n s f o r small t o moderate l o a d i n g s o f t h e b l a d e .
A l s o , a t h i g h CL v a l u e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s o n l y s m a l l b e t w e e n t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e two
equations.

, F o r v e r y h i g h l y l o a d e d b l a d e s , t h e s e c l a s s i c a l r e l a t i o n s a n d t h e V K I method a r e com-
p a r e d w i t h m e a s u r e m e n t s i n f i g . 1 2 , where t h e s e c o n d a r y loss c o e f f i c i e n t i s p l o t t e d i n
f u n c t i o n o f t h e a s p e c t r a t i o . None o f t h e c l a s s i c a l m e t h o d s i s a b l e t o p r e d i c t t h e s e c o n -
d a r y loss f o r t h i s t y p e o f b l a d i n g s u f f i c i e n t l y e x a c t .

4. OUTLET FLOW ANGLE

The c h a n g e o f d e f l e c t i o n due t o s e c o n d a r y f l o w s c a n b e a p p r o a c h e d i n two d i f f e r e n t
ways :
1) t h e t r a i l i n g e d g e v o r t i c e s a r e t a k e n as p r i n c i p a l o r i g i n o f s e c o n d a r y l o s s by i n d u c i n g
a deflection at t h e l i f t i n g l i n e ;
2) t h e c h a n g e o f o u t l e t a n g l e o v e r t h e s p a n i s d e t e r m i n e d d u e t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e
cascade secondary flow using t h e stream function f o r t h e secondary flow i n t h e cas-
c a d e o u t l e t p l a n e . N o r m a l l y , a n u n d e r t u r n i n g a t t h e c e n t e r o f t h e v o r t e x a n d a n ove--
turning a t the side w a l l i s indicated.

A t t h e s i d e w a l l , t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e c a s c a d e secondary v o r t e x i s predominant and

c a u s e s a n o v e r t u r n i n g o f t h e f l o w . Moving t o t h e c e n t e r o f t h e b l a d e t h e i n f l u e n c e o f
t h e corner vortex diminishes t h i s overturning u n t i l t h e core of t h i s vortex i s passed
where t h e h i g h e s t d e v i a t i o n a n g l e e x i s t s . Now t h e c o r n e r v o r t e x a n d t h e s e c o n d a r y v o r t e x
c a u s e s a n i n c r e a s e of t h e t u r n i n g which weaks o f f t o t h e m i d s p a n o f t h e b l a d e .

Some a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s a r e p u b l i s h e d by H o r l o c k ( r e f . 1 3 ) and Hawthorne b a s e d on

t h e t h e o r y o f t h e l a t t e r . But d u e t o t h e r e s t r i c t i o n o f t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h i s method,
t h e range of a p p l i c a t i o n s i s a l s o very l i m i t e d f o r t h e o u t l e t angle d i s t r i b u t i o n .

A c o m p a r i s o n b e t w e e n c a l c u l a t e d and m e a s u r e d v a l u e s i s shown i n f i g , 1 3 f o r a com-

p r e s s o r c a s c a d e w i t h b l a d e s o f 30' camber a n g l e and a n a s p e c t r a t i o of' u n i t y . A s p a n w i s e
v a r i a t i o n of ' 7 i s shown.
I n f i g u r e 1 4 t h e o u t l e t f l o w a n g l e d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r a 50' camber c o m p r e s s o r b l a d e
i s p r e s e n t e d , i n d i c a t i n g even a v a r i a t i o n o f h i g h e r t h a n lo', w h i c h makes t h e d e s i g n
t a s k f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g b l a d e row e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t .

5. M I N I M Z Z A T I O N OF SECONDARY FLOW LOSS

Many a t t e m p t s h a v e b e e n made t o r e d u c e t h e s e c o n d a r y f l o w loss. T h i s c a n b e a c h i e v e d
using t h e following p o s s i b i l i t i e s :
1) t o r e d u c e t h e e n d w a l l b o u n d a r y l a y e r t h i c k n e s s ;
2) t o r e d u c e t h e r a d i a l p r e s s u r e g r a d i e n t ;
3 ) t o r e d u c e t h e p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n s u c t i o n and p r e s s u r e s i d e o f t h e b l a d e ;
4 ) t o u s e a n optimum t i p c l e a r a n c e .
The e n d w a l l b o u n d a r y l a y e r c a n b e r e d u c e d u s i n g s m a l l c h o r d b l a d e s , w h a t i s o f t e n
i m p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n due t o m e c h a n i c a l r e a s o n s , A n o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y i s t h e s u c t i o n o f
t h e e n d w a l l b o u n d a r y l a y e r m a t e r i a l u p s t r e a m o f t h e b l a d e row and i n s i d e o f t h e b l a d e
p a s s age.

A f u r t h e r means t o r e d u c e t h e e n d w a l l b o u n d a r y l a y e r was s u g g e s t e d by Burrows ( r e f .

1 4 ) . I n t h e nozzle design f o r s m a l l gas t u r b i n e s with high i n l e t temperature t h e neces-
s i t y a r i s e s o f s i d e w a l l c o o l i n g . The c o o l i n g a i r c a n b e i n j e c t e d i n s u c h a way t h a t
s i d e w a l l f l o w s e p a r a t i o n i s p r e v e n t e d due t o r e e n e r g i z i n g t h e b o u n d a r y l a y e r w i t h t h e
injected air.

The d i f f e r e n c e i n p r e s s u r e b e t w e e n t h e c o n c a v e a n d t h e c o n v e x s i d e o f t h e f l o w
c h a n n e l , one o f t h e main f a c t o r s t o c r e a t e s e c o n d a r y f l o w s , c a n b e d i m i n i s h e d u s i n g a
m e r i d i o n a l c o n s t r i c t i o n ( f i g . 15).

A d i f f e r e n t t w i s t i n g ( r e f . 15) o f t h e b l a d e o r a l o n g c h o r d i n t h e a n n u l u s boundary
l a y e r s e c t i o n c a n r e d u c e t h e c o r n e r v o r t i c e s , due t o c r e a t i n g a u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n
of c i r c u l a t i o n a l o n g t h e b l a d e . T o g e t h e r w i t h t h e p r o l o n g a t i o n o f t h e b l a d e c h o r d , a
h i g h e r camber a n g l e i n t h e l e a d i n g e d g e p a r t s h o u l d b e u s e d , t o t a k e t h e h i g h e r ( m e a s u r e d
a g a i n s t a x i a l d i r e c t i o n ) flow a n g l e i n t h e boundary l a y e r i n t o account.
 5-5

Some investigator8,propose a twisting of the blade in such a way t o produce a uni-

form outlet angle, which is advantageous for the adaptation o f t h e following blade row.

Todd (ref. 16) used some flow fences on the blade t o reduce t h e cross flow on t h e
suction side of the blade. The total pressure loss could b e decreased by t h i s means, but
for the whole blade passage t h e total pressure loss w a s increased due t o :
1) additional viscous losses on the fence, and
2) additional losses produced by a maladaptation of t h e streamlines on t h e blade surface
and the fence.

At the von Karman Institute, partial slotting o f the blades has been applied rather
successfully (ref, 10). A decrease o f 20% of the total pressure l o s s coefficient of the
whole blade passage has been obtained, which corresponds t o an increase o f 15% of t h e
efficiency o f a compressor stage.

6. CONCLUSIONS
The influence of sccondary flow effects has t o be takeii into account t o be able t o
establish a sound design of high specific power turbomachines.

Only t h e viscous and the channel model give a sufficient prediction o f the secondary
loss. The use o f the inviscid model has t o be restricted t o t h e design of inlet guide
vanes.

With t h e actual knowledge the viscous and the channel model cannot be treated
mathematically. Hence, it is necessary t o develop semi-empirical rules based on measure-
ments of t h e type o f blades necessary for the new generation of turbomachines.

LIST OF REFERENCES

1. LAKSHMINARAYANA, B. & HORLOCK, J.H.: Secopdary flows and losses in cascades and axial
flow turbomachines. Int. J n l Mech. SC., vol. 5, 1963.

2. GRIEPEBTROG, H.: Ecoulements secondaires dans les grilles d'aubes de compresseurs 2

forte ddflexion et faible allongement. Conference donnde a u 9 e Congrss Int. A6ron.
Paris, j u i n 1969; also VKI IN 30, 1969.

3. SQUIRE, H.B. & WINTER, K.G.: The secondary flow in a cascade o f airfoils in a non-
uniform stream. J.A.S., April 1951.
4. DETRA, R.W.: The secondary flow in curved pipes. Ph.D. Thesis, ETH Zcrich, 1953.

5. LOUIS, J.F.: Secondary flow and losses in a compressor cascade. ARC R&M 3136, 1960.

6. CARTER, A.D.S.: The axial compressor. Section 5 'Gas Turbine Principles and Practice',
edited by Sir H.A. Lex, 1955,

7. High speed and jet propulsion, vol. X

Princeton University Press, 1964.
- Aerodynamics o f turbines and compressors.

8. VAVRA, M.H.: Aero-thermodynamics and flow in turbomachines. Wiley, 1960.

9. EHRICH, F.W. & DETRA, R.W.: Transport of t h e boundary layer in secondary flow.
J.A.S., 1954.
10. GRIEPENTROG, H.: Prediction des performances des grilles d'aubes transsoniques &
haute ddflexion et faihle allongement. Ph.D. Thesis, Universite de Lisge, 1969.
also VKI TN 59, 1969.
11. SENOO, J.: The boundary layer on the end w a l l of a turbine nozzle cascade. ASME
Transact. 1958.

12. CARTER, A.D.S. & COHEN, E.M.: Preliminary investigation into t h e three dimensional
flow through a cascade o f aerofoils. ARC R&M 2339, 1949.

13. HORLOCK, J.H., et al.: Wall stall in compressor cascades. ASME Transact., J n l Basic
Engrg, 1966.
14. BURROWS, L.: Investigation o f the design and performance o f small axial flow tur-
bines. VKI PR 68-211, 1968.

15. DEICH, M.E.: A new method of profiling the guide cascades of stages with small ratios
' o f diameter t o length. AIE Ltd, Transl. No 3277, 18 July, 1963.

16. TODD,K.W.: Flow characteristics in steamturbines. Reprint of Paper given at the Conf.
on Reheat Steam Turbines of great output, Inst. o f FLuid-Flow Machinery o f t h e Polish
Academy of Sciences, Gdansk, 1962.

17. CBAUVIN, J., BREUGELMANS, F.A.E., JANIGRO, A.: Supersonic compressors. VKI CN 67, 1967.
5-6

1 8 , SHALAAN, M . R . A . : A wind tunnel investigation of t h e stalling performance of t w o

compressor cascades of different aspect ratio at low speed. U L M E l B 2 6
 5- 7

4 Og I

SECONOARY
lOSSe5

Fig. l ( a ) Loss d i s t r i b u t i o n (Ref. 17)

G
Tl t o t
P4
5c xn - 5 0,36 2,2 6 -6
XI1 - 6 0,79 2,tO
-7
40 -5

30

20

10

'TIP HUB
5-0

Fig. 2 Secondary flow elements (Ref. 1)

Fig. 3 Inviscid model

 5-9

\
\

Fig. 4 Viscoua model

~

5- 10

Figme 5
 5- 11 I

.a .4 tnrb

Fig. 6 Corner vortex (Ref. 11)

trailing edge
vortex.

-\
-2
H ,

/ .' / /

vortex
Fig.7 Horse shoe vortex
5- 12

I I
i i -8.2' A. P 5
\
Q i=[Link] A. I 2
\ I

I vortex
center

Fig. 8 Spanwise total loss pressure coefficient distribution

C 3 C 9
J

L J C 3
C 3 C 3
C 3 C 3- Y
c 3 C 3
F
L 3- C 3
A
L
3i C 3

Fig.9 Cascade model system

 5- 13

c
DS
0.07 - A . 2
p - 1

006 *

0.05 -

*
0.04-

0.03-
-b- VAVRA

0.02 - -e- rwnica

0.01 -

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
Fig.11 Comparison of empirical formulae f o r secondary flow drag c o e f f i c i e n t i n cascade
5- 14

.9
OS

.8

4.6

.c

.2

0
.3 .5 .7
AR. 1.I
Fig..l2 Comparison of measured and
. p r e d i c t e d secondary flow
Cascade o u t l e t a n g l e
distribution

-6

-7 *
-
I
-0

Fig.13
I
Comparison of measured and p r e d i c t e d spanwise o u t l e t flow angle d i s t r i b u t i o n (Ref.13)
 5- 15

Fig.14 Measured spanwise o u t l e t flow angle d i s t r i b u t i o n for a highly louded compressor cascade

240C
I I I I I I
200c

4 600

4200

800

400

0
0 20 40 60 80 100

% Chord
Fig.15 Influence o f meridional contraction (Ref.14)
 6

BASIC ELEMENTS FOR ADVANCED DESIGNS

OF RADIAGFLOW CcpllPRESSORS

bY
M. H. Vavra

Naval Postgraduate School

Monterey, California 93940
6

SUMMARY

, Dimensionless parameters are presented f o r t h e design of compressors with axial i n l e t v e l o c i t i e s and

r a d i a l blades at the r o t o r discharge. These parameters take account of the compressibility of the flow
and hold f o r a r b i t r a r y fluids. They permit t o evaluate the e f f e c t of changes of the design variables on
the conditions of s t a t e of the f l u i d a t d i f f e r e n t locations, and on the geometry of the design. Loss
relationships are discussed and t h e i r e f f e c t s on performance a r e shown. The design parameters a r e
campared with the so-called s p e c i f i c speed c r i t e r i a t o show t h a t t h e l a t t e r do not s a t i s f y the laws of
.Eimilarity i f compressibility e f f e c t s m e taken i n t o account.
 6-1

BASIC ELEMENTS FOR ADVANCED

DESIGN OF RADIAL-FLOW COMFWSSORS

M. H. Vavra

1. INTRODUCTION

Under consideration are high-speed centrifugal compressors with r o t o r s of the type shownin Fig. 1
t h a t have r a d i a l blades at the discharge and where the absolute i n l e t v e l o c i t i e s are i n a x i a l direction.
With a s t r a i g h t annular i n l e t duct these i n l e t velocities w i l l be uniform between t h e r a d i i R u and R i o
of the impeller eye. For a p a r t i c u l a r r e l a t i v e flow angle @lo and the r e l a t i v e velocity Wlo a t Rlo,there
is then known the peripheral speed Ulo, which, f o r chosen radius r a t i o s R 2 / R l o , establishes the peripheral
r o t o r speed U2 a t R2. The average r e l a t i v e velocity W 2 a t t h e dischaxge of a r o t o r with r a d i a l blades i s
not r a d i a l , but has an average angle B2. With the s l i p factor P t h e r e . i s

where V& i s the average meridional velocity a t the rotor discharge. Equation 1 i s a consequence of the
d e f i n i t i o n of the s l i p factor

For a simplified analysis of the compressor performance t h a t assumes uniform conditions a t the r o t o r
discharge not only i n peripheral but also i n a x i a l direction, across the blade width b2, and f o r a x i a l
absolute v e l o c i t i e s V 1 a t the r o t o r i n l e t , the specific work AHw necessary t o drive the compressor i s fron
moment of momentum consideration, f o r an assumed adiabatic process,

2 ft- l b
ayv=wu2 (3)

For a perfect gas with y = q / c v = constant, the actual r i s e i n t o t a l temperature AT, i n the r o t o r i s
n

With the gas constant Rg there i s

,
Y
$=% (4)
Let

ql= /x/T& = (5)

be the velocity of sound a t the t o t a l i n l e t temperature Tt- = To. Then

For an isentropic compression process frm the t o t a l i n l e t pressure Po = Pto = Pt. t o the discharge pressure
Pt4, t h e necessary work required would be 5
A Tis, where

v- 1

The compressor efficiency 9, i s defined by

6- 2

For a p a r t i c u l a r design the following data are naually prescribed:

A - mass flow r a t e (slug/s)

p0 - t o t a l i d e t pressure ( p s i a )

To - t o t a l i n l e t temperature (OR)
Pt4 - discharge pressure ( p s i a ) I

y - r a t i o of s p e c i f i c heats c1, and cv

.RG - g m constant ( s l M , ~ ~
f't- l b

With the indicated units, which a r e frequently used f o r engineering purposes, a quantity of mass i s i n
slugs,which i s derived from t h e chosen u n i t s of force, length, and time. However, the relations which are
going t o be established hold f o r any consistent system of u n i t s , hence also f o r one where the primary units
are mass, length and time, and where forces are i n derived units.

For the given conditions there are t o be found the following data f o r an optimum design:

U2 - peripheral rotor speed a t %

r a t i o of a x i a l impeller width a t discharge
'21% - outer radius of impeller
outer radius at rotor i n l e t
, R ~ J %- outer radius of impeller
inner radius a t rotor inlet
Rli/R1o -
w - angular velocity of impeller ( r a d i a n s l s )
$1, - r e l a t i v e f l o w angle a t Rlo
"2 - absolute flow angle a t %
Rd/R2
- radius at i n l e t l i p of diffusor blades
outer radius of impeller
radius a t discharge of diffusor
RJRZ - outer radius of impeller

Important design cri;teria are also:

'lo
Mach number of r e l a t i v e velocity Wlo a t outer radius Rlo at
% = - - al impeller i n l e t
- v2- - Mach number of absolute velocity V2 a t impeller discharge
2-&2
Mechanical and f l u i d dynamics considerations impose design limits of:

a) U2, because of permissible r o t o r s t r e s s e s

b) R i a / % , which cannot exceed about 0.70 t o 0.75 t o obtain an outer r o t o r contour with acceptably
s m a l l curvatures i n the meridinal plane
c ) RU/R%, which, if too small, does not permit the arrangement of a s u f f i c i e n t l y large number of
r o t o r lades ZR with reasonable thickness
which cannot be larger than about, TO0 f o r manufacturing reasons
:2;2, which cannot be smaller than c e r t a i n limits t o obtain good e f f i c i e n c i e s
f ) cl2, which cannot exceed TO0 t o 800 because of manufacturing reasons and because of poor diffusor
performance, especially i f ME i s larger than unity.

2. CaMPRESSION PROCESS
,
F i P e 2 i s a temperature-entropy diagram showing the thermodynamic process i n the compressor of Fig. 1.
The temperature differences i n Fig. 2 correspond roughly t o the velocities of the trianglss of Fig. 1 t o
obtain a r e a l i s t i c representation. Since by Eq. 6 the work input ATw i s a l s o ATw = p (U2 I C p ) , the tempera-
ture r i s e T2 - T 1 i n t h e . r o t o r is roughly one-half of AT,. Later-on the so-called degree of reaction r+
w i l l be introduced t o determine t h i s r a t i o more precisely.
Station (1) i n Fig. 2 corresponds t o the s t a t i c condition a t the r o t o r i n l e t , given by the s t a t i c
pressure p1 and the s t a t i c temperature T1. The t o t a l pressure and t o t a l temperature a t t h i s s t a t i o n are
Ptl = Po and Ttl = To. For the isentropic process between ( 0 ) and (1).
 6-3

and

where
V- V.

i s the Mach number of the absolute velocity Vi a t the r o t o r i n l e t .

The conditions of s t a t e a t all locations can be expressed with t h e parameters U~/EQ, Rid%, h,P l o y
cy2, b, and loss coefficients t h a t e s t a b l i s h the entropy increments between the d i f f e r e n t s t a t i o n s , i f it
i s assumed t h a t the flow process along the outer contour of the r o t o r between the r a d i i and % i s
representative of the r o t o r flow i n general. The l a t e r assumption i s made because the r z g t i v e velocity
W l and the r e l a t i v e f l o w angle 8 1 are higher a t R i o than a t other r d i i R1. Hence along the outer r o t o r
contour from R i o t o R2 there occur the highest deceleration r a t i o WlO/W2 and the l a r g e s t flow deflection
L$ = f310 + &. Moreover since the path t r a v e l l e d by a f l u i d p a r t i c l e along the outer r o t o r contour i s
shorter than t h a t t r a v e l l e d by a p a r t i c l e entering at other r a d i i RI, the conditions along the outer r o t o r
contour w i l l e s t a b l i s h design l i m i t a t i o n s and have a c r i t i c a l influence on the r o t o r losses.

With the chosen parameters, Eq. 9 can be rewritten

*
T, I
- I=
To 1+
y l
MlJl2 cos2Bl0
This formula i s a l s o given by Eq. I ( 5 ) of Table I . This t a b l e has been arranged t o l i s t the pertinent
r e l a t i o n s f o r the determination of the flow properties i n the compressor for ready reference. I n the
following only the main steps w i l l be indicated t h a t l e d t o these formulas without going i n t o the d e t a i l s
of t h e i r derivations. Some of the equations, f o r instance Eq. 1(6), can be obtained d i r e c t l y from Fig. 2.
It can be noted t h a t a l l temperatures are given as multiples of the t o t a l i n l e t temperature Tg = Ttl, and
ressures are l i s t e d as r a t i o s with respect t o Po = Ptl. The s t a t i c temperature T2 of the 50 o r discharge
fEq. I(")] i s equal t o the difference of the t o t a l temperature Tt2 a t the r o t o r e x i t and V2 /2%, where V2
i s given by Eq. I ( 3 ) . The temperature T2' i s necessary t o calculate the pressure r a t i o p d P 0 by Eq. I ( 2 0 ) .
Evidently T2'depends on the entropy increase s2 - si i n the rotor.

The process between s t a t i o n s (1) and ( 2 ) f r o m the r o t o r i n l e t t o i t s discharge can be formulated by

which i s a fundamental r e l a t i o n obtained fran the energy equation for steady, adiabatic flows along stream-
l i n e s i n rotors, as shown i n Art. 7.5 of Ref. 1.

The following discussion uses a r e l a t i o n which i s obtained f r o m Eq. 10 for incompressible flows (See
Eq. 7( 4.4) of Ref. 1). A t a p a r t i c u l a r radius R along the outer r o t o r contour where the peripheral and
r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t i e s are U and W, respectively, the s t a t i c pressure p i s

P 2 2
P = PI+ p (3- UJ + 4 (Wl0 - w) - Apf (11)

where p i s the constant mass density of the f l u i d , and Apf the pressure l o s s due t o f r i c t i o n a l e f f e c t s i n
the rotor. A t the rotor i n l e t , where U = U 1 0 and W = W l o , the s t a t i c pressure i s evidently equal t o p l y
the s t a t i c pressure i n the absolute flow j u s t ahead of the r o t o r a t Rio. Equation 11 sh w s t h a t , independ-
B
e n t l y of the values of W and Apf, there w i l l alweys occur a pressure increase p/2(U2-Ulo ) i f a f l u i d
p a r t i c l e moves from R l 0 t o R. An additional pressure r i s e i s produced by decelerating the r e l a t i v e velocity ,

from Wlo t o W. A flow t h a t moves i n a d i r e c t i o n where the s t a t i c pressure increases i s more susceptible
t o separations than an accelerated flow, but the f r i c t i o n a l pressure loss between neighboring s t a t i o n s i s
proportional t o the dynamic head (p/2) W2 i n both flows. I n view of Eq. 11 however there e x i s t differences
between flows t h a t pass through stationary channels and those i n r o t a t i n g impellers. I f a r e l a t i v e flow
i s decelerated i n a r o t a t i n g channel, whose distance f r o m the axis of r o t a t i o n increases i n flow direction,
it w i l l not necessarily separate even though it moves against r a i d l y increasing s t a t i c pressures, provided
these pressure gradients are produced by the centrifugal force g e l d and not. by large reductions i n r e l a t i v e
velocity. If t h e same s t a t i c pressure r i s e would have t o be produced i n a stationary channel of the same
length as the rotating one, the deceleration of the flow per u n i t length would very l i k e l y become excessive
and could be associated with considerably increased losses because of flw separations. On the other hand,
i f it were possible t o ignore the e f f e c t s due t o Coriolis accelerations, it could be s t a t e d t h a t the pressure
losses i n a stationary and i n a r o t a t i n g channel of equal length and shape would have t o be equal f o r the
same velocity heads and equal f l o w decelerations, except f o r influences due t o Reynolds number differences.
Moreover, f o r d i f f e r e n t velocity heads the pressure losses would be d i r e c t l y proportional t o the velocity
heads at corresponding locations i n the two channels. However i f the respective performance of the two
channels were evaluated by a loss coefficient CR t h a t r e l a t e s the f r i c t i o n a l pressure drop Apf t o the a c t u a l
s t a t i c pressure r i s e i n the channel, i t s value would be l o r for the rotating channel than for the stationary
one because of the additional pressure r i s e (P/2)(U2 - F
U l o 1. The performance of the channels can be
compared only by means of a loss coefficient Cw t h a t i s defined as the r a t i o of the pressure drop Apf and
 2
the pressure r i s e (p/2)(Wl,2 -
W l ) due t o the f l o w deceleration, irrespective of whether additional
pressure r i s e i s produced by the centrifugal force f i e l d or not.

These elementary considerations have not been presented here t o imply t h a t the loss coefficients Cw
i n a rotating and i n a stationary channel of the same geometry are equal. I n Ref. 1, Art. 8.5, it i s
s h a m t h a t flows i n stationary and rotating channels have fundamental differences as far as t h e i r r o t a t i o n a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are concermd, and consequences of these conditions are described i n Arts. 10.5 and 12.2
of Ref, 1. The i n t e n t of the above discussion i s to d r a w a t t e n t i o n t o the f a c t t h a t frequently used formu-
l a t i o n s f o r the efficiency of impellers f o r centrifugal turbines and compressors cannot serve as a measure
f o r the performance of these rotors, and t h a t same of the separation c r i t e r i a applied t o flows i n centrifugal
r o t o r s have no physical meaning.

A c m o n l y used d e f i n i t i o n f o r the efficiency of a centrifugal campressor r o t o r i s

T2' - T1
rlR =
T2 - T1
The significance of the temperatures is evident f r o m Fig. 2. Equation 12 holds for the compressible
flow of f l u i d s with a constant value of y = cp/cv. S i m i l a r t o the preceding discussion t h a t d e l t with
incompressible flows, p a r t of the temperature r i s e i n the r o t o r i s due t o the increase i n peripheral speed
from s t a t i o n (1)t o s t a t i o n ( 2 ) . Equation 10, rewritten as

shows t h a t the s t a t i c temperature r i s e Tu - T1 due t o the centrifugal force f i e l d i s equal t o the f i r s t

term on the right-hand side of Eq. 13. It occurs i n r o t o r s with and without flow losses hence it i s
independent of the entropy increase s2 -
SI. Thus the compression Correspondin@; t o (U$ - U10)2/2 cp
occurs along the isentropic l i n e 81 = constant f r o m T1 t o Tu, from s t a t i o n (1) t o s t a t i o n ( U ) i n Fig. 2,
producing the s t a t i c pressure r i s e pu -
p1, where

The deceleration of the r e l a t i v e velocity from W l o t o W

2 produces the temperature r i s e

with an entropy increase from s1 t o 62, due t o the flow losses, which i n t u r n a f f e c t the pressure r i s e
p2 -
pu. The efficiency of the process f r o m (U) t o ( 2 ) can be defined by the so-called wheel efficiency
Tw
T,' - T..

-T2'
= $ -T2+ 1 -
TU Tu
%
and

From a f l u i d dynamics view point only the efficiency % i s a measure f o r the quality of the rotac
performance. I n p a r t i c u l a r , low measured values of are indications for the existence of flow separations,
although b will be affected a l s o by the t i p clearance losses, the so-called scrubbing losses produced by
the r o t a t i n g blades i n the w a l l baiundary leyer a t the fixed shroud, and the mixing losses a f t e r the rotor.
However, l o w e f f i c i e n c i e s 'Ttw are only p a r t l y r e f l e c t e d i n the r o t o r efficiency VR of Eq 12 because of the
temperature r i s e Tu - T1 which i s produced without entropy increases. I f the entropy diagram of Fig. 2 were
t o represent the actual conditions i n the compressor of Fig. 1, there would be, by measuring the temper&
tw differences i n Fig. 2,
rlR = 0.84

and

%= 0.57
Although the value of 7 ) ~= 0.84 seems t o indicate t h a t the f l o w i n the r o t o r i s reasonably good, the
l o w value of Q = 0.52 shows c l e a r l y t h a t it should be possible t o improve the r o t o r considerably with a
redesign. Such improvement should be undertaken not only t o increase the overall e f f i c i e n t y of the campressor
by reducing t h e entropy r i s e 82 -
si i n the r o t o r , but a l s o t o produce more uniform flow conditions a t the
 6-5

r o t o r discharge since it might then be possible t o reauce the diffusor losses also.

The process i n the r o t o r t h a t involves the r e l a t i v e velocity changes can be considered

d i f f e r e n t view point. Equation 10 may be w r i t t e n as

2 2
= T u + L = T +
CP 2cp 2

where TE i s the so-called equivalent t o t a l temperature of the r o t o r flow. Equation 16 has the same form
as the energy equation f o r an adiabatic process of an absolute flow i f TE i s replaced by the constant
absolute t o t a l temperature Tt and W 2 by the absolute velocity V. The temperature TE i s constant f o r a
process i n a p a r t i c u l a r r o t o r having a fixed radius r a t i o RlO/R2 and turning at a specified speed. Thus,
for given i n l e t conditions, Eq. 16 can be used a l s o for an isentropic process along si = constant from (U)
t o (2') t o give, i n accordance with Fig. 2,

f o r the same pressure r i s e p2 -

pu as produced by the process with f r i c t i o n , and W2is i s the t h e o r e t i c a l
velocity available a t the pressure p2. I n turbine calculations it i s customary t o express the r o t o r losses
by so-called velocity coefficients JI
W
JI =- 2
w2is
If t h i s formulation isused f o r compressors also, there i s from Eq. 17,

Introduced i n t o Eq. 15

1-- (-1w2 2
J12 wlo
Wl0Z - w2z

or

The reason f o r introducing $ as an a l t e r n a t e f o r 7 ) i~s t h a t equals -

O3 f o r the special condition

where W 2 = W l o , or T2 = Tu. I n t h i s case, and i f W 2 i s l a r g e r than yo,the velocity coefficient JI can

however s t i l l be applied. On the other hand, for usual designs where W 2 i s smaller than W l o , the velocity
coefficient i s not a good measure f o r the r o t o r performance since $ can be increased by simply making
t h e velocity W 2 smaller, ard it i s then more appropriate t o use the wheel efficiency b f o r the loss evalua-
t i o n . Since the same d i f f i c u l t i e s i n expressing the losses occur i n turbines also, an additional formula-
t i o n i s sometimes used which establishes the drop i n t o t a l pressure t h a t i s associated with the entropy
increase 82 - si. For r a d i a l compressor r o t o r s these formulation are e i t h e r

Y = 'E1 - E
'2
'E1 - U'
or
'E1 - E
'2
y2 PE2 - P2

depending on whether the pressure drop pE1 -

pE2 i s referred t o the i n l e t or the e x i t conditions. Although
these t o t a l pressure loss coefficients are usefW. a t s m a l l Mach numbers, or f o r incompressible flows where
- -
pE1 pu = (P/2) W1o2 and pE2 p2 = (P/2)W2,, it can be sham t h a t the corresponding coefficients which
r e l a t e the losses t o the k i n e t i c energy of the f l o w ( i n the same manner as of Eq. 15, or $ of Eq. 18)
become smaller f o r constant values of Y1 or Y2 i f the Mach number of the i n l e t or discharge flow increapes.'
Although the a c t u a l energy losses tend t o increase with increasing flow Mach numbers, an indiscriminate
application of Eqs. 22 or 23 with values of Y f r o m low-speed t e s t s can be used as a wrong argument t h a t the
opposite i s t r u e .

To s i m p l i e the r e l a t i o n s for the determination of the conditions of s t a t e i n the compressor the

velocity coefficients JI w i l l be used i n the equations of Table I . To compare two r o t o r s with d i f f e r e n t
radiua r a t i o s and d i f f e r e n t deceleration r a t i o s W2/Wlo, the efficiency 'I)wof Eq. 15 should be used as a
6- 6

measure f o r t h e i r performance. Equations 20 and 21 r e l a t e Jr and % t o each other. Paragraph 5 contains

a discussion t h a t deals with the magnitudes of 'lw. With the formulas of Table I it i s possible also t o
establish a r e l a t i o n for the determination of % for known values of T ~ R of Eq. 12, or vice versa. Frm

and with
1 -(r
R1o )2

c = - c

there' are
%=\ + c (1 -
and

High performance compressors with high pressure r a t i o s cannot be equipped with diffusors t h a t are
c i r c u l a r cascades with a i r f o i l shaped blades. Figure 1 is a r e a l i s t i c sketch of a high speed compressor
operating with an average discharge velocity V2 t h a t i s supersonic. To obtain reasonably large a x i a l
blade widths b2 as well as acceptable shapes o f the meridinal r o t o r contDus, it i s necessary t o r e s o r t t o
large angles cy2 a t the rotor discharge. A t large angles 9, p r a c t i c a l consideration d i c t a t e a limited
number of diffusor channels, say, about 8 t o 10 f o r angles (UP of about 750, and the permissible diffusion i n
these individual channels produces configurations similar t o t h a t depicted i n Fig. 1. One of the most
c r i t i c a l problem areas i s the design of the flow passages from the rotor discharge t o the entrance of the
diffusor channels proper. The absolute flow leaving the r o t o r i s not only non-uniform but also non-steady,
because the r e l a t i v e velocity a t the r o t o r discharge must by necessity vary between the suction and the
pressure sides of the r o t o r blades a t R2. Designs where the radius R 3 i s very much l a r g e r than the outer
r o t o r radius R2, o r compressors with vaneless diffusor f o r large angles a2, were found t o be i n f e r i o r
t o machines with s m a l l r a d i a l gaps R3 -R2, especially for high subsonic or supersonic v e l o c i t i e s V2. I f
it were not for the excessive noise the diffusor l i p s would preferably be arranged even closer t o F$ as
shown i n Fig. 1.

Theoretical attempts were made i n Refs. 3 and 4 t o evaluate the losses i n the space between R2 and R3,
and i n vaneless diffusors, t h a t are due t o mixing and f r i c t i o n a l e f f e c t s . The r e s u l t s of these investigations
do not agree with r e a l i t y i f Mv2 and/or o(2 are large. These inconsistencies are due t o the assumption t h a t
equal flow angles are supposed t o occur across the a x i a l width b20f the flow channel a f t e r the rotor, a
condition which i s created by assuming t h a t the f r i c t i o n a l forces along the w a l l s act equally on a l l p a r t i c l e s
between them. I n a c t u a l i t y the flow angles cy (measured with respect t o the r a d i a l direction) decrease
radicaJJy i n the w a l l boundary layers i n the direction from the mid-section of the channel toward the w a l l .
The p a r t i c l e s inside the boundary layers then move more rapidly t o larger radii i n t o zones of higher pressure
than those outside of the boundary layers and very e a s i l y cause flow separations from the w a l l s , thereby
impairing the effectiveness of such diffusors.

I n the w r i t e r ' s opinion it i s incorrect t o s t a t e t h a t i n e f f i c i e n t diffusors the vanes must not be too
close t o the impeller, o r t h a t the velocity a t t h e i r entrance must be subsonic i n a l l cases. For the reason
mentioned above, it i s equally wrong t o maintain t h a t vaneless diffusors must be arranged f o r supersonic
absolute v e l o c i t i e s at the rotor discharge.

Because of the i n a b i l i t y t o separate the l t ~ s s e st h a t e x i s t between the r a d i i R2 and RJ, of Fig. 1 an

overall diffusor efficiency w i l l be introduced. With the symbols of Fig. 2

T4' - T2
% = T4 - T2

where
v22 -vt
T4 - T2 =
2cp
The velocity V4 e x i s t s a t the diffusor discharge a t the radius R4, and i s taken as

v4 = A v,
With s m a l l v a l u e s of A the radius r a t i o s RJR2 become large because of the limited amount of
diffusion t h a t i s possible per u n i t length i n flow direction t o avoid separations i n the diffusor channels.
Values of A of about 0.20 t o 0.30 are comon t o l i m i t RJR2 t o about 2. With designs of the type shown i n
Fig. 1 the k i n e t i c energy VJ2 9 cannot be converted i n t o pressure r i s e , since the flow f r o m the individual
diffusors is dumped i n t o a receiver surrounding them. As indicated by s t a t i o n (cl) i n Fig. 2 the t o t a l
pressure P t 4 a t the compressor discharge i s then equal t o the s t a t i c pressure p4 at the diffusor e x i t , and
 6-7

the t o t a l temperature a t the compressor discharge is T t 4 = Tt2 f o r adiabatic processes. The dumping of
the k i n e t i c energy V42/ 2 cp i s r e f l e c t e d i n the overall diffusor efficiency b*between r o t o r and compressor
discharge

ID" = % (1 - A2)
Diffusor design c r i t e r i a and approximate methods t o evaluate the diffusor losses are given i n
paragraph 5 .

Since

and with Eq. 28 there i s then obtained the temperature T4 , as given hy Eq. I(11) of Table I . The pressure
p4 =Pt4 i s determined from

f o r the isentropic process along the l i n e s2 = constant. Because the isentropic temperature differences
between l i n e s of constant pressure a r e proportional t o the i n i t i a l temperatures of the processes, there is,
with t h e symbols of Fig. 2,

T4" -
T4' - T2'
T2
-- -T21
T2

As shown i n Table I the r a t i o T4"/To can be expressed by Eq. I(13) which has the form

T4" 1 +A(X1 + A X2)

--
TO
- 1 + A B

where X1 and X2 are given by Eqs. I ( l 4 ) and I ( l 5 ) , and

, (43)

The temperature r i s e ATis for an isentropic compression from the t o t a l conditions PO, TO a t the
compressor i n l e t , t o the discharge pressure Pt4 i s , with Eq. 41,

ATis
-=--
T4" A[% - B + A $1
'= 1 + A B
To To
Eq. 4.4 i s i d e n t i c a l with Eq. 1(16) of Table I.

A s shown i n Table' I the pressures at the d i f f e r e n t s t a t i o n s can be determined from the established
temperatures by using the pressure-temperature r e l a t i o n f o r isentropic processes of perfect gases.

3. PEXFORMAIKE AND DESIGN PARAMETERS

The o v e r a l l compressor efficiency defined by Eq. 8 i s , with Eqs. 6, 42, and 44,

TC = - - VB A
+ x2
1 + A B
ATW

With Eqs. 42 and 43 the above r e l a t i o n establishes Eq. I I ( 1 ) of Table 11. This t a b l e l i s t s the equations
necessary t o determine the performance and the geometry of the compressor. Only the principal steps t h a t
l e d t o the equations of Table I1 are described i n the following, the d e t a i l s of the derivations are omitted.
The symbols of Table I1 are those of Figs. 1 and 2, with additional ones t h a t are defined i n t h i s paragraph.
6-8

The degree of reaction I+ i s defined as the r a t i o of the isentropic temperature r i s e T2' -

TO i n the
rotor t o t h a t corresponding t o the pressure r a t i o Pt4/Po .
Equation I I ( 2 ) of Table I1 shows t h a t f o r 11, = 1
and Jr = 1, the degree of reaction i s

~ + = r * = [ l -
2
2 s i n a2

For a s l i p factor p = 0.85, ro* changes f r o m about 0.544 t o 0.433 i f the angle cy2 i s reduced from 75' t o
600. For low degrees of reaction a large p a r t of the overall pressure r i s e must be produced i n the diffusor.
Since t h i s energy conversion i s associated with greater losses than the pressure r i s e produced i n the r o t o r ,
high degrees of reaction are desirable. This condition i s used i n hydraulic pumps which usually have back-
ward-bent r o t o r blades t o produce most, i f not all, of the pressure r i s e i n the rotor. However, i f such
rotors were employed for l i g h t gases, such as a i r , the pressure r i s e would be too small f o r most applications,
not only because of the reduced specific work input but also because such rotors would not be able t o operate
a t high speeds on account of the high bending s t r e s s e s i n the blades. I n rotors with r a d i a l blades it seems
beneficial t o use large angles cl;! t o increase I+. A t a fixed peripheral speed U2 the v e l o c i t i e s V2 decrease
if cq i s increased, but d i f f i c u l t i e s occur then because of the geometry of the passages f r o m the wheel t o
the diffusor i n l e t . The deceleration r a t i o W2/Wlo becomes smaller also, as shown by Eq. I I ( 5 ) , and the
increased losses caused by larger flow decelerations i n the rotor may off-set the gain t h a t would be obtained
from the increased degree of reaction i f other conditions would remain unchanged. The choice of these
design parameters t o obtain the best possible solution must usually be based on experience because of the
interactions between rotor and diffusor t h a t are greatly influenced by t h e i r designs.

The s l i p factor p appears i n most of the equations of Tables I and 11. More has been written on t h i s
subject than on any other i n the f i e l d of r a d i a l pumps and compressors, primarily because it i s of great
importance t o know exactly how much energy a wheel w i l l absorb. I f wrong values of '.L are used i n a design
the desired pressure r a t i o w i l l not be obtained even though the expected efficiency i s reached. Reference
7 i s a recent paper where t e s t s obtained with one particular wheel are compared with data obtained from
experiments, and with s l i p factor formulas, by other authors. A s i s frequently the case i n many studies on
the subject, t e s t data f r o m a single wheel obtained a t off-design conditions are used t o establish design
point data f o r other impellers. Moreover, the highest r a t i o U 2 / q was only about 0.51 i n the t e s t s of
Ref. 7. The bibliography of Ref. 7 fails t o mention the investigations of Refs. 5 and 6 which were under-
taken a t Daimler-Benz A. G. by systematically t e s t i n g t e n high-performance impellers of d i f f e r e n t shapes
up t o values of U2/% of about 1.1. I n the w r i t e r ' s opinion, the data published i n Refs. 5 and 6 are
extremely valuable t o the designer and the o r i g i n a l curves of the a r t i c l e have been replotted i n Fig. 3 t o
give wider publicity t o t h i s important contribution t o the s t a t e of the art.

With t h e s l i p factor known from Fig. 3 the compressor efficiency of a p a r t i c u l a r design can be determined
from Eq. I I ( 1 ) f o r known losses. Equation I I ( 3 ) is plotted i n Fig. 4 f o r y = 1.4, and d i f f e r e n t values of
pVc, t o show the magnitudes of U2/w necessary t o produce particular pressure r a t i o s . For advanced gas
turbine applications it would be desirable t o operate a t pressure r a t i o s of between 8 and 10. For llc = 0.8
and CL = 0.875, Fig. 3 shows t h a t values of U 2 / q of about 1.8 are necessary t o reach t h i s goal. Thus,
a t an i n l e t temperature of 600F, where 80 = U 2 0 fils, the rotor of such a compressor has t o operate with a
peripheral speed U2 of about 2000 fils, requiring special materials and caref'ul rotor designs for the
r e s u l t i n g high stresses.

By Eq. 1(6) the r i s e of the t o t a l temperature i n the compressor i s Tt2 - To = To(y-1)p(U2/ao)2 = 59OoF,
or about 6 0 0 0 ~f o ~ r L.I = 0.875 and To = 5200R. Since the degree of reaction i s around 0.5, the s t a t i c
temperature T2 a t the rotor discharge i s then about 60 + 60012 = 3 6 0 0 ~ . A t t h i s temperature, high-strength
aluminum alloys have rupture s t r e s s e s , and stresses f o r specified creep r a t e s , which are l e s s than one-half
of the allowable s t r e s s e s a t room temperature. Hence it i s necessary t o use titanium alloy8,for instance
those with about 6 percent aluminum and 4 percent vanadium. A t 3600F the design c r i t e r i o n f o r these
materials i s the yield s t r e s s since no appreciable creep e f f e c t s occur even f o r operating time6 of 100,000
hours. Their 0.2 percent o f f s e t yield strength a t 360°F i s about 120 kpsi, with an ultimate strength of
about 150 kpsi. As shown i n chapter C of Ref. 8, the tangential s t r e s s i n a non-supported ring of small
radial thickness rotating with the peripheral speed U2 i s pQ2. For titanium with a specific gravity of 4.43,
t h i s value i s about 240 kpsi a t U2 = 2000 fils. Figures C.27 and C.29 of Ref2 8 show she so-called equiva,
l e n t centrifugal s t r e s s e s De i n rotors withmradial blades as multiples of pU2 = p$FQ , f o r a design where
the disk extends t o the outer t i p of the blades a t FQ, and another which has so-called scallops between the
blades, similar t o t h e r o t o r design sham i n Fig. 1. Not counting the s t r e s s peaks a t the central bore,
which are more of the nature of s t r e s s concentrations t h a t w i l l be relieved by p l a s t i c deformations, because
t i t a n i u m has high d u c t i l i t y on account of i t s 20 percent elongation, the meximum s t r e s s r a t i o s De/(PU22) are
about 0.25 and 0.16 f o r the r o t o r s without and with scallops, respectively. Hence the maximum s t r e s s e s a t
2000 fils w i l l be about 60 kpsi f o r one a n d h u t 40 kpsi f o r the other rotor. This discussion shows t h a t
compressor rotors operating at t i p speeds of 2000 ftls are feasible and that by arranging scallops, and
using 75 percent of the 0.2 percent o f f s e t yield s t r e s s , or 90 kpsi, as design c r i t e r i o n , the maximum t i p
speed could be' as high as 3000 ft/s or over 900 4s. The l a t t e r speeds would give velocity r a t i o s U ~ / Q
of about 2.68 a t To = 6 0 0 ~and y = 1.4. For U2/w = 2.68, p = 0.85, 11, = 0.80, pressure r a t i o s Ptll/Po of
about 43 could be reached i n a single stage f o r gases with y = 1.4. The extreme d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t would
be associated with suchadesign, i n p a r t i c u l a r those arising because of the large volume flow reductions,
w i l l not be discussed here. The i n t e n t of the fore-going deliberations is t o show t h a t pressure r a t i o s i n
centrifugal canpressors f o r air are not r e s t r i c t e d because of r o t o r stresses.

Important advances are being made i n nuclear gas turbines with helium a6 working f l u i d , as described
i n a recent a r t i c l e by Bammert and Bo&. The main d i f f i c u l t i e s i n the design of the turbomachines f o r
t h i s plant,are the low pressure r a t i o s t h a t can be produced with helium i n a conventional compressor stage,
since the molecular weight of helium is only about 4 and y = 1.659. A t 6 0 0 ~the velocity of sound i n
helium is 3275 ftls. For a rotor with U2 = 3000 ft/s, a speed r a t i o U2/ag = 0.916 would be obtained i n
a radial compressor. A l l velocities i n the compressor would be subsonic and design point efficiencies of
about flc = 0.85 seem feasible. For ~ e . 9 0 ,f l ~= 0.85, U2/ag = 0.916, a t y = 1.659, the resulting pressure
r a t i o Pt4 /Po would be 2.43 i n accordance with Eq. 8.
 6-9

I n Ref. 9 a 25 We closed-cycle helium gas turbine plant i s described t h a t operates with a turbine
Dressure r a t i o of 2.55. The pressure r a t i o of the compressors w i l l have t o be about 2.7 t o overcome the
pressure losses i n the reactor and heat exchangers, of which no values are given i n the paper. Reference
9 shows however t h a t the plant has three a x i a l compressors i n s e r i e s , each consisting of 9 stages. Since
intercoolers are arranged between the three compressors each w i l l produce a pressure r a t i o of about 1.4.
I f the three a x i a l compressors were replaced by two single-stage r a d i a l compressors, of the type described
with an intercooler between them, it would be possible t o obtain an overall pressure r a t i o of about s i x
which would be of advantage for the cycle. The writer does not want t o minimize the d i f f i c u l t i e s t h a t
would be connected with the development of radial compressors and radial turbines f o r such applications,
i n addition t o those connected with the bearings, s e a l s and gear drives, but it i s f e l t t h a t they might
be the ultimate solution f o r these highly i n t e r e s t i n g power plants.

Equation S ( 1 ) w i l l be used i n an example t o show the influence of the diffusor losses on the compressor
efficiency a t d i f f e r e n t speed r a t i o s U ~ W , f o r absolute flow angles cy;! of 600 and 750. The velocity coeffi-
cients JI w i l l be determined by assuming a wheel efficiency % of Eq. 15 of 0.7 for both impellers. Equations
21 and 24 were used t o e s t a b l i s h Fig. 5. The deceleration r a t i o s W 2 / W l o are 0.68 f o r cq = 600 and 0.366
f o r a;! = 750 by Eq. I ( 5 ) f o r the data l i s t e d i n Fig. 5. This difference makes the choice of equal e f f i c i e r r
cies b f o r both cases somewhat dubious. I t i s seen fram Fig. 5 t h a t the r o t o r e f f i c i e n c i e s I]R are 0.89
and 0. 55 for a2 = 60° and a2 = 75O, respectively. The corresponding values of 9 , which w i l l be used i n
Eq. I(l1, are 0.865 and 0.585. It i s assumed f h t h e r t h a t the velocity V4 at the diffusor discharge i s
0.2 V2, o r A = 0.2, s o t h a t ID*= 0.96 1~by Eq. I ( 1 2 ) . Figure 6 shows the large e f f e c t of the diffusor
losses on the compressor efficiency. To obtain I]c = 0.85, the diffusor efficiency must be about 0.9 f o r
all speed r a t i o s U 2 / a g . If were 0.7 instead of 0.9, the compressor efficiency would only be 0.75.
A t U 2 / % = 1.6, t h i s decreased diffusor efficiency would reduce the pressure r a t i o of the compressor
from about 7 t o 5.8, which i n a gas turbine plant would produce a mismatch between turbine and compressor,
with additional adverse e f f e c t s on the thermal efficiency of the p l a n t . Figure 6 shows also t h a t the
diffusor has a larger influence on I]c a t the higher flow angle a2. On the other hand, the Mach number M m
of the r o t o r discharge velocity w i l l be lower a t cy2 = 7 5 O than a t a;! = 600. The respective values can be
obtained from Eq. 11(6) which has been represented i n Fig. 7 for y = 1.4. A t U2/w = 1.6, the values of
Mm are 1.16 and 1.24 f o r a;! of 750 and 600, respectively, for the design parameters l i s t e d i n Fig. 5.
Figure 7 shows t h a t the Mach number M m becomes unity for values of U 2 / a g between 1.1 and 1.3, depend-
ing on the choice of 9. From Fig. 8, which i s a representation of Eq. 11( 4 ) , it can be noted t h a t f o r a
speed r a t i o U ~ / C Q = 1.2 and at a radius r a t i o Rla/R2 of about 0.67, which represents an average design
value, the r e l a t i v e velocity yo a t the r o t o r i n l e t has a Mach number of about 0.9 a t an i n l e t angle
B l o of 650. Figures 8 and 4 show t h a t the Mach number M m for air compressors w i l l not have t o be l a r g e r
than about 1.3 t o produce pressure r a t i o s up t o about ten. Some sources s t a t e t h a t no e f f i c i e n t inducers
can be b u i l t f o r values of M m larger than 0.8 because of "shock losses". I t seems t o the writer t h a t
such statements are not d i f f e r e n t f r o m those made some years ago, which predicted t h a t it would be imposs-
i b l e f o r an airplane t o break the "sonic b a r r i e r " , or others which maintained t h a t an a x i a l compressor
has t o operate at subsonic v e l o c i t i e s t o be e f f i c i e n t . Advances i n transonic axial-flow compressor steges
have sham t h a t human ingenuity can overcome these so-called b a r r i e r s . Reference 10 i s c i t e d as an example,
where a transonic boost stage ahead of the i n l e t of a centrifugal compressor is described, which produces
a pressure r a t i o of 1.43 f o r a i r at an efficiency of 90 percent w i t h a t i p Mach number of 1.05.

The f l o w i n an inducer of an impeller with r a d i a l blades i s d i f f e r e n t fram t h a t i n an .&ial-flow

rotor. I n the l a t t e r , p a r t i c l e s t h a t have been moving along the suction and the pressure sides of the
blades are mixed at e s s e n t i a l l y constant s t a t i c pressure a f t e r the t r a i l i n g edges a t the discharge,
whereas no such mixing OCCUTS i n the flow channels where the inducer joins the r a d i a l blades of the
impeller. Hence the pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s along the walls of the inducer blades must be r a d i c a l l y
d i f f e r e n t from those along the surfaces of an a x i a l r o t o r blade, and separation c r i t e r i a t h a t are based
on t t e diffuston f a c t o r of a x i a l cascades cannot be applied. Similar t o the conditions i n transonic a x i a l
stages the supersonic r e l a t i v e velocity a t the t i p of an inducer becomes sonic a t a p a r t i c u l a r radius Rlc,
and subsonic a t r a d i i R h smaller than R I c . Denoting the Mach number of Wl at Rlx by M h , and t h a t a t
R l 0 by M m as previously defined, there i s

Figure 10 shows the values of R l x / R l o obtained from Eq. 45 f o r M m = 1.3, a t d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i v e flow

angles p i 0 at the inducer t i p , and for p a r t i c u l a r values of the Mach number M h . This graph i s presented
t o show t h a t it i s non-sensical t o s t a t e t h a t M m cannot exceed p a r t i c u l a r values without speciwing a t
what angle p i o and a t what r a t i o RljfRlo t h i s l i m i t a t i o n holds. Whereas a t @lo = 750 a Mach number of
unity occurs at R l x / R l o = 0.75, the whole i n l e t annulus w i l l have supersonic r e l a t i v e velocitLes a t p l o = 50°,
f o r the same Mach number Mm = 1.3 a t the t i p . Moreover, i f a t B l o = 7 5 O the hub/tip r a t i o R l i / R l o of
the i n l e t eye i s 0.75 i n one machine and, say, 0.3 i n another the losses due t o compressibility e f f e c t s
w i l l c e r t a i n l y be d i f f e r e n t . Figure 10 also shows the Mach numbers M m of the absolute velocity V1 ahead
of the impeller which, a s indicated e a r l i e r , has been assumed t o remain constant i n r a d i a l direction. They
have values of 0.336 and 0.919, respectively, for p i o = 7 5 O and B l o = 5 5 O a t M m = 1.3, and it i s inconceiv-
able t o the writer t h a t the losses w i l l rem4n constant independent of Mm. C l e a r l y , i f M m becomes l a r g e r
than unity very s p e c i a l conditions occur since the flow i n the annulus becomes choked a t M m = 1 as has
been discussed i n Art. 9.9 of Ref. 1. Some of the p e c u l i a r i t i e s associated with cascades a t supersonic
i n l e t v e l o c i t i e s a r e mentioned i n Art. 9.10 of the same reference.

The writer believes t h a t the, by now, almost c l a s s i c a l view points of flows through turbomachines
have outlived t h e i r useflilness. They may even be a hindrance f o r future developments and i f accepted
without questioning, m e y prevent o r i g i n a l thinking and could make people believe t h a t all problems have
been or w i l l be solved by t h e i r use. This c l a s s i c a l method assumes t h a t the f l u i d p a r t i c l e s i n a turbo-
machine move on axisynrmetric stream surfaces of shwes which are e i t h e r assumed a p r i o r i , o r obtained
 6- 10

)JY simplified t h e o r e t i c a l methods. Further, it i s assumed t h a t the flow through a turbomachine can be
replaced by the flows through a m u l t i p l i c i t y of annular channels bounded by neighboring stream surfaces,
which are closely spaced between the meridional contours of the flow channel of the machine a t hub and t i p .
The stream surfaces are actually considered t o be t h i n , s o l i d walls t h a t do not create disturbances, and
it is assumed t h a t the flows In these individual channels do not i n t e r a c t with each other. I n each one of
the channels there e x i s t s then. a so-called quasi two-dimensional flow of the type described i n Art.12 of
Ref. 1. The performances of the d i f f e r e n t cascades, which are now arranged i n the various flow channels
t o produce the specified flow deflection, are taken t o be those of two-dimensional cascades obtained e i t h e r
i n cascade t e s t r i g s or by t h e o r e t i c a l methods. With the l a t t e r , one-can at-best attempt a solution for
the s p e c i a l r e l a t i v e flows W i n r o t o r s that-satisfy the condition V x W = - 2w; that i s , where the c u r l of
the velocity function i s a constant, since w i s the angular velocity vector of the rotor. Such flows are
isentropic but can be compressible. However, disturbances due t o shocks cannot occur. This condition
limits the t h e o r e t i c a l evaluation t o flows where the l o c a l Mach numbers must be l e s s than o r , a t the most,
equal t o unity. More general solutions of the so-called blade-to-blade problem on axisymmetric stream
surfaces have not y e t been obtained and are very d i f f i c u l t t o formulate.

,So-called quasi two-dimensional flows with V % W =

--L

-
2f are discussed i n Art. 12 of Ref. 1. BY
introducing a stream function Q there i s obtained a second order p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of t h e form
(see Eq. 12(9), P. 307, Ref. 1)

- 2(&) pw s i n A (46)
The commas denote p a r t i a l differentions with respect t o the coordinates l i s t e d a f t e r them, where 8 i s the
angle i n peripheral d i r e c t i o n and m the length along the generatrix of the stream surface. The m a s s
density i s denoted by P, R i s the radius from the axis, Ah i s the varying distance between neighboring
stream surfaces, w i s the angular r o t o r velocity, and A i s the angle of the tangent t o the generatrix
with the axis of rotation. For A = 0 the p a r t i c l e s move on cylindrical stream surfaces, and A = 90'

"
covers flows i n radial compressor wheels with stream surfaces t h a t are planes perpendicular t o t h e axis.
For the l a t t e r case, and f o r conical stream surfaces, Eq. 46 has been solved by Stanitz for t h i n blades.3
For cascades with airfoil-shaped blades, t h a t are arranged on an a r b i t r a r y surface of revolution, computer
programs are described i n Ref. 11 for solutions with relaxation methods t h a t need high-speed computers
with large storage capacities. As i n t e r e s t i n g and u s e m these t h e o r e t i c a l attempts a r e , one must be
c r i t i c a l t o evaluate what they r e a l l y produce i n form of r e s u l t s , and whether or how these data w i l l help
t o improve present designs, and t o create the turbomachinery which i s t o be b u i l t i n the future.

The mere f a c t t h a t modern computers can solve d i f f e r e n t i a l equations with complicated boundary condi-
t i o n s which, hitherto, could not be tackled by hand calculations i s no assurance t h a t the r e s u l t s must be
correct from a physical point of view. Computers can only perform mathematical manipulations as they
are t o l d t o do, and no r e s u l t i s b e t t e r than the assumptions t h a t were used t o formulate the problem t h a t
i s solved by these apparently sophisticated, but inherently stupid, machines.

Two of the necessary boundary conditions f o r solving Eq. 46 with the programs of Ref. 11 require t h a t
the flows upstream and downstream of the blades are uniform, and t h a t the flow angles a t these s t a t i o n s
be specified. These conditions i m p l y t h a t t h e tangential deflection through the cascade i s known a p r i o r i ,
whereas i n a c t u a l i t y the possible deflection depends on the a t t i t u d e of the blades i n the cascade and the
upstream conditions only. Whereas i n turbine cascades it i s possible t o calculate the discharge mgle'from
t h e geometry of the cascade with approximate methods, such predictions are not possible i n a x i a l compressor
cascades, i n f a c t one of the major problems is t o find out what the discharge angles are f o r imposed inci-
dence angles. Actually then, Ref. ll produces pressure distributions abdut blades f o r specified locations
of the r e a r stagnation points, and i f they have been chosen wrongly the pressure pattern w i l l be wrong also.
As i n most t h e o r e t i c a l cascade flow investigations %he e f f e c t s of upstream or downstream cascades cannot
be taken i n t o account; the row investigated constitutes i n a c t u a l i t y a disturbance located between two
flow f i e l d s t h a t extend t o i n f i n i t y f a r upstream and f a r downstream without being disturbed by other
cascades.

A major drawback of all methods t h a t are based on Eq. 46 i s however t h a t the right-hand side of t h i s
r e l a t i o n becomes zero if e i t h e r i s zero, or i f A i s zero. I f the angular velocity i s zero the cascade
i s stationary and instead zf the p a t t e r n of the r e l a t i v e velocity W one deals with- the ab_solutb velocity V
i n a s t a t o r whose c u r l Vx V i s now zero because of the i n i t i a l condition that V x W = -2w. The v e l o c i t i e s
V of such flows must be gradients of a p o t e n t i a l function 'p, and Eq. 46 can be m d i f i e d t o

where " a " i s the variable velocity of sound a t the d i f f e r e n t locations i n the flow f i e l d . As before it
i s necessary t h a t M = V / a i s everywhere smaller than unity. For incompressible flows, where the velocity
- of sound "a" i s tending toward i n f i n i t y , Eq. 47 reduces t o Laplace's equation V2v = 0. Equation 47 i s a
p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of the Poisson type and the term on i t s right-hand side can be interEreted
mathematically t o be the resu14t of sources i n the flow f i e l d . Expressed d i f f e r e n t l y , the c u r l of V i s
zero, but i t s divergence V V is not; which means t h a t flow must be generated somewhere i n t h e f i e l d , and
sources judiciously arranged therein can take care of t h i s situation. Reference 12 develops calculating
methods t h a t are based on t h i s idea by using the principles of superposition, but again for assumed
axisymmetric stream surfaces, nmely, cones i n particular.
 6-11

It can be noticed also, t h a t Eq. 46 changes i n t o Eq. 47 i f h = 0; t h a t i s , i f cylindrical stream

surfaces are assumed t o e x i s t . Thus, as f a r as a x i a l machines with c y l i n d r i c a l stream surfaces are
concerned, the flow through a r o t o r i s not d i f f e r e n t f r o m the flow through a s t a t o r , i f the cascades
have t h e same geometries and i f the flow angles of the r e l a t i v e and absolute flows are equal. On the
other hand it can be proved without a shadow of a doubt, e.g., by Art. 8.5 of Ref. 1, t h a t even isentropic
r e l a t i v e flows i n r o t o r s must be f'undementslly d i f f e r e n t i n character from absglute flows. From Eq. 8(23)
of Ref. 1 it can be seen c l e a r l y t h a t t h e simplest r e l a t i v e flow must have V x W = - 2w', and i f Kelvin's
theorem i s extended t o r e l a t i v e flows (Eq. 8 (22) of Ref. 1), and applied t o isentropic conditions, one
sees t h a t the change of the c i r c u l a t i o n r R around a moving f l u i d curve C i n a r e l a t i v e flow i s not zero
but equal t o

(C)
I n an absolute isentropic flow, however, the change of the c i r c u l a t i o n around a movAng f l u i d i s indeed
zero. Equation 48 indicates t h a t Dr$fdt i s zero only i f the r e l a t i v e flow vectors W are everywhere p a r a l l e l
with G, hence p a r a l l e l with the axis of rotation. Rotors of t h i s type s e not zapable of changing the
energy of f l u i d s and have no p r a c t i c a l i n t e r e s t . That the condition 0 %W = -
2w i s not i n conflict with
Eq. 48 can be proved with simple means.

It can be s t a t e d therefore t h a t the stream surfaces i n a rotating cascade must d i f f e r from those
t h a t would occur if the same casc$e were stationary. More precisely, the stream s y f a c e &n a stationary
-
cascade, whose flow s a t i s f i e s V X V = 0, must change t o a p a t t e r n t h a t s a t i s f i e s V x W = 2w, and it is
not possible t h a t the r e l a t i v e flow i n the r o t a t i n g cascade has the same stream surfaces as the absolute
flow. I n p a r t i c u l a r , the r e l a t i v e stream surfaces cannot be axisymmetric, i f those of the absolute have
t h i s character. More about these conditions has been described i n A r t . 10.5 of Ref. 1, but it i s evident
from the above discussion t h a t r e s u l t s obtained by solving Eqs. 46 and 47 must be of approximate nature
even f o r the idealized flows t h a t are investigated, and they must be interpreted i n the proper perspective
of t h e i r i n i t i a l assumptions.

Such r e s u l t s , or data f r o m stationary cascade t e s t r i g s which b a s i c a l l y are obtained w i t h the same

assumptions as those of the above-mentioned theories, are now used t o e s t a b l i s h t h e blading elements i n
the individual f l o w channels between the s o l i d stream surfaces. The c l a s s i c a l method consists i n design-
ing the actual blade surfaces through the p r o f i l e s of these blade elements. The "solid" stream surfaces
are then, so t o say, removed and it i s assumed t h a t the o r i g i n a l l y calculated or assumed stream surfaces
w i l l a l s o e x i s t for the f l o w about these three-dimensional blades. It i s quite c l e a r t h a t there are
many p o s s i b i l i t i e s of arranging an actual blading with the p r o f i l e sections t h a t are obtained f r o m the
flows through the individual flow channels, depending, for instance, on how the leading edge of t h e blade
is arranged. I n the inducer of Fig. 1 the leading edge of the blade could be pulled forward i n flow
direction t o obtain a blade surface t h a t i s leaning more away f r o m a meridional plane than i f the leading
edge were t o s l a n t backward, although a t the d i f f e r e n t r a d i i the blade angles would be exactly equal.
Without a doubt these two blades would exert d i f f e r e n t forces on the flow, one could tend t o push the
f l o w toward t h e t i p , the other toward the hub, and it i s inconceivable t h a t the flow pattern i n the
meridian channel would remain unchanged. I n Ref. 2 (Table C-2, p. 26) an investigation dealing with the
blading of an axial-flow machine has been carried out t o check whether it i s possible t o build a cotor
with a very large number of t h i n blades t h a t produces the idealized r e l a t i v e flow with V x W = - 2 w near i t s
c y l i n d r i c a l hub. This f l o w condition establishes a p a r t i c u l a r change of the f l o w angle i n r a d i a l direction,
and requires t h a t the blade surface consists of radial l i n e s . Since f o r a large number of blades the flow
and the blade angles must be identical,the last mentioned requirement establishes the change of tke f l o x a n g l e
don@;the radius by i t s e l f . It can be seen t h a t the two values d i f f e r , primarily because from Vx W = - 2 w the
necessary blade angle change depends on the r a t i o of U) and the yial smponent of W, whereas t h i s i s not the
case for the other. Hence, it i s evident t h a t the condition V x W = - 2 d cannot be maintained i n a blading
with a f i n i t e a x i a l length, and t h a t the a c t u a l blade shapes as a whole will have an influence on the flow
through them. These examples show t h a t the f l o w patterns i n a machine can be influenced by p a r t i c u l a r a r r q e -
I ments of the p r o f i l e s i n d i r e c t i o n of the blade height and t h a t they w i l l have a bearing on the meridional
flow. The c l a s s i c a l approach, so t o say, l i n e a r i z e s the problem, and does not take account of the inter-
actions t h a t occur between the flows through the d i f f e r e n t elementary channels from the hub t o the t i p .
It f u r t h e r t r i e s t o explain all phenomena with a two-dimensional model, a t best w i t h one on stream surfaces
t h a t are surfaces of revolution, and looses sight of the actual three-dimensional e f f e c t s t h a t occur i n
r e a l i t y . These limiting view points seem t o be p a r t i c u l a r l y harmful i f supersonic flows occur i n a r e l a t i v e
flow f i e l d where, as discussed e a r l i e r i n connection with the inducer i n l e t , the absolute f l o w i s subsonic.
Stationary cascade t e s t data cannot give a t r u e picture of the conditions since they replace again the
r e l a t i v e flows by an absolute flow between "solid" stream surfaces, where i n p a r t i c u l a r the condition t h a t
the f l o w component perpendicular t o the cascade a x i s , which i s i n r e a l i t y the actual absolute flow, has no
s p e c i a l significance. I n a supersonic cascade test r i g it w i l l hardly be possible t o determine cascade
performance at d i f f e r e n t incidence angles nor establish design data f o r blades where o n l y p a r t s of the
blades have supersonic velocities. For inducers of r a d i a l ccanpressors which are followed by r a d i a l blades
it does not seem possible t o use cascade data with any degree of realism, and only experimental work with
actual r o t a t i n g wheels w i l l show what detrimental e f f e c t s high r e l a t i v e flow Mach numbers have on the
performance.

There seem t o e x i s t a number of design variables t h a t should be examined for supersonic inducers. The
p o s s i b i l i t y of influencing the flow p a t t e r n near the t i p by appropriate blade shapes t o produce, say,
greater mass flow r a t e s per unit area near the hub, has been mentioned. These designs could be extended t o
produce swept-wing e f f e c t s , similar t o what has become the standard design of w i n g s f o r high-speed airplanes.
It i s well known t h a t i n supersonic flows the velocity p a r a l l e l with the leading edge of a swept-back wing
with i n f i n i t e span cannot produce variations i n pressure, hence only the component of velocity perpendicular
t o the leading edge can create losses t h a t are caused by compressibility effects. Peculiar conditions could
however occur at the outer w a l l , i f t h i s principle were applied t o the design of the inducer i n l e t edges,
b u t it might be possible t o obtain considerable improvements. The writer i s surprised t h a t such designs
6-12

have not been t r i e d f o r a x i a l compressor stages, especially for those with large blade heights. Swept-
back blades would not necessarily have greatly increased bending stresses, since the maximum section
of an a i r f o i l p r o f i l e i s a large multiple of the minimum modulus about the outer principal axis.
I f the centers of gravity of the p r o f i l e s along the blade height were displaced backward along t h i s axis
of the hub p r o f i l e , it should be possible t o minimize the s t r e s s e s t h a t are caused by the additional
bending moment about the other principal axis.

The w r i t e r believes t h a t it i s possible t o build inducers a t supersonic r e l a t i v e i n l e t v e l o c i t i e s f o r

absolute i n l e t Mach numbers Mv1 of about 0.5 t o 0.6 with good efficiency and minimum flow disturbances.
Converging-diverging passages i n the inducer seem unnecessary, especially i f only p a r t of the rotating
channel has supersonic velocities. Leading edge radii must be as s m a l l as possible, but large enough tD
avoid damage by f l u t t e r , and great care must be taken t o properly design the suction side of the blade t o
provide a good t r a n s i t i o n i n t o the actual blade channel. It i s not believed however t h a t the blades must
be designed f o r incidence angles i f the proper blockage factor i s used for the flow area calculations a t
the i n l e t . This statement contradicts the data of Ref. 13, where the optimum r o t o r efficiency TJR i s shown
t o occur a t positive incidence angles of about 1 ' at Rio f o r blade angles of 570. The i n l e t channel ahead
0
of the eye of the wheel t h a t was tested, has curved meridinal contours, hence the i n l e t velocity Vl i s not
d f o r m f r o m R l i t o Rio. Although it i s s t a t e d i n Ref. 13 t h a t the d i s t r i b u t i o n of VI was determined by
probes, s l i g h t inaccuracies of the measurements, or a location of the probe a t some distance forward of the
leading edges of the r o t o r could e a s i l y be responsible for these unusually large incidence angles. By
means of t h e o r e t i c a l methods, which are not described i n detai1,the velocity d i s t r i b u t i o n s along the
inducer were determined also i n Ref. 13 t o verify the t e s t data. However, a s shown by Fig. 5 of Ref. 13,
the inducer has simply been replaced by a cascade, since a t i t s discharge the v e l o c i t i e s on e i t h e r sides of
the blade are shown t o be equal, a s i t u a t i o n which cannot e x i s t i n r e a l i t y , and whhh gives questionable
value t o the argumentation based on it.

Design c r i t e r i a f o r the whole r o t o r passages f r o m the i n l e t t o the discharge are often given i n terms
of the deceleration r a t i o W2/Wlo of the r e l a t i v e r o t o r velocities. From e a r l i e r discussions with regard
t o r o t o r losses it i s evident t h a t not a l l losses i n a rotating impeller depend exclusively on this r a t i o .
They w i l l also be g r e a t l y influenced by the performance of the inducer, i n p a r t i c u l a r , on the velocity
d i s t r i b u t i o n t h a t e x i s t s a t the s t a t i o n where the inducer blades j o i n the r a d i a l impeller blades. It i s
necessary t o have a good appreciation of the complexities of flows i n r o t a t i n g impellers t o avoid over-
simplifications and the s e t t i n g up of design c r i t e r i a t h a t are based on wrong models. A n invaluable contri-
bution t o investigating the r e a l flow phenomena i n r o t a t i n g impellers has been made by Fowlerl4, who
actually measured the velocity d i s t r i b u t i o n i n the passages of a large compressor with probes f r o m a p l a t -
form inside the hub t h a t was r o t a t i n g with the wheel. Figure 11 has been adapted from a personal communi-
cation of Mr. Fowler t o the writer. It shows the velocity p r o f i l e s at seven cross sections of the r o t o r
f l o w channel of an unshrouded wheel with r a d i a l blades a t the discharge, when operating at a peripheral
speed U2 = 17 f'tls. The meridional f l o w channel has the smoothly changing contours used f o r modern designs.
Plane 1 of Fig. 11 i s a t the i n l e t section of the inducer blades, extending f r o m the leading edge of one
blade t o the back of a neighboring one, and the blades become r a d i a l near plane 3. The zones with reduced
v e l o c i t i e s at the blade t i p s t h a t are due t o the blade gap and the scrubbing e f f e c t s along the outside w a l l ,
remain almost equal from plane 3 t o the discharge plane 7. It i s of i n t e r e s t t o compare these measured
velocity d i s t r i b u t i o n s with the t h e o r e t i c a l solutions of Eq. 47 f o r r a d i a l blades and incompressible flows.
The p a t t e r n of the streamlines obtained by Stanitz for a r a d i a l impeller with 20 blades i s shown i n Fig. 3.5.2
of Ref. 3. The v e l o c i t i e s are inversely proportional t o the distance between neighboring streamlines. The
leading surface o f a blade w i l l be called the pressure side, the t r a i l i n g surface of the same blade i s i t s
suction side. Hence the direction i n a blade channel from the pressure side of one blade t o the suction side
of the neighboring one, i s i n direction of r o t a t i o n of the wheel.

A t the outer radius of the wheel ( R = 1 i n Fig. 3.5.2 of Ref. 3) the t h e o r e t i c a l analysis predicts t h a t
the velocity i n a blade channel increases i n direction of rotation, whereas exactly the opposite trend i s
seen t o occur i n plane 7 of Fig. ll. However i n planes 3 and 4, and t o a l e s s e r degree i n plane 5, the
measured velocity changes agree i n the main with the t h e o r e t i c a l ones which predict a velocity increase i n
d i r e c t i o n of r o t a t i o n a t all radii. This s i t u a t i o n occurs because the t h e o r e t i c a l method shows, or i s based
on the assumption, t h a t a t r a d i i smaller than about 70 percent of the r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t i e s are everywhere
r a d i a l . Then, as determined i n A r t . 10.6 of Ref. 1, and as shown i n Fig. 10(5a), they w i l l increase l i n e a r l y
with the angle along the periphery i n direction of rotation. The measured reversal of t h i s behavior, s t a r t i n g
from plane 5 t o the discharge plane 7, cannot be due t o viscous e f f e c t s only, which are neglected i n the
t h e o r e t i c a l treatment, but must occur because of flow p e c u l i a r i t i e s t h a t a simplified theory cannot take
i n t o account. I n h i s personal communication t o the writer, Mr. Fowler also remarked t h a t the directions of
the r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t i e s a t the discharge did not have as large a deviation from the radial direction as
Fig. 3.5.3 of Ref. 3 shows. The measured flow d i s t r i b u t i o n s suggest t h a t considerable mixing of the d i f f e r -
ent flow s t r a t a must occur while they pass through the compressor and it i s very unlikely t h a t there e x i s t
axisymmetric surfaces. Reference 15 describes t e s t s of single, s t r a i g h t diffusors th'at were arranged
r a d i a l l y and rotated i n the t e s t r i g of Ref. 14, t o examine the e f f e c t s of centrifugal ani Coriolis forces
on decelerated flows t h a t move r a d i a l l y outward. Diffusors with d i f f e r e n t divergence angles where investi-
gated, f i r s t while stationary and then while rotating. It was found t h a t considerable differences occur
if a diffusor i s rotated. S t a t i c t e s t s with a two-dimensional diffusor with an included angle of loo showed
the well-known peaked velocity d i s t r i b u t i o n s t h a t occur f o r these angles. I f rotating, the peaks f l a t t e n
out and the flow becomes more stable. These r e s u l t s agree w i t h the conclusions reached e a r l i e r about the
beneficial e f f e c t s of a centrifugal force f i e l d on decelerated flows, but they show also t h a t boundary layers
along r o t a t i n g w a l l s , where the f l u i d p a r t i c l e s a r e a l s o affected by Coriolis forces, exhibit d i f f e r e n t
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s than those along stationary walls. Similar r e s u l t s have been obtained i n Ref. 16 which
describes t e s t s of flows through a channel with constant cross section t h a t i s rotated about an axis.
Because of these conditions, d i f f e r e n t separation c r i t e r i a f o r boundary layers must be applied i f they
occur on stationary w a l l s or on surfaces t h a t r o t a t e about an axis.

For t h i s reason it i s not possible t o use conventional boundary layer theories as a means t o find
permissible deceleration r a t i o W 2 / W l o f o r the r e l a t i v e flows i n impellers, nor can attempts be successfU
t h a t t r y t o r e l a t e t h i s r a t i o t o the NASA diffusion factor, which has proved t o be a s a t i s f a c t o r y separation j
c r i t e r i o n f o r a x i a l compressor bladings which have small f l o w deflections, hence, where the changes of the
 6-13

Coriolis forces are small i f the blading r o t a t e s . Much more h d a m e n t a l work dealing with boundary
layers on r o t a t i n g w a l l s and investigations with modern flow visualization methods must be carried out
before it i s possible t o e s t a b l i s h s a t i s f a c t o r y design limits for flows i n r a d i a l impellers. Recent
endeavors t h a t use holography with Pulse-Lasers f o r investigations of flows i n rotating wheels might open
e n t i r e l y new ways t o study a c t u a l flows i n high-speed machines where the e f f e c t s of centrifugal and Coriolos
forces are large.

If the above-mentioned p e c u l i a r i t i e s of r o t o r flows are not taken i n t o account one might come t o the
cmclusion, as some sources do, t h a t flow separations w i l l occur i n an impeller i f W2/wlo equals 0.6, and
t h a t a r a t i o of 0.62 should be used for design purposes t o avoid excessive losses. Such values are obtained
f r o m analogies with stationary diffusors o r oversimplified boundary layer considerations f o r , s a y , l i n e a r l y
changing v e l o c i t i e s along a surface, as i s the case on the suction side of a blade i n an a x i a l compressor
cascade. Figure 9 i s a diagram f o r the determination of the deceleration r a t i o W2/Wlo i n accordance with
Eq. I I ( 5 ) of Table 11. I f , f o r instance, the l i m i t f o r t h i s r a t i o were s e t a t 0.65, the discharge angle
012 could not be larger than about 600 for a radius r a t i o Rlo/w of 0.7 and $10 = 600. For l a r g e r discharge
angle cl;! the radius r a t i o Rlo/w would have t o be decreased. Figure 12 i s presented t o show these condi-
t i o n s more precisely i f t h e lower l i m i t of W2/Wlo i s assumed t o equal 0.6 and i f the s l i p factor i s 0.85.
For these conditions and at 0'2 = 75O, the maximum radius r a t i o RlO/R2 could not exceed 0.42 a t a r e l a t i v e
f l o w angle p i o = TO0. Experience with high performance campressors shows however t h a t impellers w i t h
radius r a t i o i n accordance with the dashed curve have operated successfully. A t 012 = 7 5 O , f o r instance,
and a t a radius r a t i o Rlo/R2 of 0.68 the deceleration r a t i o i s of the order of 0.35 t o 0.3,depending on @lo,
as shown i n Fig. 9 by following path "b" i n the diagram. Therefore, i f the deceleration r a t i o W d W l o i s
used as a preliminary design c r i t e r i o n it i s permissible t o apply minimum values of about 0.3 or even
somewhat lower, s a y , about 0.26. A unique relationship between W ~ / W ~ Oand the wheel efficiency Tlw cannot
be established because of lack of t e s t data but i n Paragraph 5 some t e s t r e s u l t s are p l o t t e d t o show the
order of magnitude of Ttw. A correlation between W d W l o and can probably never be obtained because of
the additional r o t o r l o s s e s t h a t depend on a number of additional factors.

For known values of by @lo, and U2/ag it i s possible t o calculate the wheel radius with Eq. II(9)
of Table 11, if the r a t i o R l i / R l o were known. The quantity kgl i s a blockage factor which i s primarily
depending on the number of inducer blades and t h e i r thickness a t the i n l e t t h r o a t , although excessively
thick boundary layers on the w a l l s of the i n l e t annulus can a f f e c t k g l also. Evidently i f U2/ag i s known
the angular velocity w i s known also, i f R2 has been determined. However w can be determined d i r e c t l y by
Eq. I I ( 1 0 ) of Table 11, f o r known o r chosen quantities M m and $lo. Eq. I I ( 1 0 ) i s u s e m t o e s t a b l i s h
the necessary r o t a t i v e speed t o handle p a r t i c u l a r flow r a t e s . I f w i s given, because of the prime mover
t h a t drives the compressor, Eq. II(10) makes it possible t o verify whether a p a r t i c u l a r f l o w r a t e can be
handled at t h i s speed. The r a t i o of a x i a l blade width b2 and % i s obtained by Eq. II(11). The blockage
factor kg2 i s the r a t i o of the a c t u a l flow area at the wheel discharge and the area 277 R2 b2, multiplied
by an experience f a c t o r t h a t depends on the boundary layer thickness on the side w a l l s .

The necessary d i f f u s o r e x i t area A4 a t the radius Q i s obtained from Eq. I I ( 1 4 ) f o r specified values
A = v4/V2 and known e f f i c i e n c i e s ?IC. A blockage f a c t o r kB4 takes account of the displacement thickness
of the boundary layers which reduce the actual f l a r area at the discharge of the diffusor. Section x-x of
Fig. 1 is taken t o be e i t h e r the t h r o a t of the diffusor where the f l o w i s choked i f the absolute velocity
V2 a f t e r the r o t o r i s supersonic, or the entrance section of the a c t u a l diffusor i f V2 i s subsonic. The
necessary t o t a l flow area of all diffusor channels i s denoted by Ax,and kgx i s again an area blockage
factor. The area Ax can be determined f o r both cases i f the r a t i o of the t o t a l pressures Ptx at s t a t i o n x
and Pt2 at the r o t o r discharge i s known. Although Pt2/Po could be expressed by Eq. I(19) of Table I and
then introduced i n t o Eqs. II(13) and II(14), it i s b e t t e r t o u e these r e l a t i o n s as l i s t e d , since it i s
possible t o judge approximately what Values the r a t i o Ptx/Pt2 w i l l have f o r p a r t i c u l a r diffusor designs.
I f V2 i s supersonic the t h r o a t area i s obtained with the dimensionless c r i t i c a l flow f'unction mc of Eq. II(14)
which has a value @c= 0.6847 f o r y = 1.4. For subsonic v e l o c i t i e s V2 the diffusor i n l e t area can be

f
determined only i f the velocity Vx a t s t a t i o n x i s specified, by assuming a value 5 = V V2. Usually t h i s
r a t i o i s taken t o be about 1.02 t o 1.05 because a s l i g h t acceleration between s t a t i o n s 2) and (x) w i l l
produce more uniform flow conditions a t the diffusor inlet. For a chosen number of diffusor flow channels,
usually arranged between p a r a l l e l w a l l s , the d i f f i s o r widths a t i n l e t and discharge can be determined f r o m
4 and AI+, and the methods described i n Paragraph 5 e s t a b l i s h the necessary length of the diffusor channels.
With t h i s length and the chosen diffusor arrangement it i s possible t o e s t a b l i s h the outer radius R4 of
the diffusor.

4. SIMILARITY CONSIDERATCONS

I f e f f e c t s due t o gravity, surface tension, and heat conductivity can be ignored, which i s permissible
f o r most flows i n turbomachines, the l a w s of dynamic s i m i l a r i t y e s t a b l i s h t h a t f l o w processes of perfect
gases i n geometrically similar channels are equal i n performance i f the Reynolds numbers and the velocity
r a t i o s V / e a r e respectively equal at corresponding s t a t i o n s i n the channels. As derived f o r instance by
Ackeret e t . al., i n Ref. 17, the l a t t e r condition can be expressed i n terms of equal Mach numbers M y with
the additional requirement t h a t the f l u i d s passingsthrough the geometrically similar channels have equal
s p e c i f i c heat r a t i o s y. Reference 17 shows also t h a t the e f f e c t s of d i f f e r e n t values of y a r e s m a l l only
if the Mach numbers are l e s s than about 0.6. The reason i s t h a t gases with d i f f e r e n t heat r a t i o s y produce
d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i v e changes i n density i f passing thr0ugh.a channel with p a r t i c u l a r area r a t i o s . Hence
the values V / m c a n n o t remain equal i n geometrically s M l a r channels.

A s s d n g then t h a t gases with equal values of y a r e considered only, and t h a t the Reynolds numbers of
the flars i n the c q e s s o r s t o be ccmrpared are i n a range where they can vary considerably without l a r g e l y
changing the f r i c t i o n a l coefficients; t h a t is, i f they are moderately large and i f the f l o w surfaces are
rough, dynamic s i m i l a r i t y i s achieved i n geometrically similar machines at equal Mach numbers.

I n hydraulic machines, s i m i l a r i t y considerations t h a t are based on the so-called s p e c i f i c speed have

been used with success and it will now be examined whether it i s possible t o apply t h i s method a l s o t o
t h e compressors considered here t h a t operate a t high speed r a t i o s U d q . A t t e m p t s t o obtain design limits
end t o e s t a b l i s h t h e optimum operating range of radial ccnnpressors with t h i s means are described i n Refs.
6- 14

18 and 19. I n both reference there i s used the s p e c i f i c speed NE (see Eq; I I I ( 1 ) of Table 111)

similar t o the practice i n hydraulic pump design. I n the l a t t e r application, Q, which i s the volume
flow r a t e through the machine, i s everywhere constant. I n a compressor f o r gases however, where the
volume Cow r a t e w i l l change considerably fiom i n l e t t o discharge, a choice must be made whether Q
a t s t a t i o n (l), o r at, say, s t a t i o n ( 2 ) i s t o be used i n Eq. 50. I n both references the quantity Q i s
taken t o be the i n l e t flow r a t e Q1 without giving reasons f o r t h i s choice. As i n Refs. 18 and 19, and
as shown i n Table I11 by Eq. I I I ( l ) , the value of NS pends n the system of units which i s used. I n
t h e two c i t e d references Ns has the dimension rpm fdt ~ , i s awkward f o r purposes of compari-
~ e c - ~ ?which
son with similar coefficients i n other systems of units, and such formulations are not i n keeping with the
general and very desirable tendency t o use dimensionless quantities throughout. For t h i s reason it i s
more appropriate t o use the dimensionless speed ns, with u n i t s aa defined by Eq. I I I ( 3 ) of Table 111,
which f o r p a r t i c u l a r conditions has the same value i n all consistent systems of units. The quantity ns
i s obtained by dividing the value of NS i n the given English u n i t s by 129.
Whereas Ref. 18 (Fig. 2.8) simply presents a graph showing a d i r e c t correlaticn of the efficiency of
d i f f e r e n t compressor types w i t h Ns, Ref. 19 uses the so-called specific diameter DS as an additional
parameter, which i s defined by (see Eq. I I I ( 2 ) of Table 111)

This quantit i s a l s o not dimensionless. However Eq. III(4) defines a dimensionless s p e c i f i c diameter
ds t h a t i s ogtained f r o m DS i n English units by division with 0.42.

The coefficient 51 of Eq. I I I ( 5 ) represents the r a t i o of the area of the flow annulus a t the compressor
i n l e t and the area TT Rio2, where R l 0 i s the outer radius of the r o t o r i n l e t eye. As shown i n Table I11
the quantities ns and ds can be expressed also’with the chosen parameters of Tables I and 11, t o obtain
Eqs. 111(6) and I I I ( 7 ) . Both contain 51, so t h a t t h i s r a t i o can be obtained f r o m e i t h e r of these r e l a t i o n s
as shown by Eqs. 111(8) and III(9). By equating these expressions there i s obtained Eq. I I I ( l O ) , o r
h

where p i s the s l i p factor and ICthe compressor efficiency. Since p i s a known quantity for a p a r t i c u l a r
compressor design, and because ICcan be determined with Eq. 11(l), the s p e c i f i c diameter ds i s d i r e c t l y
r e l a t e d t o ns and there i s no reason why both n,c, and ds should be specified f o r a design with radial blades.
Equation I I I ( U ) shows t h a t by specifying ns there can be obtained the radius r a t i o Rli/Rlo f o r p a r t i c u l a r
values of f31 and Rlo/R2 which are usually chosen on the basis of other considerations, as explained e a r l i e r ,
Equations 1199) and I I ( 1 0 ) of Table 11, w i t h the known r a t i o s Rli/Rlo, would then give d i r e c t l y the necessary
radius R2 or the angular velocity w for given operating conditions. I f the optimum efficiency of a compressor
were a unique function of ns, and if Rli/Rlo and/or the other parameters could be adjusted t o meet the opti-
mum value, the designer would have a simple c r i t e r i o n for the optimization of compressors.
From Ref. 18 (Fig. 2.8, p. 38) it appears t h a t radial compressors should have the b e s t efficiency f o r
values of NS between 75 and 85, or f o r ns between 0.58 and 0.66. Table E t gives an example f o r design
parameters t h a t have been used s u c c e s s f d l y . I n one case, a radius r a t i o Rlo/R2 of 0.56, i n another a
r a t i o Rio/% = 0.7 was chosen. For the smaller value of Rio/@ it i s not%possible t o design for NS = 80,
since the hub/tip r a t i o at the i n l e t becomes zero a t NS = 71. I n an actual design of a compressor t h a t
had e f f i c i e n c i e s him than 80 percent, the hub/tip r a t i o a t the i n l e t was about 0.46 f o r RI /@ = 0.56,
hence it operated at Ns = 60 and did not have the much lower efficiency predicted by Ref. 18. For the
example i n Table I11 with the higher r a t i o R i O / b = 0.7 t h e r a t i o R L i / R l o becomes zero at NS = 99.4, and
an actual high-performance machine i s known t o the writer t h a t has an i n l e t hub/tip r a t i o of 0.34, hence
it operates at ns = 0.725 or N 93.5. Thus, the sharp optimum f o r Ns i n Ref. 18 does not occur i n
r e a l i t y and Ns = 80 o r ns = O . b = i s not a design c r i t e r i o n .

It i s obvious from Eq. 111(6) t h a t all radial compressors have values of NS between, say, 60 and l l 0 .
Lawer and higher values would lead t o impossible designs which would never be b u i l t anyway. The only merit
of the s p e c i f i c speed i s t o find out whether a r a d i a l compressor can be b u i l t a t all for given values of
N, Ql, and H i s . I f NS i s outside the range of 60 t o 110, and i f the above-mentioned design conditions can-
not be changed, another type of compessor has t o be chosen. However, i f the r e l a t i o n s of Table I1 were
applied, the same conclusions would a l s o be reached immediately even i f the specific speed concept had
never been invented. I n f a c t i t s use can a l s o be dangerous i f , as might be the case for the example of
Table I11 with R /R2 = 0.56, the designer would t r y t o reach the highest possible NS by making the
radius r a t i o R&Q excessively small or choosing too high a value of R d Q t o reduce N s for Rlo/R2 = 0.7.
The example also shows t h a t large changes of R 1 F / R l o have a s m a l l influence of NS except, near the m a x i -
mum possible value of NS where R l F / % tends toward zero. Further, i f NS = 80 would be considered necessary,
a large number of high-performance radial compressors would E v e r have been b u i l t , much t o the detriment
of the development of these promising machims, where a b e t t e r physical understanding of the complicated
flow phenomena can s t i l l lead t o considerably improved performance.

Unfortunately there a l w a y s e x i s t s the tendency i n engineering t o t r y t o s e t up simple r u l e s or c r i t e r i a

which make it possible t o judge whether or not a design i s feasible, without having t o go through the
strenuous mental processes t o t r y t o understand the phenomena t h a t actually occur and t o r e l a t e them t o the
fundamental l a w s of nature. If our o n l y task were t o build the same machines over and over again, sometimes
 6- 15

a l i t t l e smaller, all would be w e l l w i t h [Link] of handbook engineering. However i f an engineer

believes t h a t Mprovements are possible,aand i f he r e f l e c t s on what has happened during the past years
he cannot doubt t h a t t h i s will be the case, he must not accept the b a r r i e r s t h a t have been s e t up by
p a s t experience, and be impressed by the achievements t h a t have been made. With a c r i t i c a l mind he has
t o evaluate what i s t r u e and what i s false with accepted methods, and h i s aim must be t o t r y t o under-
stand, t o search, and t o improve. Too often engineers are handlers of formulas or recipes, and there i s
the tendency t o accept t h e i r r e s u l t s as correct without much questioning, especially i f they are ground
out by a computer, without finding out what s o r t of basic principles and assumptions led t o the numbers.
I n the near future our modern computers m a y well be the biggest obstacle t o imaginative o r i g i n a l thinking
and the use of new concepts, since f o r every problem there will very soon e x i s t some s o r t of a program
t h a t can show t h a t everything i s known, and t h a t nothing new needs t o be added. All one has t o know i s
the necessary format for the input t o obtain the desired r e s u l t , i n p r i n t , i n graphs, even i n drawings.
The inventive and c r i t i c a l engineer harever must take the trouble t o find out how the program was established
and what basic principles and assumption were made, and must then evaluate the obtained numbers i n the l i g h t
of these conditions.

The biggest objection t o the s p e c i f i c speed c r i t e r i a i s however t h a t they do not s a t i s f y the laws of
dynamic s i m i l a r i t y , even not f o r the limiting conditions t h a t were assumed e a r l i e r . Equation 111(6) shows
t h a t ns i s independent of the pressure r a t i o t h a t i s produced by a compressor. I f all factors i n Eq. 111(6)
are equal for two compressors, they can have d i f f e r e n t values of U2/% and therefore widely d i f f e r e n t blade
width b2 a t the rotor dischwge. One compressor could operate w i t h subsonic, the other with supersonic
v e l o c i t i e s at the diffusor i n l e t . 'Figure 13 i s an adaptation of Fig. 4 of Ref. 19. The curves of constant
efficiency = 0.7 and IC= 0.8 and the curves labeled = 1.0 and = 1.2 f o r PtJPo were taken from
Ref. 19 and redrawn i n a bigger scale. Although labeled as l i n e s of constant Mach number i n Ref. 19 the
curves f o r Nm = constant are for constant r a t i o s of r e l a t i v e i n l e t and c r i t i c a l velocity for the t o t a l
i n l e t temperature. Equation I I I ( 1 4 ) of Table I11 shows how these r a t i o s are related t o the actual Mach
numbers m. Although the differences between N m and M m are s m a l l a t low Mach numbers, the values of
vary f r o m 0.94 t o 1.01 f o r = 1.0 i f B l 0 changes from 50° t o 7 5 O . According t o the author of Ref.
19 the curves f o r Nm = 1.0 and 1.2 represent design limits for higher pressure r a t i o s . It i s s t a t e d
t h a t maximum e f f i c i e n c i e s w i l l occur for impellers with backward bent blades operating a t specific speeds
Ns between 90 and 130, and specific diameters DS between 1.3 and 1.7. The s t r a i g h t l i n e s labeled bVc =
constant which the present writer drew i n t o t h e o r i g i n a l diagram of Ref. 19 represent Eq. I I I ( l O ) , and
r e l a t e DS t o NS f o r wheels with radial blades at the discharge. Average values f o r pTc for such impellers
are 0.7, hence all r a d i a l campressor of t h i s type must l i e i n the v i c i n i t y of t h i s curve f o r b$ i n Fig. 13.
The points labeled (1)t o (7) i n Fig. 13 represent design points for some actual compressors known t o the
writer, operating with U2/% of about unity, and i n l e t Mach numbers of 0.9 and higher. It i s of i n t e r e s t
t o note t h a t all these points l i e on the curve 1, = 0.70 of Ref. 19 whereas all compressors, even those
having NS-values between 60 and 70, have e f f i c i e n c i e s of 80 percent and higher. This s i t u a t i o n shows
again t h a t the s p e c i f i c speed concept is a highly unsatisfactory design c r i t e r i o n , especially f o r radially-
bladed compressor wheels, since it i s impossible t o design such machines with operating points t h a t f a l l
inside the closed curve, labeled I) = 0.8 i n Fig. 13. It i s pointed out i n Ref. 19 t h a t the data presented
i n i t s Fig. 4 were calculated on the basis of loss considerations. It can be concluded therefore t h a t
t h i s loss evaluation i s i n e r r o r o r unsuitable f o r compressors with r o t o r s t h a t have radial blades a t the
discharge.

What seems more c r u c i a l t o the writer i s the f a c t t h a t on the basis of Fig. 4 of Ref. 19 ( o r Fig. 13
of the present a r t i c l e ) one might come t o the conclusion t h a t it i s not possible t o build high-speed
compressors of the type discussed here with high efficiencies, f o r instance, as required f o r gas turbines,
and t h a t f u r t h e r developments of these machines might not be undertaken because of "proof" t h a t improvements
are not possible. This i s again a case which shows t h a t an analysis i s no b e t t e r t h a n i t s assumption.
Since the s p e c i f i c spekd has no r e a l physical meaning, unlike the actual s i m i l a r i t y parameters such as
Reynolds number, Mach number and others, the w r i t e r deplores the tendency t o express everything i n flow
machines with Ns, a l s o phenomena on which NS ha8 r e a l l y no primary influence. Because of the d e f i n i t i o n
of NS it i s always possible t o do so because e i t h e r r o t a t i v e speeds and flow velocities, o r lengths? can
be related t o it, and since i n all these expressions there then appears NS i n one form or another, depending
on what s b p l i f y i n g assumptions were made, the reader i s given t o believe t h a t NS has a governing influence
on the performance, and that manipulating N s i s all t h a t needs t o be done t o create an optimum design.
Everyone who has observed actual flows i n turbomachines i n t e s t r i g s , and has t r i e d t o understand the
complexities of these processes w i l l agree t h a t nature j u s t i s not s o simple t h a t it can be explained by
a s e t of convenient numbers.

5. LOSSES I N RADIAL CCMPRFSSORS

It has been s t a t e d e a r l i e r t h a t the wheel efficiency $ of 15 i s the b e s t measure for the quality
of a r o t o r wheel. As indicated, a number of factors influence w, but it will be examined now whether the
deceleration r a t i o W 2 / W l o has an overriding e f f e c t on T(w, a s has been suggested by some sources which s t a t e
t h a t W2/Wlo should not be smaller than about 0.6 t o avoid flow separations. It has already been shown i n
Fig. 12 t h a t such a limit cannot be used f o r compressors t h a t operate a t high speed r a t i o s U2/9 because the
radius r a t i o s Rl0/R2 become too small, and it i s then not possible t o handle the large changes i n volume
flow r a t e from r o t o r i n l e t t o r o t o r discharge, t h a t occur at high p r e s s u r e < r a t i o s , with acceptable r a t i o s
of a x i a l blade width b2 and R2. The example of paragraph 6 demonstrates t h i s condition clearly. I f
w ~ / W ~ O2 0.6 were a r e a l i s t i c c r i t e r i o n , the losses i n r o t o r s with high speed ratio's would be large and
it would be d i f f i c u l t t o obtain high efficiencies. Figure 14 is presented t o show t h a t m a n y compressors
have deceleration r a t i o s t h a t are smaller than 0.6 without a d r a s t i c decrease i n $. The c i r c l e s i n Fig.
14 represent design point data of some of the compressors of Ref. 6, and others t h a t are known t o the
+
writer. The points indicated by x and were calculated from t h e data given i n Ref. 13, and the curves
&awn through them represent the change of Q I, w i t h operating conditions of a p a r t i c u l a r wheel a t values
of u 2 / ~ of 0.83 and 1.02, respectively. All data points are f o r impellers with radial blades a t the
r o t o r discharge, and a l l compressors operate at high speed r a t i o s , having overall e f f i c i e n c i e s i n excess
of 80 percent.

I n contrast t o the expected trend t h a t Tiw decreases w i t h decreasing values of W2/Wlo, the opposite
6-16

could be deduced *om Fig. 14, since wheel No. 1 with W 2 / W l o = 0.265 has the highest efficiency % = 0.77.
For each data point i n Fig. 14 are also given the r a t i o s R l O / Q , R 1 d R l o , bdR2 and Ax/AR of the rotor. 1
The l a t t e r r a t i o establishes the general shape of the meridional channel and the values show t h a t the
contours of the meridional flow paths of all compressors must have s m a l l curvatures with the exception,
meybe, of wheel No. 11. Definite reasons for the higher values of Tiw i n some designs cannot be given,
probably because of the e f f e c t of the design of the inducers on the wheel performance. However, it i s
recognizable f r o m Fig. 14 t h a t high e f f i c i e n c i e s are reached e i t h e r for high r a t i o s R I I / R l o o r high
values of bpf-. The influence of Rlo/R2 seems small, although most good wheels have values of R l o / Q
between 0.6 and 0.7. Large r a t i o s R 1 i / R l o require high r e l a t i v e Mach numbers t o pass the flow r a t e
through the eye of the impeller, and high r a t i o s b2/R2 are obtained i f the absolute f l o w angles cy2 are
large. For high values of the inducer becomes critica1,and with large angles a the design of the
diffusorlespecially the t r a n s i t i o n between wheel and diffusor throat, becomes a d i f s i c u l t task. It i s
f e l t t h a t high performance compressors can be developed i f more a t t e n t i o n i s given t o these two problem
areas.

From th? curves i n Fig. 14 it i s quite evident t h a t the range i n which , ,$T remains constant f o r off-
design operation becomes smaller the higher the speed r a t i o Udag i s , a condition which is, at l e a s t i n
p a t , responsible f o r the steeper c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of compressors operating at high speed r a t i o s .

The r a t i o of b2/& also has an e f f e c t on the disk f r i c t i o n l o s s of an impeller. Assuming t h a t the

disk extends t o the outer radius R2; t h a t i s , i f no s c a l l o 8 are arranged, a f r i c t i o n a l moment MDF a c t s on
t h e back side of the impeller which can be determined by 2g

%F = "M '2

where cM depends on the Reynolds number

Re = -
u2 D2
V

and the a x i a l gap ga between the rotating disk and the stationary w a l l . The influence of the r a t i o 6$R2,
and the e f f e c t of disk roughness, which have been investigated by Refs. 21, 22, 23, and 24 are discussed
i n Ref. 8. Figure 15 has been established f r o m the r e s u l t s of the quoted references, but experience has
s h m t h a t the values of CM can be a multiple of those of Fig. 15 i f the flow i n the region between the
disk and the wall has r a d i a l velocity components pointing away from or toward the axis of the impeller. For
compressors pumpiq ambient air the Reynolds number of Eq. 50 varies between about (lo6) and 3(107) for
peripheral speeds between 1000 and 1600 ft/s, and r o t o r diameters between 3 and 20 inches. Although the
average value of c~ from Fig. 15 i s then about 1.5 it has been shown by experience t h a t CM = 2.5(10-4)
is more r a l i s t i c for actual compressor wheels. For a mass flow r a t e xh the power absorbed by an impeller
h
i s riI p U2 i n accordance with Eq. 3, which i s also equal t o Mu, where M i s the driving moment, and

However .

and, with the r e l a t i o n s of Table I ,

"he t o t a l moment which has t o be,overcome by the driving source i s then M + MDF and i f the efficiency of
the compressor i s llc,without taking the disk f r i c t i s n moment i n t o account, the actual compressor efficiency
ll of the machine i s IDF llc, and

I,, = - M
M + k+)F = 7-
1

Then by Eqs. 49 and 5 1

It can be noted t h a t 5DF i s independent of the mass density p2 and R2 since both M and MDF are proportional
t o these quantities. Hence Eq. 51 holds f o r a l l impellers with radial blades the outer radius R2. Equation
 6- 17

52 i s p l o t t e d i n Fig. 16. This figure shows t h a t with small r a t i o s b2/R2 there :an occur a considerable
reduction i n efficiency, which i s the greater the l a r g e r the angle a2 is. For a2 = 7 5 O t h e r a t i o (b2/R2)
kg2 w2 should not be l e s s than about 0.06 t o l i m i t ~ D F t o 0.98. Then, with kg2 = 0.95 and IL = 0.90,
the r a t i o of b d m must not be smaller than 0.08 t o avoid efficiency reductions because of disk f r i c t i o n
moments.

Although the above l i m i t for bdR2 has been obtained by considering the f r i c t i o n a l moment a t the back
side of the impeller, i t i s very probably t h a t the s+called scrubbing loss of the blade tips at the outer
contour of the meridional f l o w path produces f r i c t i o n a l moments which a r e of similar nature and of the
same order of magnitude as the disk f r i c t i o n moments. Moreover, as shown i n Fig. 15 f o r the l a t t e r , these
moments w i l l also not be g r e a t l y influenced by the r a t i o of t i p clearance and FQ i f it i s of the order of
0.05, which constitutes a normal t o lower l i m i t for most designs. The scrubbing loss i s similar t o the
loss due t o disk f r i c t i o n because the boundary layer along the stationary outer w a l l i s rotated by the blade
t i p s . I f the losses a t t h e blade t i p would be taken t o be those due t o the f l o w o f t h e f l u i d f r o m the
pressure side t o the pressure side of the blade across the blade clearance, it would be inconceivable t h a t
the reductions i n compressor efficiency with increased t i p clearance e as s m a l l as shown by the measure-
%
ments of Ref. 25. The same behavior has been found i n r a d i a l turbines where an increase of the r a t i o
of t i p clearance and a x i a l blade width b f r o m 4 percent t o 10 percent produced p r a c t i c a l l y no drop i n
efficiency, but i f 10 percent was exceeded there occured a r a d i c a l efficiency reduction. The sudden drop
beyond the 10 percent clearance r a t i o could occur because of massively increased leakage flows across the
blade t i p s once they are outside the w a l l boundary laJrer.

Experience has a l s o shown t h a t t h e r a t i o of blade width bdR2 should not be l e s s than 8 percent. The
value of CM i n Eq. 51 f o r the representation i n Fig. 16 has actually been increased from the average value
f o r disk f r i c t i o n (- 1.5 t o 2.5(10-4) t o demonstrate t h a t t h i s l i m i t is very l i k e l y due t o t h e
combined e f f e c t s of disk f r i c t i o n and scrubbing loss. For t h i s r a t i o of b d m and for properly designed
inducer sections of an impeller, with meridional contours having small and smoothly changing curvatures,
it should be possible t o obtain wheel e f f i c i e n c i e s of between 0.75 and 0.80 for b d R 2 = 0.08 i f the
r a t i o s Rli/Rlo are not l e s s than about 0.5.

A l a r g e portion of the t o t a l losses i n r a d i a l compressors occurs between the discharge of the wheel
and the diffusor throat. The non-uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n of the r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t i e s at the rotor discharge
produces a non-steady and g r e a t l y i r r e g u l a r absolute f l o w a t t h i s s t a t i o n which must be directed toward
the diffusor i n l e t , preferably i n a manner t h a t provides uniform f l o w conditions a t t h i s s t a t i o n . I f
t h i s uniformity i s not achieved it i s very unlikely t h a t the diffusor proper can perform i t s function with
minimum losses. Very limited d a t a are available f o r the design of and the losses i n these t r a n s i t i o n
sections. Figure 17 shows a t y p i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n of the s t a t i c pressures along the side walls of such a
diffusor i n l e t f o r a machine t h a t has a value of Mv2 of about 1.18. F i r s t l y it i s c l e a r t h a t the absolute
flow i s i r r e g u l a r , judging from the change of the pressures i n peripheral d i r e c t i o n a t the wheel discharge.
Secondly, the design of the diffusor i n l e t i s not as good as it i s desirable because f l u i d p a r t i c l e s
undergo compressions and expansions before they reach the diffusor throat. Moreover, Fig. 17 a l s o shows
t h e f u t i l i t y of trying t o apply simplified calculating method for t h i s p a r t of the process i n the compressor.

Of p a r t i c u l a r importance i s the design of the leading edge of the diffusor blade since the s l i g h t e s t
misorientation w i l l produce major disturbances usually with the e f f e c t t h a t the flow r a t e at which the
compressor surges i s too close t o i t s design flow r a t e . This condition occurs i f the mean angle of the
l i p section with respect t o the r a d i a l d i r e c t i o n i s too large or too small, and since the optimum angle
depends on the performance of the r o t o r , it i s not possible t o indicate exactly how the t r a n s i t i o n
section must be designed. Experienceshave made it obvious, however, t h a t t h e o r e t i c a l methods which prescribe
a logarithmic s p i r a l . o r other shapes for the curved p a ? of the t r a n s i t i o n section overlook the f a c t t h a t
the flows t o be handled are s o f a r f r o m being Uniform t h a t i s almost impossible t o obtain optimum solutions
without extensive experimental work t h a t investigate the performance of d i f f e r e n t shapes, not only with
respect t o optimum efficiency but a l s o t o obtain the necessary surge margin. One of the major problems
with experiments however i s the accurate measurement of the s t a t i c pressures i n these i r r e g u l a r flows.
I n most cases it i s found t h a t P i t o t - s t a t i c pressure probes with even the smallest possible tube diameters
are s u f f i c i e n t t o change the f l o w pattern, i n f a c t they usually t h r o w the compressor i n t o surge i f it i s
operating near the design point, so t h a t one has t o r e l y on s t a t i c w a l l pressure taps t o investigate the
effectiveness of d i f f e r e n t designs. Schlieren pictures f o r supersonic conditions do also not give informa-
t i o n t h a t can be interpreted with ease because of the three-dimensional character of the f l o w , not t o
mention the d i f f i c u l t i e s associated with t h e arrangement of the necessary o p t i c a l system. It i s therefore
quite d i f f i c u l t t o measure the t r u e average s t a t i c pressure a f t e r a compressor wheel, and because of the
uncertainties t h a t a r i s e i f the average s t a t i c w a l l pressures at R2 i s i d e n t i f i e d with it, the separation
of t h e losses i n t o those originating i n the wheel, and those occuring i n the t r a n s i t i o n section t o the
diffusor, i s equally d i f f i c u l t . For t h i s reason the evaluation of the a c t u a l wheel efficiency m a y be
associated with e r r o r s and t h i s could be the reason why it i s often impossible t o correlate experimental
data from d i f f e r e n t sources. Laser systems were mentioned e a r l i e r as an experimental t o o l t o investigate
flows i n turbomachines, and i f the so-called velocimeter, using two l a s e r beams f o r the determination of
the a c t u a l magnitude and d i r e c t i o n of the velocity i n the v i c i n i t y of a p a r t i c u l a r s t a t i o n has been
perfected, t h i s instrumentation m i l d be the b e s t possible means t o observe the t r u e flow patterns i n
machines, not only qualitatively but a l s o quantitatively.

I n accordance with a limited amount of t e s t data with a compressor operating at U 2 / q = 1.4, with
Mv2 = 118, the approximate r a t i o of the t o t a l pressure Pt2 at the r o t o r discharge and Ptx a t the t h r o a t
of the diffusor was found t o be about 1.14, giving an efficiency of the t r a n s i t i o n section of 0.63. This
efficiency i s defined as the r a t i o of the a c t u a l s t a t i c temperature r i s e t o obtain sonic velocity a t
the t h r o a t t o t h a t of an isentropic compression for the same pressure r a t i o . The average discharge flow
angle a2 was about 750. It seems harever t h a t the t r a n s i t i o n section of the compressor i n question could
be improved, so t h a t the numbers given above represent only orders of magnitude and not values t h a t cannot
improved.

Although a l a r g e number of t e s t s have been carried out with subsonic diffusors by many sources, these
d a t a cannot be applied d i r e c t l y t o the diffusors of compressors with high speed r a t i o s , e s p e c i a l l y i f the
6- 18

Mach numbers a t the diffusor i n l e t are close t o unity. Moreover, it has almost become standard procedure I
t o apply t h e so-called equivalent cone angle of s t r a i g h t , round diffusors t o decelerating flow channels
with other cross sections. This procedure converts the i n l e t and discharge f l o w areas of a diffusor
with a r b i t r a r y cross sections i n t o c i r c u l a r ones, e i t h e r with equal areas or by means of the hydraulic
diameter, and then determines the equivalent cone angle with these diameters and the actual length of the
diffusor. Either of the two methods f o r the determination of the equivalent cone angle breaks down f o r
p a r t i c u l a r designs, or gives r e s u l t s t h a t are i n disagreement with actual t e s t data.

An ttempt t o establish a more rigorous calculating method f o r a r b i t r a r y channels has beenmade by

8,
Traupe12 primarily f o r incompressible flows and approximations for the compressible case, but it i s
then suggested t h a t the equivalent cone angle be used again as a c r i t e r i o n f o r t h e permissible deceleration.
A d i f f e r e n t approach i s possible, however, which has a minimum of simplifying assumption and has proved
t o be v a l i d f o r diffusors of a r b i t r a r y geometry, even axisymmetric ones with curved meridian channels and
annular cross sections, f o r instance those arranged a f t e r turbomachines t o deflect the flow f r o m the
a x i a l t o the radial direction. The derivation and the use of the equations are given i n Table I V . From
the l a w s of conservation of momentum, mass, and energy, combined with the f i r s t law of thermodynamics,
there i s obtained Eq. IV(10) which r e l a t e s the f r i c t i o n a l heat T d s t o the work necessary t o overcome the
action of the shear s t r e s s e s along the channel W s . With t h e so-called referred mass flow r a t e hr3
at the diffusor i n l e t , which i s a dimensionless quantity defined by Eq. IV(14), there i s then obtained the
principal equation I V ( 1 5 ) . This equation i s of the form dX1 = w, where dX1 contains the properties of
s t a t e p, p, and 8, a t the s t a t i o n s along the channel length, and w i s depending only on the channel
geometry and the skin f r i c t i o n coefficient cf. Actually, f o r a given diffusor the variables i n dX1 are
not independent of the changes of the channel geometry along i t s length L t h a t occur i n q. However, i f
one were t o adjust the flow areas A and the wetted perimeter C of the sections between the i n l e t and the
e x i t i n such a manner t h a t the thermodynamic process of the f l u i d i n the channel would follow a polytropic
law, it would be possible t o integrate dX1 independently f r o m dX2 since 8 , and p are then unique functions
of the pressure p f o r a constant polytropic efficiency $ ' , or a constant loss coefficient 5 = 1 - $.
Conversely, i f dn average skin f r i c t i o n coefficient ?f i s introduced, the value of X2 i s obtained by inte-
grating the quantity d62 f r o m diffusor i n l e t t o diffusor discharge, establishing the so-called diffusor
shape factor fi which i s i d e n t i c a l with the value CP of Ref. 26. The diffusor shape factor i s a dimension-
l e s s quantity which depends only on the area and perimeter changes along the length L of the diffusor.

From t h e integration of dX1 there i s obtained the quantity X l as a unique f i c t i o n of the s t a t i c

pressure r a t i o i n the diffusor, y , and the polytropic loss coefficient 5 . For y = 1.4 the function Xl i s
plotted i n Fig. 18 f o r different values of 5 , as function of the pressure r a t i o p d p . Obviously the
conditions of s t a t e change monotonously during the polytropic process from p3 t o p4 ?n Fig. IV(2) and the ,
function X i only holds f o r such changes. Hence i f t h e area changes i n the diffusor would be such t h a t
compressions i n one p a r t would be followed by expansions i n another p a r t , the function X i could not take
care of t h e situation, since f o r an expansion the polytropic law established by Eq. IV(7) would produce
an entropy decrease i n violation of the second law of thermodynamics. However, even for smoothly changing
areas i n t h e diffusor, which it w i l l have i n any case, the thermodynamic process i n the T-s diagram of
Fig. IV(2) might not follow the isentropic l i n e which i s shown there, but one which curves e i t h e r up-
ward or downward from it. It must be recognized however t h a t the value of the f'unction Xl w i l l not be
greatly changed by d i f f e r e n t d i s t r i b u t i o n of p d o n g L, similar t o the i n t e g r a l of Tds which i s about
equal t o (T + T4) (84 - s 3 ) / 2 almost independent of how the process proceeds f r o m s t a t i o n (3) t o s t a t i o n
(4),providea it goes along a smooth and f a i r l y regular curve i n the T - s diagram.

Moreover, the polytropic loss coefficient 5 i s not assumed a p r i o r i , but adjusted t o s a t i s f y t h e

equation of continuity a t t h e diffusor discharge for a specified average skin f r i c t l o n coefficient. The
necessary i t e r a t i o n t o solve t h i s problem i s explained i n Table I V . The method employs the dimensionless
flaw m c t i o n CP which i s p l o t t e d i n Fig. 18 also, with the r a t i o of t o t a l and s t a t i c pressure t h a t
correspond t o an isentropic process a8 variable. Blockage factors f o r the diffusor areas are introduced
to take account of the boundary layer thickness.
For small. pressure r a t i o s p4/p3; t h a t i s , f o r l o w Mach numbers at the diffusor i n l e t , the metfiod
leads t o r e l a t i o n s t h a t are i d e n t i c a l with those c m o n l y applied f o r the loss evaluation f o r inccanpressible
diffusor flows. In p a r t i c u l a r , the average skin f r i c t i o n coefficient i s equal t o

-
Cf =
'PRi - 'PR
(53)
n

where Cpm and CPR are the so-called ideal and actual recovery factors, which express the increase i n
s t a t i c pressure a s percentage of the k i n e t i c e n e r a of t h e flow a t the diffusor i n l e t . The quantity R
i s the diffusor shape factor defined by Eq. I V ( 1 9 ) .

Figure 19 shows the skin f r i c t i o n coefficients obtained with Eq. 53 f r o m the experimental data
of Ref. 27 f o r two-dimensional diffusors. Except f o r the diffusor with b / a 48, which i s unduly long,
the data l i e within a r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l band, with the t e s t data f o r a t h i n disilacement thickness of the
boundary l w e r a t the i n l e t near i t s lower boundary. It i s of i n t e r e s t t o note t h a t f o r large values of
R the skin f r i c t i o n coefficients are very nearly equal t o those of fuUy developed turbulent flows along
moderately rough surfaces i n pipes or along p l a t e s , as shown by Ref. 20 (p. 587, pui p. 611). The r e s u l t s
of Ref. 28 which were obtained, i n p a r t , a t high subsonic speeds give values of cf t h a t l i e i n the same
band as i n Fig. 19, indicating t h a t t h e skin f r i c t i o n coefficients 'E. are d i r e c t l y related t o R f o r
d i f f e r e n t types of cross sections, and a t speeds where compressibility e f f e c t s cannot be disregarded.
This product is shown, in Fig. 20
From Eq. 1v(18) of Table I V it i s seen t h a t $ i s d i r e c t l y proportional t o Ff R;for the same data
points of Ref. 27 as plotted i n Fig. 19. Hence it appears t h a t a diffusor with a shape factor n equal
t o 10 represents an opthum solution. If R i s smaller the efficiency decreases r a d i c a l l y and f o r values
of R l a r g e r than 10 a diffusor does not make full use of the possible adverse pressure gradient t h a t a '

boundary layer can sustain without f l o w separations. The c r i t e r i o n R = 10 has been used by the writer with
 6-19

success f o r a number of diff'usor designs, and a variety of d i f f e r e n t diffusor shapes i s now being t e s t e d
a t NPGS t o v e r i f y t h e v a l i d i t y of the c r i t e r i o n a t high i n l e t v e l o c i t i e s and with i n l e t flow distortions.

As shown a l s o i n Ref. 26, the shape factor of a round conical diffusor with i n l e t radius R i , length
L, and the half-angle E of i t s divergence i s

For conical diffusors where L i s large with respect t o q, Eq. 54 gives a divergence angle of 26 = 5O45'.
The influence of the r a t i o q&
i s small i f L/& i s l a r g e r than about 10. Two-dimensional s t r a i g h t diffusors
with constant depth b,and w i d t h ai a t the inlez and a t the discharge, determined by &a = a i + 2 L t a n E ,
where E i s again the half-angle of the channel, have shape factors

L/ a i 2 ai
1
n= c1 + +-I (55)
1 + 2 ( ~ / a t~a )n 6 1 + 2(L/ai t a n E b

If the diff'usor of Fig. 17 had a r a t i o aF/b = 2.4, the v a u e of 61 f o r E = 5 O and L/ai = 10, i s about equal
22.4, which appears t o be excessive. Hence t h e diffusor should have a divergence perpendicular t o t h e
plane of drawing also t o increase b i a t the i n l e t to bd a t the discharge. For shapes of t h i s type the
expression of Eq. IV(19) f o r 61 leads t o complicated integrals. However with a simple graphical integratior.
f o r a half-angle of divergence of about 20 t h a t produces a r a t i o b d b i = 2.4 with the widths a i and &d
remaining unchanged, the diffusor form factor i s reduced t o about l l . 2 . A diffusor channel f o r t h i s
value of 61 f o r compressorJ is very l i k e l y very close t o the optimum possible solution because of then
non-uniform flow conditions t h a t e x i s t a t i t s i n l e t .

Because of these disturbances,the values of 61 Ff presented i n Fig. 20 should also be increased, say,
from 0.10 t o about 0.15, or 0.20, f o r n of about 10. How these values a f f e c t the diffusor efficiency w i l l
be shown with a simplified approach of the diff'usor design method of Table I V . It i s assumed t h a t the
Mach number Mv3 a t the throat i s unity but the method i s not r e s t r i c t e d t o t h i s value. The flow f'unction
$3 of Eq. IV(22) i s then equal t o 0 . 6 8 b i n accordance with Fig. 18,and Pt.p3 = 1.8929. Frau Eq. IV(28) for
f o r Mv3 = 1, y = 1.4,

1i+3 = (0.6847) ( l . 2 ) 3 = 1.1832

From Eq. 1v(18)

Hence, X2 = 0.07 f o r Cf n = 0.1, @ = 0.14 f o r e

61 = 0.2, and these values are equal t o the values of
the f'unction X which i s plotted i n Fig.. 18. It will now be assumed t h a t t h e area r a t i o A3/AI+ of the
diffusor i s $.6 = 0.151 as i s the case f o r the design of Fig. 17 with a half-angle of divergence of
2O t o increase the depth b a l s o . With blockage factors kg3 = 0.96 and kg4 = 0.90, by Eq. IV(29)

Assuming t h a t P t g P t 4 i s about 1.05, the value of $4 i s 0.115. From the p l o t of Ivs Pt/p it can be
seen that",'m4 = O . l l 5 , or s l i g h t changes of it on acoount of a wrongly chosen value of PtJPt4, the
value of Pt4/p4 w i l l not be higher than 1.02 because of t h e large change of Iwith Pt/ptdLose t o unity.
Then,

The approximate values of 5 can then be read from Fig. 18 a t the intersection of the l i n e s f o r the known
values of X and for pJp3 = 1.77. For Cj 61 = 0.1, or X i = 0.07, there i s 5 = 0.070, and far 61 = 0.2, cf
or X i = 0.16, one finds 5 = 0.130, giving approximate values of the diffusor efficiency of 0.93 and 0.87,
respectively, without taking account of the reheat e f f e c t s t h a t are ref1ecte.d i n Eq. IV(35). The values
of 5 thus obtained can then be used t o determine the pressure r a t i o pJp3 more precisely, by taking the
pressure r a t i o Pt3/Pt4 t o be t h a t obtained from Eq: IV(33) with the approximate pressure r a t i o p u p 3 = 1.7.

6. SAMPIE CALCULATIONS

To demonstrate the effectiveness of the developed performance parameters, and the help of t h e figures,
the dimensions of an impeller f o r an a i r campressor with a pressure r a t i o of eight w i l l be established for
the following conditions:

Ifi = 2.5 l b q s = (2.5/32.174) slUg/s

P = 14.7 psia; To = 520°R

0
6-20

From Eq. 5

= I.I.I.7.8 ft/S

Assuming p = 0.9; 1, = 0.82, fram Eq. I I ( 3 ) , or Fig. 4,

"J.0 = 1.658

hence
U2 = 1853.4 fils
this
' Figure 8 c l e a r l y shows t h a t for,U/a and reasonable r a t i o s R l J R
m u s t be supersonic. For = 1.15 a& pl0 = 70' there i s f r o m Fig. 6, theor Eq.
r e l a t i v e i n l e t velocity
II(4),

-
Rlo
R2
= 0.642

Judging f r o m Fig.. 4 it i s necessary t o choose a2 = 740 t o obtain a value of W 2 / W l o of about 0.4.

More precisely from Eq. I I ( 5 )

-
w2 = 0.405
Wlo

For a chosen value of the wheel efficiency of 0.7, there are from Eq. 21

2
'i'= 0.629; 1 = 0,394

and the usual r o t o r efficiency % defined by Eq. 12, i n accordance with Eq. 24, i s

1R =0.88

With these values by Eq. I I ( 9 )

and fram Eq. I I ( l l )

b2 To
5 % - R22 Po (0.4127)
and, far approximate values kgl = 0.85, kg2 = 0.95, by division of two above-fisted r e l a t i o n s ,

' b 2 h
= 0.0646
1 - (Rli/Rloi2

Evidently this r a t i o holds f o r all compressors f o r t h e chosen conditions, irrespective of t h e flow r a t e

and the inlet pressure. For chosen radius r a t i o s R l i / R l o there are:

Rli/RlO = 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

bd% = 0.062 0.059 0.054 0.048

W these r a t i o s are too emall t o obtain t h e deslred efficiency. They were obtained because RlJR2 was
chosen too mall and the angle B l o i s too large, and both these values were taken t o maintain a low Mach
number w. For a second try, l e t :

R.J% = 0.7; Blo = 60'; a2 = 75'

Then, from the inverse of Eq. I I ( 4 ) , expressing as Function of Rlo/R2 and Blo,

From Eq. I I ( 5 )
w2 = 0.360
T O
 6-21

The l a t t e r value seems acceptable i n view of Fig. l4,and by proper rotor dimensioning a wheel efficiency
% = 0.7 should s t i l l . b e reached.& Eq. 21.

11 - Rli2
(-) 1 kBl = (3.7063)
S O

and, from Eq. II(11)

For t h e chosen value b2/R2 = 0.08 the radius r a t i o R l & can be 0.5, which makes it possible t o design
a meridional flow path t h a t has an acceptable shape.
From the i n l e t conditions and the design flow r a t e :

because the pressure Po was introduced in pound per sq. in.. Then, from the previous data,

R - -
= = 29.034 in. 2
2

Hence
% = 3.04 in. ; D2 = 6.08 in.
So= 2.125 in. ; Dlo = 4.25 in.

Rli = 1.062 in. ; Dli = 2.125 in.

b2 = 0.243 in.

For the chosen data, f r o m Eq. 11(6),

%= 1.256

The rotative speed N can be determined fran Eq. I I ( l O ) , or directly f r o m

6-22

REFERENCES

1. Vawa, M. H. Aerothermodynamics and Flow i n Turbomachines, Wiley Bros, New York,

1960.
2. Vavra, M. H. Axial Flow Turbines Von Karman I n s t i t u t e f o r Fluid Dynamics, Lecture
Series 15, pp. 99/lbo, April 1969.

3. Traupel, W. D i e Theorie der Stroemung durch Radialmaschinen, EIraun, Karlsruhe,

1962.

4. Johnston, J. P. J. Engg. f o r Power, Trans. ASME, pp. 49-62, January 1966.

Dean, R. C. Jr. ,
5. S t i e f e l , W. '%Experimental Investigations on Radial Compressors ...'I, Course Note
53b, Von Karman I n s t i t u t e , March 1965.

6. S t i e f e l , W. ''Undersuchung an Radialen Verdichterlauefern," AVA Forschungsbericht

,
63-01, Triebwerksaercdymuik der Turbanaschinen, T e i l I1 Goettingen,
1963.
7. S&ai, T. "On the S l i p Factor of Centri-al and Mixed-Flow lmpellers", ASME
Watanabe, I., e t al. Paper 67-WA/GT-10.

8. Vavra, M. H. " R a d i a l Turbines", P a r t 4 of AGARD-VKt Lecture Series 6 on*Flm i n

Turbines", Von K a r m a n I n s t i t u t e , March 1968.

9. Bemmert, K. "Nuclear Plants with High-Temperature Reactor and Helium Turbine, 'I

Bohm, E. ASME Paper 69-GT-43, March 1969.

10. Groh, F. W. "High Efficiency Can Be Achieved in Small Size Transonic Compressor
Robb, W. L. Rotors," SAE Paper 820c, January 1964.

ll. Katsanis, T. "Frograms f o r Computation of Velocities and Streamlines on a Blade-

McNally, W. D. to-Blade Surface of a Turbomachine" ASME Paper 6 9 - ~ ~ - 4 8March
, 1969.
12. Jmbach, H. E. "Die Berechnung der kcrmpressiblen, reibungsfreien Unterschallstroemung
durch rauemliche G i t t e r &us Schaufeln auch grosser Dicke und starker
Woelbung" Mit- No 8, I n s t . Thermische Turbomaschinen, ETH, J u r i s
Verlag, Zurich, 1964.

U. Linsi, U. Brown Boveri Review, Vol. 53, No. 3, p. 161, March 1965.

14. Fowler, H. S. "Sane Measurements of the Flow Patterns i n a Centriflgal Comp-essor

Impeller," ASME Paper 65-WA/FTP-7, April 1965.

Fowler, H. S. "The Distribution and S t a b i l i t y of Flow i n a Rotating Channel,"

ASME Paper 6 8 - ~ ~ - 1March
, 1968,
16. Helleen, R. M. "The Influence of Rotation on Flow i n a Long Rectangular Channel"
Johnson, J. P. Stanford University, Report MD-18, May 1967.

17. Ackeret, J. Schweizer Bauzeitung, No. 23, December 1934.

Keller, C.
Salzmsnn, F.

18. Shepherd, D. G. "Principles of Turbamachinery", Macmillan; New York, 1956.

19 B a l j d , 0. E. J. Engg f o r Power, Trans. ASME Series A, Vol. 84, No. 1, pp. 83-114,
Jan 1962.
20. Schlichting, H. Boundary-Layer Theory, 6th ed., p. 606, McGraw-Hill, N. Y., 1968.
21. D a i l y , J. W., J. of Basic Engg., Trans. ASME, p. 217, March 1960.
Nece, R. E.

22. Nece, R. E.
D a i l y , J. R.

23. Pantel, K. Forschung, Vol. 16, p. 97, 1950.

24. Maroti, L. A. J. of Baskc Engg., ! h a m . ASME, p. 539, Sept. 1960.

De&, G.
m e i t h , F.

25. Schmidt- Theuner P. , Brown Boveri Review, Vol. 55, No. 8, p. 453, 1968.
Mattern, J.
 6-23

26. Traupel, W. Thermische Turbcrmaschinen, Ed. I . , p. 308, Springer, Berlin, 1962.

27. waitman, B. A. J. of Basic E m . , Trans. BME, Vol. 83, Series D., No. 3, p. 349,
Reneau, L. R. Sept. 1961.
Kline, S. J.
28. Sovran, G. '%xperFmentally Determined Optimum Geometries f o r Rectinlinear
Klomp, E. D. DiffUsors with Rectangular, Conical or Annular Cross Sections,"
symposium on Fluid Mechanics of I n t e r n a l Flow,General Motors Research
Laboratories, Sept. 1965.
6- 24

k
adial Impeller
/Inducer

I View from A

FIG. 1 RADIAL - FLOW COMPRESSOR

R - Radius
V - Absolute Velocity
W - Relative Velocity
U - Peripheral Speed
- Absolhte Flow Angle
~3 - Relative Flow Angle
b - Axial Channel Width
c - Height of Diffusor Channel
Subscripts:
1 --
refers to rotor inlet
2
3
x
--
refers
refers
refers
to
to
to
rotor discharge
inlet lip of diffusor blades
throat-of diffusor channel
4 -
refers to discharge of diffusor channel
m
U -- refers to meridiona1:direction
refers to peripheral direction
i - refers to inner radius at compressor inlet
o - refers t o outer radius at compressor inlet
 6-25

0 /
QO
4G -
' /

FIG. 2 TEMPERATURE-ENTROPY DIAGRAM OF COMPRESSION PROCESS

IN COMPRESSOR OF FIG. 1

c - S p e c i f i c Heat a t constant P r e s s u r e
p
P
- S t a t i c Pressure
Pt - T o t a l Pressure
T - S t a t i c Temperature
Tt - T o t a l Temperature
I - Entropy
E - v,/ vp .
( For o t h e r symbols and s t a t i o n d e s i g n a t i o n see Fig.1 )
6- 26

1-02

1.0

0 -98

0.96

0-94
0 0.05 0.10 0.1s 0.m 0.15 '

8,/b,
FIG. 3b CORRECTION FACTOR FOR RATIOS FIG. 3c CORRECTION FACTOR FOR
OF T I P CLKARANCE b2 AMP AXIAL MIXED- FLOW IMPELLERS
BLADE WIDTH b 2 DIFFERENT FXOM 0.05

FIG. 3 SLIP FACTOR FOR RADIAL COMPRESSOR IMPELLERS WITH

RADIAL BLADES AT DISCHARGE
( F i g u r e s were a d a p t e d from R e f s . 5 and 6
- U
( see Eq. II(8) o f T a b l e 11

- R o t o r E f f i c i e n c y ( see Eq. 12
?R
ZR - Number o f R o t o r B l a d e s
 6-27

2 .o

I .8

1.6

I .4

1.2

-
"2
a, 1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO

Pk, /Po
FIG. 4 RELATION BETWEEN P R E S S U R E R A T I O AND ti,/a, MR v - 1.h ( Eq. I I ( 3 ) )

t .O

0.9

0.8

0.1

0.6

0 .s

0.4
0.8 0 . 8 2 0.84 0.86 t 0 8 0.9 0.92 0.94 0.9C
1R
F I G . 5 RELATION BETWEEN ROTOR LOSS FORMULATIONS WITH AND Y ( E a s . 2 2 and 24)
R,
6-28

5?! ! = 1.6
7 OO

I
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0

I .o

0.9

0.8

'7c

0.7

0.6

0.5
1.0
'Io
FIG-6 INFLUENCE OF DIFFUSOR EFFICIENCY U ON EFFICIENCY AND
PRESSURE RATIO Pt4/Po OF COMPRESSORS AT DIFFERWT SPEED RATIOS U2/ao

70' ; Rlo/R2 - 0.7 ; 4 - V,,/V2 - 0.2

8,'

--
O2 -- 60'
75'
;9
;9
,-
- 0.7 ; 7)
0.7 ; -- 0.89 ; $
0.855; JI
-- 0.865
0.585
 6- 29

.-
F I C . 7 RELATION BETWEEN MACH NUMBER MV2 [Link] VELOCITY AT ROTOR DISCHARGE AND
-
SPEED RATIO U 2 / a o , FOR Y 1 . 4 ( Eq. I I ( 6 ) of T a b l e 11 )

FIC.8 RELATION BETWEEN SPEED RATIO U 2 / a o ,RADIUS RATIO R l o / R 2 ,E. MACH NUMBER WILal
AND RELATIVE FLOW ANGLE AT OUTER RADIUS R i o OF CCNPRESSOR INLET,FOR y - 1 . 4 .
( Eq. I I ( 4 ) of T a b l e I1 )
6- 30

-P-
FIG.9 DIAGRAM R E P R E S m T I N G EQUATION I I ( i ) OF TABLE 11, SHOWING RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN DECELERATION RATIO WIN,, O F RELATIVE ROTOR VELOCITIES,
I Y
RADIUS RATIO R l o / R 2 , RELATIVE INLET FLOW ANGLE B,,, ABSOLVTE
ROTOR DISCHARGE ANGLE Q2, AND S L I P FACTOR p .
 6-31

FIG. 10 MACH NUMBER M1, OF

RELATIVE INLET VELOCITY AT
RADIUS R l x FOR MW1 I 1.3 AT
OUTER RADIUS R, OF WHEEL
[Link] DIFFERENT FLOW ANGLES

810 AT 50
MV1 - ,
Mach number of A b s o l p
Velocity V at Inlet
1
6-32

1.0

0.9

0.8

Y
/UPPER LIMIT
O F ACTUAL DESIGNS

0.5

0.3

I I I
O
55' 6 Oo 65" d , T O o 750 80
FIG. 1 2 MAXI(IMU?1 POSSIBLE XADIUS RATIOS R, / R 2 b
R A DECELERATION RATIO
Id,/':,* - 3 . 6 FOX A S L I 2 FACTO? II 0 0.35

5
7.143

6.190

4.206 t
3.333

L 857

FIG.13 lEPTESENTATION OF ECUATION nS dS - 2/( LL Tc ) ' OF EC. m ( 1 0 ) WITH

DESIGN DATA POINTS OF ACTUAL COElPRESSORS
( Other C u r v e s z d a p t e d from Fig. 4 of R e f . 19)
 6- 33

0.8
0.631
0.730’
0.01
0.18
0.7

0.6

0.5

’‘
0.54 I
0.531
7
l
0.078

0.4
r
I I I -/I \
0.3

0.2

0.1

1 1 1 1 1
4
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
W2/WI0

FIG. 14 WHEEL E F F I C I E N Y 7 A S FUKCTION O F THE DECELERATION R A T I O W 2 / W l o

O F D I F F E R E N T RADIAL I M P E L L E R S

0
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

FIG. 15 DISK F R I C T I O N MOMENT COEFFI,[Link]

F I G . 16 INFLUENCE O F DISK F R I C T I O N
A S FUNCTION O F CLEARANCE AND MOMENT ON COMPRESSOR E F F I C I E N C Y
REYNOLDS NUMBER
6-34

FIG. 17 TYPICAL DISTSIBUTION OF STATIC PRESSURES Ih’ TRANSITION

SECTION AND DIFFCSO3 OF H I G H SPEED COMPRESSOR
( Surnbers r e p r e s e n t approximate r a t i o s of s t a t i c
p r e s s u r e s and a v e r a g e p r e s s u r e p )
2
 6- 35

0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12

XI = (A8 , ~ )
o. la

[Link]

0.O(

0.04

0.0:

0
f.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 I.5 1.6 1~7 1.8 1.9

FLC.18 FUNCTION X OF [Link](16) OF TABLE Tp FOR DIFFUSOR CALCULATION

AND DIMENSIONLESS FLOW FUNCTION OF [Link](22) AND KY(29) OF TABLE IV

(Y = ‘-4)
6-36

0.50

a4o

0.3~

c [Link]

LITm
0.003
[Link]

0.001 0
0 s 10 I5 20
a 0 5
lo hz
i5 20

FIG.^^ VALUES O F n C~ RUM FIG.^^ AS

FUNCTION OF Q

SYMBOLS IN FIGS. 19 AND 20:

o
@
L/ai -a, 26*/ai z 0.017
L f a i -12 , 2b*/ai = 0.025
-I- L/ai -a
L/ai -12
,
,
&*/ai =o
b*/ai 2 0
Q L I ~ ,d a , 2b*/ai = 0.018
b* 9 Dieplacement Thickness of Boundary Layer on Top end
Bottom Wall
 6-37

TABLE I FLOW PROPERTIES IN COMPRESSOR

( For Symbols see Figs: 1 and 2

VELOCITIES I

TPlPERATURES 7 I

do = [ Y R, J (9)

2
- = TE
I+-(--) Y-J U2
TO 2
D i f f u s o r Throat Area Ax i f MV2 7 1 :

Ax k*#. =
("TI Y r - (
U
Y

where

and

D i f f u s o r Throat Area Ax i f MV261, and V, - 5 V2:

 6- 39

TABLE 111 SPECIFIC SPEED RELATIONS

DEFINITIONS WITH WCLISCH UNITS

( see Refs. 18 and 19 1
SPECIFIC SPEED SPECIFIC DIAMETER
- 4
I Q,
NS 3/4
is
DEFINITIONS I N DIMENSIONLESS FORM

N -- R o t a t i v e Speed ( rpm)
Angular V e l o c i t y ( r a d i a n s l s )
-
U)

Q, I n l e t Volume Flow R a t e ( c u f t / s )

His
go
-
- go c p ATis
-
G r a v i t a t i o n a l Constant -
I s e n t r o p i c Head ( f t - l b / l b m )
32.174 f t / s 2
c - S p e c i f i c Heat a t Constant P r e s s u r e ( ft-lb )
P ( s l u g , de8.R)
ATis- I s e n t r o p i c Temperature R i s e i n Compressor ( deg. R )
D - Rotor Diameter ( E t )
RELATIONS WITH SWBOLS OF TABLES I AND I1

9. = 1 -/*\
n
R 2

Equating Eqs. 8 and 9:

From Eq. 8

EXAMPLE: For 0.88 , 11,- 0.83 , kBl= 0.85 , and plO- 68' , find RIi/Rlo for different
- -
t.b=

v a l u e s o f N s for t h e two r a d i u s r a t i o s R l o / R 2 0.56 and R l o / R 2 0.70

For R l o / R 2

R l i = [I -
= 0.56;

nS2(3.288)l4
from Eq.11

III( 12)
I For R l o / R 2 n 0.70; from Eq.11

Alo
RIi/Rlo is z e r o f o r n max=0.552,0r N RIi/Rlo is z e r o for nSmax - 0 . 7 7 1 . 0 ~ NSmax=99.r
For v a l u e s of NS lower t h a n 71: For v a l u e s of NS lower t h a n 99.4:
60 65 70 NS 70 80 90 98
NS
"S 0.465 0.504 0.543 0.543 0.620 0.698 0.760
nS
RIi/Rlo 0.537 0.406 0.178 RIi/Rlo 0.710 0.594 0.424 0.169
.,
R e l a t i o n between s o - c a l l e d Mach Number N W 1 - Wlo
I
/ /-Y + 1
and a c t u a l Mach Number MWl= Wlo/al:

III( 14)
2
6-40

TABLE I V ANALYSIS OF Fu)WS I N DIFFUSORS

ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW IN CHANNEL THERMODYNAMIC CONDITIONS

A - Flow Area
v+dv C
L -- Wetted Perimeter
Channel Length
- Mass Flow R a t e Pt- T o t a l P r e s r u r e
+dA p - S t a t i c Pressure Tt- T o t a l Temperature
- Wall Shear S t r e s s e s - S t a t i c Temperature
P - Mass D e n s i t y
7

-
T
8 - Entropy
From Momentum Theorem:
Polytropic Efficiency
1-\ - Loss C o e f f i c i e n t
-Om Equation of C o n t i n u i t y : Equation :
A f V
Derivation:

From €9.3

Tds 1 dL
P A
From R ' i c t i o n a l Law w i t h Eq.2:
mp
E (1,
Dimensionless R e f e r r e d Mass Flow R a t e
Jnto E?. 10

Tds,A ,
- til2 CdL Ip (I:
, 2 P'A'

with E*&. It and 9

0 will be denoted a s D i f f u s o r Shape F a c t o r

 6-41

TABLE I V (CONTD. ) METHODS OF SOLIRION

For E f f e c t i v e Flow Area A 3 *- kB3 A 3 (kB3 -Blockage F a c t o r , A 3- Actual Area a t D i f f u s o r I n l e t )

---
From Eq.14

I f p3 is known, If 3 3
-V3/JTi is known, w i t h c - RG y,

Y-I
--. Tt 3
-=
r3
I+- "a
* CpTa
. I+ I + 2 MY:
EL=
2 Y%T3
p y-1
E(24

Ip (25) 'E(2 6 ;
I n t o Eq.23 -
Y t l I n t o Eq.23
2Y
E (27) E (ze

S i n c e Pt3/Pt4 is a s y e t unknown, i t is n o t p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e Pt4/p4 from f u n c t i o n #4 t o obtain

(P t 3 / p 3)/(Pt4/p4). A d d i t i o n a l r e l a t i o n is o b t a i n e d by c a l c u l a t i n g e n t r o p y . i n c r e a s e As - a 4 - s 3
p4/p3-
f o r p o l y t r o p i c p r o c e s s from p3 t o p4 w i t h Eq.11, and f o r Tt - - -
Along Line T t 3
c o n s t a n t from Pt3 t o Pt4 w i t h Eq.5.
Tt4 Constant:
For P o l y t r o p i c P r o c e s s :

E (31
R, 1-5

(1) For given v a l u e s of and

-
cf
ITERATION PROCEDURE

c a l c u l a t e X 2 from Eq.18 w i t h Eq.27 o r 28. - x2

(2) Choose i n i t i a l v a l u e of 6
(3) C a l c u l a t e p4/p3 - p4'/p3 by Eq.21 f o r XI and 6
-
.
)

(4) C a l c u l a t e Pt3/Pt4 Pt3/Pt4* from Eq.33 f o r p4'/p3

(5) C a l c u l a t e #4* - ~3(A3*/A4*)(Pt3/Pt4') (Eq.29)
( 6 ) C a l c u l a t e Pt4*/p4' from Eq.34 f o r p 4 * / p 3
.7) C a l c u l a t e g4- #411 from Flow Function (Eq. 29
$2 d4*
1
-/Change Value of 6 5 j(P41P3) -(P4'/P?)i[pt4/ptJ+t4* /p,

L -Diffusor Efficiency between S t a t i o n s (3) and (4)

- -
v-'
= T4' - l-3 -- T4 '/ T', - I P (P4/W "- I
T
, _- l-3 T4/T, - I T4 /t - I
With En.8 Y- I
 7

SUPERSONIC RADIAL

DIFFUSERS

D.P. KENNY
Supervisor,
Compressor Research,
United Aircraft of Canada, Limited,
V i l l e Jacques Cartier,
P.Q., Canada.
7

LIST OF SYMBOLS

-
ROMAN

AR area r a t i o

AS aspect r a t i o of d i f f u s e r t h r o a t = width (hub t o shroud)/height

i3* throat blockage =I (1 - CD')

CD* t h o a t discharge coefficient = nOv/pcom vcom A
d*, D* throat diameter

L* p a r a l l e l throat length

M Mach number

P s t a t i c pressure

PR t o t a l pressure r a t i o

Q',P d M2 dynamic head

2

Re Reynolds' number

U wheel speed

w weight flow

flow angle

e temperature correction ictor f o r standard day = T included

<-.
519OR
angle f o r two dimensional and conical d i f f u s e r

d pressure correction f a c t o r f o r standard day = P

14.7 psia
increment

r a t i o of s p e c i f i c heats
Li
adiabatic efficiency = (PR ' - l)/aTflmaJTRy

s t a t i c pressure effectiveness I a c t u a l s t a t i c uressure r i s e

ideal [Link] r i s e

SUBSCRIPTS

H hydraulic

LE leading edge
* throat

T tangential

SUPERSCRIPTS

throat
 7-1

A DISCUSSION OF SUPERSONIC DIFFUSERS f o r c e n t r i f u g a l compressors implies a general discussion of

d i f f u s e r s f o r c e n t r i f u g a l compressors, since f o r pressure r a t i o s g r e a t e r than 3.8 t h e d i f f u s e r e n t r y
Mach number exceeds 1.0. This is indicated i n Fig. 1 where d i f f u s e r entry Mach number is plotted vs.
stage pressure r a t i o f o r zero prewhirl r o t o r s with r a d i a l e x i t blading. The limiting asymptotic value
of 2.3 f o r i n f i n i t e pressure r a t i o i s indicated. It i s commonly accepted that f o r Mach number
exceeding 1.25 shocl&oundary l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t s lead t o separation. I n Fig. 1 t h i s corresponds
t o PR = 12 which suggests an upper l i m i t i n g t a r g e t f o r contemporary s t a t e of the art without s p e c i a l
devices f o r reducing t h e adverse e f f e c t of shock/boundary layer interaction. I n Fig. 1 is a l s o plotted
normalized t i p speed VS. stage pressure r a t i o . A t present, maximum safe operating t i p speeds a r e
about 2800 f p s corresponding t o a stage PR = 28:i and entry Mach number = 1.405.

To d a t e t h e m a x i m u m pressure r a t i o of c e n t r i f u g a l compressors i n an operating engine i s 7:l in the

UACL JTl5D corresponding t o an entry Mach number o f f = 1.20. Many other operating engines with
c e n t r i f u g a l compressors a r e i n the 4 - 6:1 pressure r a t i o range with entry Mach numbers down t o 1.0.
Recently, research s t a g e s have demonstrated an operating pressure r a t i o up t o l 2 : l w i t h an overspeed
maximum of 14:l.

Since t h e pressure r a t i o requirement of c e n t r i f u g a l compressors has increased with time, t h e entry

Mach number c a p a b i l i t y has evolved i n a natural chronological order.

Therefore t h e various d i f f u s e r concepts f o r c e n t r i f u g a l compressors are discussed i n i t i a l l y with regard

t o o v e r a l l performance i n the chronological order; vaneless, vaned, passage, multiple cascade and pipe.
Then each type i s discussed individually with regard t o its basic mechanism, design technique,
performance evaluation and possible improvements. Finally, general conclusions a r e drawn with regard
t o t h e c a p a b i l i t y of t h e various types and possible ultimate performance.

OVERALL PERFORMANCE OF VARIOUS DIFFUSER CONCEPTS

I n t h e i r e a r l i e r applications, c e n t r i f u g a l compressors f o r a i r were designed f o r the 2 : l pressure r a t i o
l e v e l with vaneless d i f f u s e r s which had an exceptionally wide operating range from r o t o r choke t o
vaneless space s t a l l with acceptable efficiency = 7596, while r e t a i n i n g the utmost mechanical and
aerodynamic simplicity. The major drawback of such d i f f u s e r s is the l a r g e f r o n t a l area required t o
a t t a i n a useful diffusion, t y p i c a l l y four times t h e r o t o r f r o n t a l area.

A s pressure r a t i o requirements increased up t o 3 and 4:l vaned d i f f u s e r s (cambered and f l a t p l a t e )

were introduced t o reduce f r o n t a l a r e a and improve range a t higher pressure r a t i o . However, d i f f u s e r
entry Mach numbers were now becoming supersonic and a l a r g e vaneless space w a s retained t o obtain
diffusion t o subsonic Mach number at cascade entry. Thus the vaneless d i f f u s e r was still t h e only
-
d i f f u s e r f o r supersonic flow. When pressure r a t i o s of 5 6:1 were attempted, t h e vaneless space
required f o r subsonic leading edge Mach number was prohibitive and improved d i f f u s e r types were
introduced namely, passages with a low loading uncovered suction surface and multiple cascade.
Typical performance i s shown in Fig. 2 f o r t h e passage type. I n Ref. 1 a 4.2 pressure r a t i o cambered
vane stage a t 74% w a s improved t o 4.6 pressure r a t i o at 84% efficiency f o r a 20 lb/sec. cgmpressor by
converting t o a multiple cascade diffuser.

A t t h i s t i m e t h e swept leading edge, unloaded vaned d i f f u s e r concept, was introduced by Dallenbach

and V a n Le a t 4 - 6:l pressure r a t i o . This proved e f f e c t i v e as shown i n Fig. 3 but performance was
still in t h e 75% efficiency range.

Recently, both UACL and Boeing/AVLABS demonstrated t h e high pressure r a t i o c a p a b i l i t y of s i n g l e

-
c e n t r i f u g a l stages. (UACL 1O:l pressure r a t i o at 74% and Boeing -
1 O : l pressure r a t i o a t 72%) in
Refs. 2 and 3. UACL used the pipe d i f f u s e r concept of Ref. 4 with a medium specifiq speed r o t o r of
Ns = 70 (Fig. 4).
Boeing used t h e rectangular channel concept with s p i r a l . l e a d i n g edge and a low s p e c i f i a speed r o t o r
of N s = 50 (Fig. 5). By r e f i n i n g t h e downstream channels they were a b l e t o improve on t h e basic
-
e a r l y 5 6:l c a p a b i l i t y of Fig. 2.

This recent Boeing and UACL work demonstrates that c e n t r i f u g a l compressor d i f f u s e r s can be operated
up t o entry Mach numbers of 1.4.

VANELESS DIFFUSERS

The vaneless d i f f u s e r s accomplish diffusion primarily by the inverse reduction of mirl with radius
f o r conservation of angular momentum. Typically c e n t r i f u g a l impeller e x i t flow angles a r e = 20° from
tangential, so that t h e tangential velocity is 94% of the t o t a l , w h i l e the r a d i a l velocity i s 2: 34%.
Thus a 2:l r a d i u s r a t i o w i l l reduce t h e tangential velocity by 5d and t h e t o t a l by 42% f o r constant
r a d i a l velocity, while a l s o halving the r a d i a l velocity only reduces the t o t a l velocity another 8%.
Even reducing the r a d i a l velocity t o zero only decreases t h e t o t a l velocity another 3%. Thus t h e
diffusion c a p a b i l i t y of a vaneless d i f f u s e r is primarily dependent on t h e r a d i u s r a t i o .

The vaneless d i f f u s e r would seem t o be t h e most e f f e c t i v e f o r supersonic flow, having no obstructions.

However, as i t t u r n s out, 'it is t h e worst. Primarily both the range and effectiveness of t h e vaneless
d i f f u s e r a r e severely limited by the invariable i n s t a b i l i t y of t h e radial velocity p r o f i l e a t e x i t
from t h e impeller p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r PR > 2.
7-2

STABILITY AND RANGE In Fig. 6 i s presented the map f o r a vaneless d i f f u s e r of radius r a t i o 2

feeding a s c r o l l c o l l e c t o r with a doubling of t h e width at about r a d i u s r a t i o 1.5 Choking is due t o
t h e r o t o r and surge due t o t h e vaneless diffuser. Range e s s e n t i a l l y disappears above 3.5 pressure
r a t i o with o v e r a l l efficiency about 20 p o i n t s l e s s than f o r other d i f f u s e r types a t 4 : 1 pressure r a t i o .

A t PR 2 and l e s s the vaneless d i f f u s e r is far superior in range but poorer i n o v e r a l l effectiveness

than t h e other types. Jansen (Ref. 5 ) has shown that the vaneless d i f f u s e r has ranges o f inherent
s t a b i l i t y and i n s t a b i l i t y defined by a plot radius r a t i o VS. i n l e t swirl f o r constant r o t o r t i p
Reynolds' number as shown i n Fig. 7.

I n Fig. 8 t h e s t a b i l i t y l i m i t of t h e d i f f u s e r of Fig, 6 i s plotted as entry swirl angle VS. entry Mach

number as estimated from Ref. 5. Also plotted in Fig. 8 i s t h e locus of overall surge f o r the map of
Fig. 6. T h i s shows that t h e surge l i n e i s within t h e unstable range. On the o v e r a l l compressor map
of Fig. 6 i s located the locus of Jansen's s t a b i l i t y limit which falls a t about mid range. A t high
speeds the o v e r a l l surge occurs adjacent t o r o t o r choke which provides a s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t .

Also shown on t h e vaneless d i f f u s e r s t a b i l i t y map of Fig. 8 i s the l i m i t f o r radius r a t i o = 1.07 a s

estimated from Jansen's data. It i s evident that f o r this extent of vaneless space, which is t y p i c a l
of that used with vaned or passage d i f f u s e r s , the vaneless region is unlikely t o ever contribute t o
t h e stalling l i m i t of t h e o v e r a l l d i f f u s e r , since t h e maximum swirl a t 1.3 Mach number a 3.5'. while
r o t o r e x i t average flow angles a r e r a r e l y l e s s than loo.

Generally, t h e i n s t i g a t i n g mechanism f o r i n s t a b i l i t y is the r a d i a l boundary l a y e r profile. For most

impellers t h e e x i t r a d i a l and t a n g e n t i a l p r o f i l e s a r e as shown i n Fig. 9. The t a n g e n t i a l p r o f i l e i s
a t y p i c a l f l a t p l a t e turbulent power l a w on t h e shroud and hub, being much thicker on the shroud due
t o the development of a tangential boundary layer along the open shroud of t h e impeller. The r a d i a l
p r o f i l e , having been subjected t o t h e diffusion i n t h e impeller, has t y p i c a l l y a shape f a c t o r ,
H a 3, and Cf = .OW1 and is q u i t e close t o separation. Further diffusion in t h e vaneless d i f f u s e r
can only r e s u l t in a three dimensional separation which i s often observed even in the vaneless space
of a vaned diffuser. Thus the vaneless d i f f u s e r i s generally poor on performance above 2 : l pressure
r a t i o due t o t h e d e t e r i o r a t i n g e x i t r a d i a l velocity p r o f i l e from t h e r o t o r with increasing pressure
ratio.

I n addition, vaneless d i f f u s e r s require an excessive f r o n t a l area f o r any s i g n i f i c a n t diffusion.

Since velocity r a t i o 9 Radius Ratio at constant width, f o r a t y p i c a l 5:1 area r a t i o about 3 times
t h e f r o n t a l r a d i u s i s required over a vaned system.

Thus vaneless d i f f u s e r s a r e always severely limited by t h e unstable nature of t h e r a d i a l p r o f i l e

occurring at e x i t from the r o t o r due t o t h e i n t e r n a l diffusion. However, a vaned o r passage d i f f u s e r
can operate moderately well under such conditions since i t i s governed by t h e total velocity p r o f i l e
a t r o t o r e x i t which, i n turn, is dominated by the tangential p r o f i l e due t o the t a n g e n t i a l nature of
t h e flow. This tangential p r o f i l e is highly s t a b l e having been through a zero pressure gradient.
Therefore, vaned and passage d i f f u s e r s always have an inherent advantage over t h e vaneless diffuser.
I n addition, t h e s t a l l i n g range of vaned o r passage d i f f u s e r s i s not limited by the s t a b i l i t y of the
-
r a d i a l profile.

VANED DIFFUSERS

The principle of a vaned or cascade d i f f u s e r (Fig. 10) is t o provide additional reduction of the s w i r l
over t h e vaneless concept by reducing t h e angular momentum. TypicallyA%! . of the i n l e t angular
momentum may be removed which e f f e c t i v e l y halves the r a d i a l extent required f o r a given reduction i n
s w i r l compared t o t h e vaneless diffusers. I n addition, vaned d i f f u s e r s a r e not primarily limited by
the s t a b i l i t y of t h e r o t o r e x i t r a d i a l velocity p r o f i l e , since they rrseerrthe t o t a l velocity which,

.
due t o the highly t a n g e n t i a l nature of the r o t o r e x i t flow, i s governed by t h e very s t a b l e t a n g e n t i a l
profile

Vaned o r cascade d i f f u s e r s have been successfully applied up t o 6:1 pressure r a t i o and M m = 1.15,
where t y p i c a l stage e f f i c i e n c i e s of 75% a r e common, with excellent range. Fig. 11 shows a peak
efficiency o f 78% a t 5:l f o r a UACL [Link] with a cambered vane d i f f u s e r at 1.0 lb/sec.

There a r e two general c l a s s e s of vaned d i f f u s e r s ; cambered vane and f l a t p l a t e as shown i n Figs. 10

and 15. Generally, t h e cambered vane d i f f u s e r r e t a i n s a normal s t a t i c pressure loading across the
vane passage, while t h e f l a t p l a t e , being a symmetrical, s t r a i g h t passage, e x h i b i t s no loading
nonnally across t h e passage. However, the diffusion r a t e s of f l a t p l a t e cascades a r e generally higher
than the cambered vane because of t h e i r higher turning t o r a d i a l . I n our (UACL) experience, cambered
vanes a r e superior t o f l a t p l a t e as shown i n Table I where a t 5:l pressure r a t i o the cambered vane i s
4 points better.
CAMBERED VANE DIFFUSER Although analogous t o a x i a l s t a t o r cascades, c e n t r i f u g a l compressor
vaned d i f f u s e r s have not been based on the same design philosophy. The design techniques have been
very two dimensional; assuming a *miform flow i n the spanwise d i r e c t i o n and accounting f o r mainstream
and normal flow property variations. Various teohniques f o r specifying the blade p r o f i l e of cambered
vanes have been developed. Fauldes (Ref. 6) recommends, f o r low i n l e t Mach numbers, transforming
r e c t i l i n e a r cascades and presents a d e t a i l e d study of such a d i f f u s e r fed by a s t a t i c a i r supply.
Dallenbach and Van Le i n Ref. 7 describe a blade loading/momentum analysis assuming velocity and angle
variation across t h e blade passage. Such a technique is e f f e c t i v e within a channel in t h e absence of
t h r e e dimensional e f f e c t s , but is poor f o r determining t h e leading edge suction peak and any local.
supersonic e f f e c t s which strongly influence the initial diffusion on t h e suction surface and hence the
boundary layer conditions.
 7-3

Dallenbach and V a n Le in Ref. 7 a l s o recommend a technique f o r handling the supersonic leading edge
Mach number with a swept leading edge concept t o minimize shock e f f e c t s i n the t r a n s i t i o n from
supersonic t o subsonic flow combined with a l i g h t l y loaded (angular momentum change) cascade.

On a f u l l compressor t e s t , only s t a t e of the art performance w a s a t t a i n e d as indicated i n Fig. 3.

Since t h e cascade has some turning t o r a d i a l , t h e long V-notch swept e f f e c t may have contributed more
t o improved matching of the flow angle v a r i a t i o n in the spanwise d i r e c t i o n a t r o t o r e x i t .

A t UACL an attempt w a s made t o improve on t h e momentum/loading technique f o r a supersonic d i f f u s e r

e n t r y Mach number of 1.05 as described i n Ref. 4. A simplified bow wave configuration w a s constructed
and a simple momentum/loading a n a l y s i s w a s applied through t h e leading edge mixed (supersonic-subsonic)
flow region. Supersonic and subsonic regions were t r e a t e d as simple lump sum q u a n t i t i e s and an attempt
was made t o maintain a constant suction surface Mach number t o minimize shock/boundary layer interaction
e f f e c t s . A long, t h i n , low turning vane was obtained and is shown with t h e r e s u l t a n t loading diagram
in Fig. 13. The leading edge suction peak was estimated using s t a t i c pressure data f o r c i r c u l a r
cylinders. The e f f e c t of t h e passage shock i n t e r s e c t i n g t h e suction surface is shown as a rapid drop
i n loading. The remainder of t h e loading was specified t o avoid the recurrence of supersonic flow.
The map of Fig. 11 with 5:1 a t 78% w a s a t t a i n e d with this d i f f u s e r , although the good performance i s
not all a t t r i b u t a b l e t o the diffuser. A t higher Mach numbers the performnce of this d i f f u s e r
d e t e r i o r a t e s r a p i d l y as seen i n Fig. 14 where a loss map i s presented.

FLAT F U T E DIFFUSER A t UACL w e did extensive research on f l a t p l a t e d i f f u s e r s using three

basic developments; a blunt leading edge, a chamferred leading edge and a scalloped leading edge of
t h e configurations shown i n Fig. 15 and reported i n Ref. 4. A s f o r the cambered vane d i f f u s e r ,
Mm = 1.05 a t 5:1 pressure ratio.
The following t a b l e shows a comparison of o v e r a l l efficiency a t 5:1 pressure r a t i o .

TABLE 1

Comparative Overall Performance of

A Stage with Various F l a t P l a t e
Diffuser C o n f i w a t i o n s

Leading Edge T . m Pressure Ratio '/T Flow

Blunt 5:l 65 1 lb/sec.
11
Chamferred 5:l 72
Chamferred and
scalloped 4.85 73 1 lb/sec.

There is a general improvement of efficiency through blunt leading edge, chamferred and chamferred
and scalloped. The basic f l a t p l a t e cascade w a s defined t o have 36 vanes which gives the optimum 10"
included angle of t h e conventional two dimensional diffuser. The chamferred case includes a chamfer
angle of bo giving an i n i t i a l included angle of 6" f o r AR = 1.3. F i n a l l y the s c a l l o p defined by a
hollow grind g i v e s the shape shown in Fig. 15.

It is f e l t t h a t t h e leading edge s c a l l o p has an ameliorating e f f e c t because it p e e l s the w a l l boundary

l a y e r s away from t h e cascade corners. The same concept reduced t h e l o s s of a UACL cambered vane
d i f f u s e r by about Id.

The i d e a l flow p a t t e r n approaching a supersonic f l a t p l a t e cascade f o r an e n t r y Mach number = 13fis

shown i n Fig. 16. This w a s obtained by a supersonic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a n a l y s i s assuming a uniform l i m i t
c i r c l e source/vortex flow with sharp leading edge vanes. The l o c a l leading edge Mach number upstream
of the leading edge shock i s 1.443 and downstream i s 1.27 which re-accelerates t o 1.46 at the passage
shock along the f l a t suction surface. This example demonstrates t h e general e f f e c t of the uncovered
suction surfaces of t h e vanes of two dimensional r a d i a l cascades in supersonic flow. Turning towards
r a d i a l (reducing angular momentum) gives acceleration and turning towards tangential (adding a n g u h r
momentum) gives diffusion. This i s analogous t o r e c t i l i n e a r cascades, where a f l a t surface (no
turning) gives constant velocity, turning towards a x i a l gives acceleration and turming towards ,

t a n g e n t i a l gives diffusion. However, t h e turning i s r e l a t i v e t o the l o c a l tangential and r a d i a l

d i r e c t i o n s f o r t h e r a d i a l cascade s o that a f l a t surface gives an e f f e c t i v e turning t o r a d i a l and hence
acceleration. This i n d i c a t e s that a t l e a s t zero loading type uncovered suction surface p r o f i l e s should
be used from leading edge t o t h r o a t t o minimize shock e f f e c t s and even a negative loading p r o f i l e
might be desirable. Of course, the lack of loading from leading edge t o t h r o a t must be made up
downstream of t h e throat.

LOSSES AND STATIC PRESSURE EFFECTIVENESS From an axial cascade view, t h e r a d i a l cambered vane
and f l a t p l a t e d i f f u s e r represent low aspect r a t i o , high s o l i d i t y , t h i c k sidewall boundary l a y e r
cases with high de Haller number v e l o c i t y r a t i o (high diffusion). Unfortunately, f o r many years only
t h e angular momentum loading aspect of t h e Cascade loading w a s recognized. A t y p i c a l number used by
7-4

UACL is the coefficient Cn a AH P 0.4 maximum. I say unfortunately because equivalent NACA D
cascades a r e 5 0.8 with 80% of it due t o streamwise diffusion.
f a c t o r s f o r such diffuser 8-
Thus the single greatest source of loss i n r a d i a l cascades had been ignored. In Fig. 17 i s presented
a comparison,of measured l o s s e s f o r the cambered vane and f l a t p l a t e d i f f u s e r s discussed previously
on the NACA axial cascade D f a c t o r basis. It i s i n t e r e s t i n g that the data correlate quite well with
an extrapolation of the NACA loss correlation f i t t i n g the NACA data band quite well. Leading edge
Mach numbers up t o 1.15 a r e noted in Fig. 17. The higher D f a c t o r l e v e l of the f l a t p l a t e over
cambered vane diffuser is noteworthy. It is quite satisfying that, in s p i t e of the gross variation
of incidence over t h e blade span, t h e cambered vane and f l a t p l a t e diffuser l o s s e s correlate with
axial s t a t o r s which (the l a t t e r ) generally operate at much more uniform incidence distributions.
Referring t o the strongly varying d i s t r i b u t i o n s of r a d i a l and tangential velocity obtained at e x i t
from a centrifugal impeller, Fig. 9, the combined e f f e c t is shown a s a typical absolute flow angle
p r o f i l e in Fig. 18. When compared with t h e conventional constant two dimensional leading edge metal
angle of a cascade d i f f u s e r , which would be about t h e mean of t h i s p r o f i l e , incidence would vary from
+Uoat the sidewalls t o - 1 2 O at midchannel. An attempt t o scallop a vaned diffuser and r e p r o f i l e t o
match t h i s flow angle distribution should r e s u l t i n an improvement h performance. The form of the
scallop is shown i n Fig. 19. Note that a large area of the vane has been removed o r a l t e r e d in the
carefully d e s i s e d supersonic region. The r e s u l t s of this a r e shown i n Fig. 20 a s a curve of peak
efficiency VS. pressure r a t i o over the map, as much as four points in efficiency were gained at .5:1
pressure ratio. I n addition the flow range, a s a l s o shown, improved aboutso%. In Fig. 20 the
diffuser l o s s e s a r e a l s o plotted VS. Mm. M i n i m u m loss at M u = 1.03 decreased by 3&. T h i s suggests
that rather than being highly concerned with the leading edge Mach number e f f e c t s , one should take
more account of the three dimensional nature of the r o t o r e x i t flow (which is l i k e l y t o be more
effective i n reducing losses). For, in s p i t e of t h e effective gouging of a large portion of the
vane in t h e supposedly highly c r i t i c a l area along the suction surface from leading edge t o throat, a
large gain i n performance has been obtained.

It has been demonstrated in t h e l i t e r a t u r e by Dean and Runstadler (Ref. 8) and Sprenger (Ref. 9) that
the s t a t i c pressure effectiveness (defined as actual s t a t i c pressure rise/ideal s t a t i c pressure r i s e
from t h e throat t o e x i t ) correlates well with throat blockage (defined as ~ - C D *f)o r a wide range of
throat Mach numbers and geometry with both rectangular and conical diffusers. I n Fig. 21 data f o r
t h e UACL cambered vane d i f f u s e r has been plotted on t h i s b a s i s ' f o r the whole range of the map, where
entry Mach number varies from 0.7 t o 1.15. The correlation is quite good indicating r e l a t i v e l y high
throat blockage l e v e l s o f e .25 a t high speed. Note the low value of t h e throat Reynolds' number
(1.0 - 1.8 x 16). A comparison of this data with Dean and Runstadler's data f o r Re &$ f o 9 x 1 6
(Ref. 8) is a l s o shown i n Fig. 21. The throat Reynolds' number correlation would give a 1/5@
power l a w of R e d , vs. (1 -?*I which is consistent with the turbulent f r i c t i o n l a w f o r s t r a i g h t pipes
in this range a s shown i n Fig. 22. The shape of the effectiveness VS. throat blockage
correlation is a l s o q u i t e consistent with that of Dean and Runstadler. The configuration of the
d i f f u s e r f o r the Ref. 8 data was a s t r a i g h t two dimensional 8 O included angle with throat AS = 1 f o r
M* = 0.2 t o 1.0. The UACL cambered vane data is f o r throat AS = .92 with a curved centerline and a
1 3 O included angle with M* = 0.7 t o 1.0. This correlating of effectiveness with throat blockage f o r
diffuser elements would appear t o be superior t o t h e D f a c t o r concept i n that t h e former covers t h e
whole range of operation from surge t o choke, while the l a t t e r applies t o t h e optimum leading edge
incidence match point.

THROAT W K A G E To determine t h e source of t h e high throat blockage l e v e l s f o r the cambered

vane diffuser, a correlation of throat blockage with nondimensional leading edge t o throat s t a t i c
pressure r i s e was formulated. This i s shown in Fig. 23. There tend t o be separate correlations f o r
entry Mach numbers) 1 and 4 1. It is t o be expected that throat blockage would correlate with
leading edge t o throat static pressure rise, since the w a l l boundary l a y e r s w i l l grow under the
adverse pressure gradient and become more defected. The s t e p increase i n blockage on reaching
supersonic entry Mach numbers i s consistent with the f a c t that f o r entry Mach n u m b e r r 1 the s t a t i c
pressure r i s e occurs more abruptly through a shock system. From Fig. 23 i t i s evident that due t o
the l o s s e s which occur in t h e diffusing system = .35 corresponds t o Z half the overall
diffusion required t o M = .1 occurring from %LE leading edge t o throat. A s entry Mach number
increases beyond 1.0 this becomes increasingly severe so that a t entry Mach number = 1.25 f o r surge
M* = .8, 3 0.65 would be required. With the throat blockage l e v e l s of Fig. 23 l i t t l e diffusion
would-be q ~ l t accomplished a f t e r t h e throat. This would seem t o be the major problem with
supersonic diffuser f o r centrifugal compressors; t h e leading edge t o throat diffusion required, while
still minimizing throat blockage t o maximize downstream effectiveness. The leading edge scallop t e s t
quoted above indicates t h a t simply matching the leading edge flow angle p r o f i l e makes large
improvements i n performance, presumably because of a considerable reduction i n throat blockage and a
consequent improvement in recovery.

Further evidence t o indicate t h e importance of matching the spanwise incidence correctly is shown i n
Fig. 24 where choking throat discharge coefficient is plotted VS. entry Mach number f o r the two
dimensional and scalloped leading edgz cambered vane and a pipe diffuser. The pipe diffuser r e t a i n s
considerably lower throat blockage l e v e l s and the scalloped leading edge cambered vane i s midway
between pipe and two dimensional leading edge cambered vane. The pipe diffuser c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i l l
be discussed f u r t h e r in a l a t e r section.

'1
 7-5

STAIL L I M I T I n Fig. 25 is presented a s t a l l i n g correlation f o r the two dimensional leading edge

cambered vane d i f f u s e r compared t o a pipe. Here, leading edge t o throat nondimensional s t a t i c pressure
r i s e a t surge is plotted VS. entry Mach number. Up t o entry Mach number = 1.0 it is almost constant
f o r both cases. Beyond entry Mach number = 1.0 it r i s e s f o r both cases. For comparison, the s t a t i c
pressure rise across a normal shock is plotted. For the two-diffuser types, the leading edge t o
throat s t a t i c pressure r i s e seems t o approach the normal shock curve f o r entry Mach number exceeding
1.0 but eventually rise more slowly. Actually, the d i f f u s e r d stell curves would not be
expected t o r i s e f o r M entry = 1 u n t i l the normal shock level-& had exceeded t h i s l e v e l which
occurs above M entry = 1. Since the M entry scale corresponds t o the mass average value and not the
peak, the normal shock s t a t i c pressure r i s e curve f o r the peak is also plotted. For both d i f f u s e r
types the s t a l l i n g l i m i t curves commence rising when they i n t e r s e c t the peak entry Mach number shock
r i s e curves. The pipe d i f f u s e r has about 6d b e t t e r s t a l l i n g s t a t i c pressure r i s e . This all
i n d i c a t e s that supersonic d i f f u s e r s can have good s t a l l capability, in f a c t , even b e t t e r than subsonic
with the s t a l l i n g limit increasing with entry Mach number. However, the higher r a t e of increase of
throat blockage from Fig. 24 suggests that choking blockage may remove much of the mass flow range
advantage of t h e superior s t a l l c a p a b i l i t y over subsonic diffusers.

MULTIPLE CASCADE DIFFUSERS

Multiple cascade d i f f u s e r s (Fig. 26) comprise multiple succeeding rows of cascade o r vaned diffusers.
Usually there a r e two, sometimes three rows. The basic advantage of this concept over t h e single
row vaned is the subdividing of the loading which r e s u l t s . Thus a two row multiple cascade system
may accomplish the same diffusion as a single cambered vane but with half t h e D f a c t o r per row, i.e.
0.4 VS. 0.8. A value of 0.4 i s generally accepted as a useful maximum f o r a x i a l s t a t o r cascades
with low loss. In addition, t h e adjacent cascades may be r e l a t i v e l y indexed t o optimize the blade
surface boundary layer entry condition f o r the following row.

Very l i t t l e published data are available f o r such diffusers. However, Continental have published a
map with up t o 4.8:1 pressure r a t i o f o r a multiple cascade single stage c e n t r i f u compressor at
20 lbs/sec. compared with a corresponding vaned diffuser. A t the maximum speed %
= 4.2 t o 4.8)
efficiency increased from 74% t o 84% from the vaned t o the multiple cascade d i f f u s e r with an improved
surge range. No data on the geometry of t h i s case is available, however, from Fig. 1 f o r a
conventional vaneless space gap of % the d i f f u s e r entry Mach number would be expected t o be supersonic
f o r PR = 4.8.

Another published case of a multiple cascade d i f f u s e r In a centrifugal stage is Ref. 10 a t 2.7 pressure
r a t i o and 2 lbs/sec. Here a d i r e c t comparison w a s made with pipe diffuser operation with the same
rotor. Generally the pipe d i f f u s e r stage is over 1 point b e t t e r on efficiency. However, no attempt
w a s made t o match the spanwise leading edge angle d i s t r i b u t i o n of the f i r s t row cascade t o the flow
angle d i s t r i b u t i o n at r o t o r e x i t . The entry Mach number at design point f o r this case is 0.8 with
double c i r c u l a r a r c and NACA 400 s e r i e s f o r the f i r s t and second rows. Gap/chord r a t i o s were 0.8 and
0.43, respectively, compared with t h e 0.9 f o r the UACL cambered vane diffuser. The predicted loss
f o r this multiple cascade d i f f u s e r is d p P .02, while the measured was 0.d. This difference of
0.02 would correspond t o the 1 point P L O efficiency difference between pipe and cascade. Again,
this accentuates the importance of matching the i n l e t flow angle p r o f i l e t o maximize the performance
of centrifugal compressor diffusers.

PASSAGE DIFFUSERS

The passage d i f f u s e r as shown .in Fig. 27 is a concept which ignores t h e angular momentum reduction
principle of the cascades and r e l i e s on capturing the flow with a cambered leading edge and directing
it through an enclosed passage, whence it is fed t o a c o l l e c t o r a f t e r diffusion t o some low Mach,
number. A s in other d i f f u s e r concepts, it is the leading edge t o t h r o a t region which is important
f o r supersonic entry Mach number. I n most cases (applications t o 6:l pressure r a t i o ) a compressible
log s p i r a l o r some type of low loading suction surface i s applied and the pressure surface is f a i r e d
t o give a desired throat. After the throat some moderate diffusion r a t e , s t r a i g h t channel is
applied; with e i t h e r c i r c u l a r o r rectangular cross section. Boeing, G.M. and Chrysler have published
information on such application a t pressure r a t i o s of 6:l and 3:l and 4:1, respectively, in Ref. 11.

Performance similar t o or b e t t e r than cascade d i f f u s e r s is possible. I n Fig. 2 Boeing obtained 6:1

pressure r a t i o a t 8 d . Generally, these d i f f u s e r s a r e bulky and have a r e l a t i v e l y large f r o n t a l area.

Recently BoeindAVLABS has demonstrated an efficiency l e v e l of 72% at 1O:l pressure r a t i o (Fig. 5 )

1.3. Detailed a n a l y s i s of the
w i t h this d i f f u s e r concept indicating an entry Mach number l e v e l of
diffusion performance from throat t o e x i t as effectiveness VS. t h r o a t blockage from Ref. 3 i s as
shown i n Fig. 28 (AS = .45, 20 = loo and AR = 4:1, RegH = 4 x 16). A comparison with the s t a t i c
s t r a i g h t rectangular section data of Ref. 8 by Dean and Runstadler is shown. This r e s u l t is
consistent with t h e correlation of UACL cambered vane d i f f u s e r effectiveness with t h r o a t blockage.

I n both Refs. 8 and 3 f o r t h e s t a t i c channel t e s t s and the 1O:l pressure r a t i o compressor t e s t s a

s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t of aspect r a t i o was determined. Fig. 29 shows the r e s u l t s from Ref. 8 f o r t h e
s t a t i c channel t e s t s indicating an optimum aspect r a t i o of 0.75 = deptwwidth with a c r i t i c a l
dependence on t h e 0 - .75 s i d e of the curve. Throat p a r a l l e l length was a l s o found t o be c r i t i c a l ,
the important condition t o s a t i s f y , being t o avoid re-accelerating t h e throat flow t o supersonic Mach
numbers. A p a r a l l e l throat length = 0.33 of throat hydraulic diameter w a s found t o be satisfactory.
7-6

In the following section on t h e pipe d i f f u s e r , a l l of these parameters w i l l be compared. I n Ref. 3

on the 1O:l pressure r a t i o compressor work, the same trend of increasing throat blockage towards surge
w a s determined as f o r the UACL cambered vane, although insufficient data t o form a leading edge t o
throat s t a t i c pressure r i s e correlation i s available. The same reasoning, a s presented previously
i n the vaned d i f f u s e r section, is presented f o r t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i n Ref. 3. In f a c t , schlieren
photos a r e presented i n Ref. 3 which indicate that a %one of rapid readjustment" occurs a t the
diffuser leading edge. So that rather than a continuous f r e e vortex flow f i e l d occurring from r o t o r
e x i t t o diffuser leading edge, a rapid readjustment of the swirling flow with r a d i a l s t a t i c pressure
gradient a t r o t o r e x i t t o a constant s t a t i c pressure flow at diffuser throat occurs through leading
edge normal shock. The strength of t h i s shock then a d j u s t s i t s e l f t o match continuity i n t h e
diffuser throat with an increase of strength towards surge due t o the decreasing throat Mach number
i n this direction.

J u s t a s f o r the vaned diffuser, these passage d i f f u s e r s w i l l suffer from the same leading edge
incidence mismatching f o r two dimensional s t r a i g h t leading edges.

PIPE DIFFUSER
This novel concept, Fig. 30, i s based upon an a r r a y of d r i l l i n g s arranged symmetrically i n a r a d i a l
plane with t h e i r center l i n e s all tangent t o t h e seme c i r c l e . The geometry is such that, when these
drillings mutually i n t e r s e c t , a pseudo vaneless space i s formed between the tangency c i r c l e and an
outer c i r c l e called the leading edge c i r c l e . Since the intersection of two coplanar cylinders is
an e l l i p s e , this pseudo vaneless space is composed of an array of symmetrically located e l l i p t i c
ridges at t h e interseotion of each d r i l l i n g . When this drilling array is arranged around a
centrifugal impeller, t h e flow w i l l e x i t i n t o t h e tangency c i r c l e plane, flow through t h e pseudo
vaneless space, and enter the discrete pipes formed by the drillings. A conical diffuser may then
be arranged downstream of each discrete pipe t o diffuse the flow and feed any type of passage such
a s the trwnpet in Fig. 31 which, i n turn, feeds an a x i a l l y directed annulus.

The merits of this diffuser concept are both economic and aerodynamic. Eoonomic because of t h e
leading edge region is e a s i l y defined by a s e r i e s of simple drillings and comes out extremely
accurately f o r r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e effort. The major aerodynamic advantages l i e with t h e leading edge
ridge or scallop. A s seen in Fig. 30 the ridge i s inclined at ' 0 from tangential a t its own tangency
c i r c l e ( s l i g h t l y greater in radius than the passage centerline tangency c i r c l e ) and builds up t o a
maximum inclination a t the leading edge circle. The three dimensional shape of t h i s leading edge
allows it t o accommodate t h e type of flow angle d i s t r i b u t i o n usually found at the e x i t of centrifugal
compressors due t o f a i r l y thick hub/shroud boundary layers.

The swept shape of the leading edge i s conducive t o the %orma1 Mach number 4 1" concept of the
swept wing at incidence. This vortex has been found t o be conducive t o the s t a b i l i t y of the flow in
the passages and is considered t o suppress the separation tendencies of the w a l l boundary layer i n
t h e downstream diffuser. In p a r t i c u l a r , it suppresses the separation of t h e flow over the apex,
Fig. 30, of t h e scallop i n t h e leading edge plane.

The c i r c u l a r cross section of the drillings i s considered t o allow these d i f f u s e r s t o 'lswallowll

a
highly non uniform flow much b e t t e r than the two dimensional cascade type; p a r t i c u l a r l y where the
rolled vortices m i x the flow. It would a t f i r s t appear that the swept leading edge should allow
t h e supersonic leading edge flow t o enter the diffuser channel supersonically. However, t h i s is
only possible f o r one throughflow at a given speed f o r a fixed geometry d i f f u s e r , since the leading
edge Mach number is very nearly constant along a speed line and t h e throat Mach number is largely
a function of flow.

The simplest pipe diffuser cross section, c i r c u l a r , has a natural aspect r a t i o of 1.0 which is just
over the optimum of .75 determined f o r rectangular section passage d i f f u s e r s i n Ref. 8.
The e f f e c t of p a r a l l e l t h r o a t length on pipe diffuser performance has been demonstrated in Ref. 4.
T h i s is repeated i n Fig. 32 where the w a l l s t a t i c pressure distribution of short and long throat
pipe d i f f u s e r s i s plotted. In both cases, j u s t upstream of the apex of the leading edge scallop,
a normal shock occurs which automatically a d j u s t s i t s e l f t o s u i t continuity i n the d i f f u s e r throat.
This is the same finding as f o r Ref. 3 on the Boeing/AVLABS 1O:l pressure r a t i o centrifugal program
where schlieren photographs show t h e same leading edge normal shock. I n the t h r o a t , f o r the short
case, a continuous s t a t i c pressure r i s e occurs merging i n t o the s t a t i c pressure r i s e of the
downstream cone. For the long throat case, an i n i t i a l s t a t i c pressure rise occurs i n the t h r o a t
followed by a drop, possibly t o supersonic Mach number, with a r e l a t i v e l y slow s t a t i c pressure
recovery in t h e downstream cone. The overall s t a t i c pressure r i s e of t h e short throat case is 1 9
greater than that of the long throat combined with a 0.5 percentage point improvement in overall
efficiency. The corresponding throat dimensions f o r the two cases are L*/d* = 1.84 and 0.5.

STATIC PRESSURE EFFECTIVENESS A s f o r the vaned and passage diffusers, the throat t o e x i t
effectiveness of t h e pipe diffuser cones may be correlated with throat blockage. Fig. 33 shows such
a correlation f o r a UACL 6:1 and 1O:l pressure r a t i o match pipe diffuser. The maximum entry Mach
number of the 6:l and 1O:l pressure r a t i o data a r e 1.2 and 1.42. The l a t t e r is l i k e l y one of the
highest Mach number l e v e l s of which a r a d i a l diffuser has ever been operated. For comparison,
Sprenger's (Ref. 9 ) s t r a i g h t conical diffuser throat blockage correlation is also shown. The shapes
of the curves a r e quite similar. Due t o the throat Reynolds' number difference, the curves are
r e l a t i v e l y displaced. However, they do correepond on a 1/5& power l a w a t B* = .1 as indicated i n
Fig. 22. Sprenger's data correspond t o low throat Mach number, while the UACL data a r e f o r M* n 0.6
1.0. However, the data from Ref. 8 show that effectiveness is very weakly dependent on M* as
-
 7-7

indicated i n Figo 33. Again, the throat t o e x i t effectiveness of a centrifugal compressor d i f f u s e r

has been shown t o c o r r e l a t e with s t a t i c , s i n g l e channel on the throat blockage/effectiveness base.

I n Fig. 34 the throat t o e x i t effectiveness i s plotted vs. throat Mach number and shock Mach number
f o r a 6:l pressure r a t i o speedline. On the l e f t is a scale of t h r o a t Mach number up t o 1.0. On the
r i g h t is a s c a l e of diffuser passage upstream shock Mach number, Just as f o r the Boeing/AVLABS work,
a continuous s e t of data is obtained even above M* = 1.0 with only a s l i g h t f a l l off i n effectiveness
up t o 1.1 Mach number. Note that the throat Reynolds' number of the UACL pipe d i f f u s e r i s about 1/4
of t h e BoeingfAVLABS. The increase in effectiveness with increasing M * i s due t o the corresponding
reduction in throat blockage. The core or maximum throat t o t a l pressure used t o calculate t h e throat
Mach number f o r t h e UACL cambered vane and pipe d i f f u s e r data was obtained from impeller t i p s t a t i c
and temperature r i s e with flow f a c t o r and shroud f r i c t i o n temperature r i s e determined from numerous
t i p t r a v e r s e s of t o t a l pressure and flow angle. The throat t o t a l pressure includes a correction far
leading edge shock loss. Invariably a t all speeds, verge of choke (maximum flow) corresponds t o
M* a 1.0 which suggests that very l i t t l e core t o t a l pressure loss occurs from leading edge t o throat.
Comparing the pipe d i f f u s e r effectiveness VS. throat blockage data with the UACL cambered vane data
as i n Fig. 35 shows that they both follow the same type of correlation (same throat Reynolds' number)
but t h a t the cambered vane data f a l l s lower on effectiveness and i s a t a higher l e v e l f o r the same
speed. In f a c t , the cambered vane d i f f u s e r at the 6 : l pressure r a t i o speed operates at the same
B* (= .25) l e v e l as the 12:l pipe diffuser. T h i s brings out one of the principle advantages of the
pipe d i f f u s e r leading edge concept. The superior matching of t h e leading edge flow angle p r o f i l e
and t h e swept shape reduce the r e s u l t a n t throat blockage l e v e l s and r a i s e the effectiveness. Although
the matching is not perfect, it c e r t a i n l y is much superior t o a s t r a i g h t two dimensional leading edge.
I n Fig. 36 the incidence d i s t r i b u t i o n is plotted VS. f r a c t i o n of flow. About 7%of the flow i s
operating at an incidence l e v e l of 2 6 O vs. the 2 l 2 O of a two dimensional leading edge.

THROAT FEGCKAGE The same leading edge t o t h r o a t s t a t i c pressure r i s e concept as f o r the vaned
d i f f u s e r has been found t o c o r r e l a t e the throat blockage of a pipe diffuser. The data a r e shown in
Fig. 37, both f o r 6:l and 1 O : l pressine r a t i o stages. only high speed (10:l t o 14:l pressure r a t i o )
data a r e available f o r the 1O:l pressure r a t i o stage. A general increase of blockage occurs with
increasing s t a t i c pressure r i s e with two curves f o r entry Mach n u m b e r r 1 and 4 1. A s discussed
previously f o r the cambered vane d i f f u s e r , a general increase of t h r o a t blockage with increasing
s t a t i c pressure r i s e leading edge t o throat i s t o be expected, since more diffusion is required of
the boundary layer r e s u l t i n g in a thicker, more defected boundary layer. The higher l e v e l curve f o r
M u > 1 i s a r e s u l t of requiring that most of t h e diffusion (leading edge t o t h r o a t ) be accomplished
abruptly through a normal shock. Although the 1O:l pressure r a t i o data approach the 6:1 pressure
r a t i o data at lower blockage (.l3) f o r Mu> 1, they follow a steeper trend f o r increasing blockage
than the 6:l pressure r a t i o data. Possibly, f o r higher entry Mach number l e v e l s (sl.2g) the curves
of e" VS. + $- increase in l e v e l o r the d i f f e r e n t r o t o r f o r the 1O:l pressure r a t i o case feeds
a d i f f e r e n tJ L L incidence p r o f i l e t o the pipe d i f f u s e r leading edge r e s u l t i n g i n a somewhat
d i f f e r e n t t oat blockage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c . I n f a c t , it might be expected that d i f f e r e n t d i f f u s e r
leading edge incidence d i s t r i b u t i o n s r e s u l t in d i f f e r e n t throat blockage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , i.e. the
difference between two dimensional leading edge cambered vane and pipe diffuser. I n any case, it
appears that t h r o a t blockage l e v e l s f o r a simple throat a t the leading edge of a pipe d i f f u s e r can
be r i s i n g rapidly f o r entry Mach numbers approaching 1.4. The equivalent trend of a two dimensional
leading edge d i f f u s e r would l i k e l y be disastrous. I n Fig. 38 a comparison of the correlations f o r
t h e two d i f f u s e r types is plotted. For entry Mach number .( 1, the curves tend t o coincide at high
s t a t i c pressure drop to' the throat with an increasing divergence f o r increasing s t a t i c pressure

those of t h e pipe diffuser. For instance, a t

minimum loss a t the 6 : l pressure r a t i o speed
the pipe d i f f u s e r i s a t
Mm > 1 on Fig. 38.
P 0.2.

T h i s gives
*
(or decreasing s t a t i c pressure drop) with the cambered vane blockage l e v e l s considerably exceeding
= 0.225 the cambered vane d i f f u s e r e x h i b i t s
f o r the pipe d i f f u s e r , while the same point f o r
These co&Epond t o B* = O.2land 0.1, respectively, with
* a 0.51 and .65, respectively, i n Fig. 35 with 4
0.14. The r e s u l t is a of about? points in overall efficiency. Therefore, much of
poor performance of d i f f u s e r types other than the pipe i s due t o the higher throat blockage l e v e l s
which they incur. The scalloped vaned d i f f u s e r leading edge t e s t quoted previously demonstrates t h i s .

Other evidence of the s u p e r i o r i t y of the pipe d i f f u s e r is demonstrated by t h e throat blockage a t choke

correlation of Fig. 24 discussed previously with regard t o vaned diffuser. The pipe d i f f u s e r i s f a r
superior t o t h e vaned a t supersonic entry Mach number while a t subsonic Mach numbers its correlation
approaches the vaned, whence the two curves merge a t Mm = .8. For the high pressure r a t i o (10:l)
case of the pipe d i f f u s e r throat blockage l e v e l s as high as 0.25 a r e encountered a t 1.4 entry Mach
number but this data do tend t o f a i r i n t o t h e 6:l pressure r a t i o pipe data. I n addition, r a t e of drop
of CD* more than doubles from Mm = 1.2 t o 1.4 which i s considerable. In f a c t , the trend of the curve
suggests that, f o r entry Mach number approaching 1.5,C~* drops v e r t i c a l l y with M u . The lower throat
blockage of the pipe d i f f u s e r allows a smaller geometric throat f o r the same flow and consequently a
more compact diffusing system as w e l l as higher effectiveness.

S T U LIMIT The s t a l l i n g correlation of the two d i f f u s e r forms i s presented [Link]. 25. The
l i m i t i n g leading edge t o throat s t a t i c pressure r i s e has been plotted VS. entry Mach number. Since
s t a l l i s l i k e l y a breakdown of sidewall boundary l a y e r s i n traversing the s t a t i c pressure gradient
from leading edge t o t h r o a t , it would seem l i k e l y that the above correlation i s relevant. A s
explained in t h e previous section on vaned d i f f u s e r s , a nearly constant value of Ap*/ L E i s obtained
up t o MIE = 1 with the pipe d i f f u s e r l e v e l about 60%higher. Above entry Mach number ==%1, both curves
r i s e coinciding with the intereection of the curve of A p*/g~e f o r the peak entry Mach number normal
shock. T h i s might be expected since, when a leading edge normal shock occurs, the flow would t r y t o
follow t h e abrupt s t a t i c pressure r i s e of the shock u n t i l sidewall boundary layer separation became
predominant. Data f o r both 6:l pressure r a t i o and 1O:l pressure r a t i o pipe d i f f u s e r stages a r e
presented. Unfortunately, only a few high speed points were obtained f o r the 1O:l pressure r a t i o case
as indicated at 5 1.4 entry Mach number. These data correspond t o choking of the d i f f u s e r as shown
by t h e l i n e of &
A VS. M u f o r a choked throat which passes through the data. The remainder of the
s t a l l limit curve f o r t h e 1O:l pressure r a t i o case is shown estimated from the data of
iLe
Fig. 37. A t abo t 1.33 entry Mach number, the s t a l l locus breaks off from t h e choked throat curve

*
and traverses l i n e a r l y across t o the 6:z pressure curve a t entry Mach number = 1.135. This indicates
that increasing from entry Mach number 1.33, the d i f f u s e r has l o s t its s t a l l c a p a b i l i t y and is only
sustained by the choked throat condition and t h a t around entry Mach number = 1.15 a maximum s t a l l
capability occurs with =. 0.50 or more. Presumably, with entry Mach number exceedhg 2 1.15'
the abrupt s t a t i c pressure r i s e required through a normal shock r e s u l t s i n an excessive
s t a t i c pressure gradient f o r the sidewall boundary layers. It should be considered as indicated i n
Fig. 25 that f o r all these UACL s m a l l centrifugal data with absolute flow = 1 lb/sec., the r e s u l t i n g
low Reynolds' numbers give f u l l y developed boundary layers. With thinner w a l l boundary l a y e r s and
higher Reynolds' number d i f f u s e r t h r o a t blockage, s t a l l l i m i t and effectiveness w i l l a l l improve.

It is i n t e r e s t i n g t o note that the superior s t a l l i n g and choking limits of the pipe d i f f u s e r do not
necessarily lead t o a wider mass f l o w range a t a given speed. I n f a c t , the higher r a t e of increase
of blockage of the vaned d i f f u s e r with increasing s t a t i c pressure r i s e leading edge t o throat allows
it t o reach a lower r e l a t i v e mass flow at surge than t h e pipe d i f f u s e r so that the loss of choke flow
capacity is j u s t balanced. The mass flow range at supersonic Mach numbers is about equal f o r the
two d i f f u s e r types and is superior f o r the cambered vane a t low Mach numbers, i.e. -8. This suggests
that d i f f u s e r s with low throat blockage c h a r a c t e r i s t i c and good effectiveness w i l l tend t o have
i n f e r i o r flow range.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

The overall loss l e v e l s at minimum loss f o r constant entry Mach number (constant r o t o r speed) of
r a d i a l cascade d i f f u s e r s have been shown t o f i t the NACA D f a c t o r correlation for axial cascade s t a t o r s
up t o entry Mach numbers of 1.15 (axial cascade s t a t o r entry Mach number V, .SI. This r a d i a l
d i f f u s e r data provides D f a c t o r concept data up t o l e v e l s of 0.9. Mainstream diffusion accounts f o r
8 d of the D f a c t o r loading of r a d i a l cascades. Leading edge scalloping of cascade d i f f u s e r s t o
match the entry flow angle p r o f i l e has reduced the loss l e v e l s by up t o entry Mach number E 1.10.

The c o r r e l a t i o n of cascade d i f f u s e r performance as throat t o e x i t s t a t i c pressure effectiveness with

throat blockage compares well with single passage s t a t i c measurements f o r the whole range of t h e
compressor map and is superior t o the D f a c t o r concept, since it covers the whole range of operation
(not j u s t minimum loss).

Some available published data have demonstrated that multiple cascade d i f f u s e r s a r e superior t o
single cascade vaned up t o 5;1 pressure r a t i o (Ref. 11, while other such data show that t h e pipe
d i f f u s e r i s superior t o a multiple cascade f o r a 2.7 pressure r a t i o stage (Ref. 11).

The performance of both rectangular passage and pipe d i f f u s e r s may be successfully correlated with
single passage s t a t i c t e s t s on t h e t h r o a t t o e x i t effectiveness VS. throat blockage concept
considering Reynolds' number t o the l/5a power.

Similar c o r r e l a t i o n of effectiveness with throat blockage is obtained over the whole compressor map
f o r both a cambered vane up t o 5:1 pressure r a t i o and pipe d i f f u s e r up t o 12:l pressure r a t i o with
a single l i n e f i t t i n g the whole range of data from surge t o choke on every speedline*

Throat blockage has been found t o be a prime function of leading edge t o throat s t a t i c pressure r i s e
with separate correlations f o r supersonic and subsonic entry Mach numbers. The single g r e a t e s t
problem with supersonic r a d i a l d i f f u s e r s is that f o r entry Mach number exceeding 1.2 nearly l/2 the
t o t a l required s t a t i c pressure r i s e of t h e d i f f u s e r must occur from leading edge t o throat i n about
10% of t h e t o t a l diffusion path length mostly through a normal shock.
To improve the performance of higher pressure r a t i o centrifugal compressors, some method of reducing
the t h r o a t blockage is required. The entry Mach number i t s e l f may be reduced by using r o t o r s with
e x i t blading sweepback which r a i s e s prohibitive s t r e s s problems or by increasing t h e extent of
vaneless space which usually leads t o increased vaneless space l o s s e s and increased f r o n t a l a r e a
with l i t t l e improvement in overall performance. Some method of reducing t h e e f f e c t of the leading
edge shock on throat blockage is l i k e l y most promising.

The following overall centrifugal stage performance l e v e l s have been obtained with r a d i a l supersonic
d i f f u s e r types.

Manufacturer &try Mach No. -

PR Stage Efficiency Flow (lb/sec.)
UACL Cambered 1.05 5 1
Vane
Continental Multiple 4.8 84 20
Cascade
Boeing Passage 1.2 6 80 6
Boeing Passage 1.3 10 72 2
UACL =Pe 1.3 10 74.5 1
 7-9

"Heavy-Lift !Pip Turbojet Rotor System"

Vol. XI, Engine Design
U.S. AVLABS, October 1965.

(2) Morris, R.E. and Kenny, D.P. "High Pressure Ratio Centrifugal Compressor f o r Small
Gas TuFbine Engines"
Prepared f o r the 3lst Meeting of t h e Propulsion and
Energetics Panel of AGARD "Helicopter and Propulsion
Syst emsft
June 1968, Ottawa, Canada.

(3) Schorr, P.G., Welliver, A.D. and "Desim and Development of Small High Pressure Ratio,
Winslow, L.J. Single Stage Centrifugal Compressor"
Presented on March 1969 at the ASME Cleveland Conference.

(4) Kenny, D.P. "A Novel Low Cost Diffuser f o r High Performaace
Centrifugal Comp-essors"
A.S.M.E. Paper No. 68/GT-38.

(5) Jansen, W. "Rotating S t a l l i n a Radial Vaneless Diffuser"

A.S.M.E. Paper No. 64-F'E-6.

(6) Faulders, C.R. "Aerodynamic Design of Vaned Diffusers f o r Centrifugal

Compressors"
A.S.M.E. Paper No. 564-213.

(7) Dallenbach, F. and V a n Le, N. "Supersonic Diffuser for Radial and Mixed Flow Compressors"
A.S.M.E. Paper No. 6&Hyd.-ll.

(8) Runstadler, P.W. Jr. and "Straight Channel Diffuser Performance at High I n l e t Mach
Dean, R.C. Jr. Numbers"
A.S.M.E. Paper No. 63-WA/FE-19.

(9) Sprenger, H. "Ekperimental Investigations of Straight and Curved

Mff users"
,
Mitt. Inat. Aerodyn. Zurich, (271, 1959, Switzerland.

(10) &oh, F.G. , Wood, G.M., "Evaluation of a High HubDip Ratio Centrifugal
Kulp, R.S. and Kenny, D,P. Compessar"
A.S.M.E. Paper No. 69-WAFE-28.
7-10

DIFFUSER ENTRY MACH No. AND ROTOR TIP SPEED vs.

M
,, OVERALL PRESSURE RATIO FOR SINGLE STAGE
CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS WITH ZERO PREWHIRL,
2.0 RADIAL EXIT BLADING AND UACL PROJECTED EFFICIENCIES

PRov
I I

Fig.1 Diffuser entry Mach number and rotor t i p speed v s overall PR

7 .O

FROM REF. 3 DEMONSTRATION POINT

CORRECTED TO AMBIENT COMPRESSOR EFFlCl E NCY 76

6 .O CONDITIONS OF:
600 F
29.92 in. Hg

a
\
5.0
a
0 -
t?
a
w
P 4.0
3
v)
97 Yo

Ha -
93%

3.0
88%

-
SPEED, 73 %
240
1.0 I .5 2.0 2 .S 3.O

CORRECTED AIRFLOW, worn/$ (I~AOC)

Fig. 2 b e i n g 6: 1 PR single stage centrifugal

 7-11

0 Po 400 600 800

COMPRESSOR CORRECTED FLOW Ib/min

Fig.3 Airesearch single stage centrifugal with V-notch LE vaned diffuser

UACL
DRB CENTRIFUGAL RESEARCH PROGRAM
12.0 - 'H' IMPELLER FROM REF. 2
MEXIT = . I 5

10.0

8.C

,
I-
I-
a
0
6.C

4.(

2.1

I I I I
02 0.6 I.o 1.4 1.8

WmD/6,,,Ib/sec

Fig.4 UACL DRB centrifugal research program 10: 1 PR

7-12

I
I
I
6c

9
d-

000‘0s I

w a o

z
c
wm m
m
3 .. Q

3MIlSS3Md 1 3 1 N I
3t1flSS3Ud t101331103 ‘‘UvU 3t1nSS3t1d
 7-13

INITIAL RADIUS I N I T I A L RADIUS

R e IS WITH RESPEC
TO INITIAL RADIUS

E
4
I
Y OPERATION TO
-C
< IS UNSTABLE
I
I4
2
<
I?
I4

8
c
5
I
!!
Ez
U
II
*” ESTIMATED COMPR.
FLDW CASE FOR AIR
II
2
ENTR. MACH No. ir 1.3
5 Re 0 5 a106

40° 9DD 60° 70°

Fig.7 Stable operating range of vaneless diffusers a f t e r Reference 5

.90 I
f , I.07 : I RADIUS
RATIO
(TOENTRY I
I
(RADIAL)

80

70

60

50

0 .2 4 .6 .8 .o 1.2 1.4

ENTRY

Fig.8 S t a b i l i t y limit for vaneless diffuser of 2 : 1 radius r a t i o w i t h 6: 1 PR rotor

7-14

-
V
VW
IO I
IMPELLER EXIT
/ I
P
I I

TRAVERSE
DISTRIBUTION OF ABSOLUTE
.go0 VELOCITY AT TRAVERSE
PLANE P R = 6 : I

.700

.600

,500

H
1 I 60 70 I
% '/h

Fig.S(a) Impeller e x i t traverse distribution of absolute velocity at traverse plane PR = 6 : l

-
vu
vu MA) IMPELLER EXIT TRAVERSE DISTRIBUTION OF ABSOLUTE TANGENTIAL
I .o -VELOCITY A T TRAVERSE

.goo

.800

600

.500

H
0 IO 20 30 40 50 60 70 I ) 90
?4 '/h

Fig. 9(b) Tangential velocity

 7-15

Vm IMPELLER EXIT TRAVERSE DISTRIBUTION OF ABSOLUTE

MERIDIONAL VEDCITY AT TRAVERSE PLANE PR =6:I
Vm MA:

1.0

.8

.6

.4

.2

IO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 IO0
% x/h

Fig. 9(c) Meridional v e l o c i t y

Fig.10 UACL vanes d i f f u s e r design p r o f i l e

7-16

6 .C

CAMB
WITH 6 : l

5 .c

I-
I
b
a
a

4 .c

/
/
3.O

0.8 1.2 1.6 2 .o

w60/60 - LB/SEC

Fig. 11 Map of cambered vane d i f f u s e r with 6: 1 r o t o r

There is no Figure 12
 7-17

[Link] 1.05 1. IO 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30 1.35 I.40

R/RLE

Fig. 13 UACL vaned d i f f u s e r s t a t i c p r e s s u r e loading

CAMBERED VANE DIFFUSER

W I T H 6 : l ROTOR, LOSS CHARACTERISTICS

.2 5

.20

w
'a
\

a!
a
.I5

.IO
II 12 13 - 14 15 16 17
Q'LE

Fig. 14 Cambered vane d i f f u s e r with 6: 1 r o t o r , loss c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

7-18

SECTION A - A \ 0
Fig.15 UACL flat plate diffuser LE types
VIEW 8
 7-19

3
s
LL
a
0

X
w
I-

\
7-20

I
COMPARISON OF UACL VANED DIFFUSER MINIMUM c
- LOSS PER SPEED WITH NACA STATOR ‘D’
FACTOR LOSS CORRELATION
Reo* = 10-18 X IO5
+
CAMBERED VANE WITH 6 I ROTOR
- CAMBERED VANE WITH 5 I ROTOR
0 CAMBERED VANE WITH 6 I ROTOR
WITH SCALLOPED LEADING EDGE
o 5 I ROTOR WITH FLAT PLATE
- DIFFUSER HAVING LEADING EDGE
PRESSURE SURFACE CHAMFER
AND HOLLOW GRIND

NACA STATOR

0 .I .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .e .9
’D ’ FACTOR

Fig. 17 Comparison of UACL vaned d i f f u s e r minimum l o s s p e r speed with NACA s t a t o r “D” f a c t o r l o s s c o r r e l a t i o n

a0 IMPELLER EXIT TRAVERSE DISTRIBUTION OF CORRECTED FLOW

ANGLE REFERRED TO TANGENTIAL FROM SHROUD TO HUB PR = 6 : I
24

20

‘6,

12

0 IO 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
O h X/h

Fig.18 Impeller e x i t t r a v e r s e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c o r r e c t e d flow angle

 7-21

UACL CAMBERED VANE DIFFUSER

WITH

LEADING EDGE
SCALLOP

Fig.19 UACL cambered vane diffuser with LE scallop

.76

rl
.74 / \
WITHOUT
SCALLOP

.72

REDUCTION IN LOSS DUE TO

LE SCALLOP
- .06
Y%)
-.05

-.04 \,
/’

-.03
~
\
50 - % IMPROVEMENT IN FLOW RANGE

40
1
30

20

IO

0
.7 .8 .9 1.0 1.1 MLE 1.2

Fig.20 Comparison of overall efficiency vs PR for cambered vane diffuser for LE scallop
7-22

COMPARISON OF DIFFUSER
EFFECTIVENESS FOR RUNSTADLER
AND DEAN'S STRAIGHT 2 -
.9 DIMENSIONAL CHANNEL (8")REF8
AND UACL CHAMBERED VANE
DIFFUSER

I
DEAN 81 RUNSTADLER
.8 2 - 0 STRAIGHT '
8 CHANNEL

.7

.65

.55

-5

0 , .05 .IO .I5 .20 .25

Fig.21 Comparison of d i f f u s e r e f f e c t i v e n e s s f o r Runstadler and Dean's s t r a i g h t 2-D channel - Reference 8 and
UACL cambered vane d i f f u s e r
 7-23

1-72“
8 O CCIJICAL By= .01
1.c
.E SLOPE O F LAMINAR PIPE
FRICTION LAW SLOPE OF TURBULENT
6
PIPE FRICTION LAW

.4

.2
-RlCTlON LAW

FRICTION LAW FOR

‘I

0 STRAIGHT CONE CIRCULAR

EI CURVED CONE CIRCULARREND / d = 2 3 . 7
CURVED CONE CIRCULAR ReENo/d = 13.65

R ~ = ~v* d* *
3
IO I0 5

Fig.22 Sprenger’s incompressible d i f f u s e r Reynolds’ number data comparison

CAMBERED VANE DIFFUSER THROAT BLOCKAGE VS

E ACTUAL STATIC PRESSURE RISE LEADING EDGE
T O THROAT
..

. I
0
A VARIOUS
SPEEDS
0
0
A

/
.I MLE n

(
-
-. 8 77 -.
/

-.5 -
P

73 72 -. I 0 .I .z .3DP*
qLE
.5

Fig. 23 Cambered vane d i f f u s e r throat blockage

7-24

c D* COMPARISON OF CHOKING THROAT DISCHARGE COEFFICIENT

I.o - FOR PIPE AND CAMBERED VANE DIFFUSERS -
-
Re, = 1.0 1.8 x IO5

.9
' "\N
l'h\\

CAMBERED VANE 2 3
. d P E DIFFUSER

\ \I
I

I
I

1 1 I I :? (EST'D FROM OVERALL

M A P 8 IMPELLER

.8

.5 .7 .8 .9 I.o 1. I 1.2

Fig. 24 Comparison of choking t h r o a t discharge c o e f f i c i e n t f o r p i p e and cambered vane d i f f u s e r s

-
P*
LE
.6 -
LEADING EDGE TO THROAT STATIC PRESSURE
RISE AT STALL FOR UACL PIPE &
I
'
CAMBERED VANE DIFFUSERS
Reo* 2 I .0-1.8X105 , I I
FIG.37 FOR
.5 STAG
,; L'

I I I I rirtz uirruacm. I I

.4

.3

.2

.I

0
.5 .6 .7 .8 ' .9 1.0 I.I 1.2 1.3 M
,,

Fig.25 LE t o t h r o a t s t a t i c p r e s s u r e rise at s t a l l f o r UACL p i p e and cambered vane d i f f u s e r s

 7-25

I
i
t
I

I
i

/FLOW

Fig.26 Typical multiple cascade diffuser

Downstream Diffusing Duct

(circular or rectangular 1
I

1
,
~

I1 Fig. 27 Typical passage diffuser

7-26

A 3358 A
.80 I
I STATIC PRESSURE RECOVERY,Cp .20
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 O.? 0.8 0.9

BOEING/AVLABS COMPRESSOR CHANNEL : COMPARISON OF PRESSURE RECOVERY FOR

COMPRESSOR CHANNEL WITH 2-DIMENSIONAL DIFFUSER DATA : REF 3

Fig. 28 Boeing/AVLABS compressor channel: comparison of pressure recovery

STRAIGHT CHANNEL
DIFFUSER
OB r-----l
0 :: 0.51
Q M” = 1.0
E* = 0.08
>r. II
0 OPTIMUM Cp FOR
E*= 0.08
0
W

E
W
0.2
[L
n
[Link] -I
ASPECT RATIO
0 I I I I I
I 2 3 4 5 6
PRESSURE RECOVERY vs ASPECT RATIO
M * = 1.0 E*= 0.08

Fig.29 Pressure recovery vs aspect r a t i o after Reference 8

 7-27

T- (TANGENCY A'
IMPELLER CIRCLE
TIP 1

Fig.30 Pine diffuser

Fig.31 Pipe d i f f u s e r trumpet

 I

7-28

Fig.32 compsrison of static Dresswe distributions along the pipes

\
I I
\ COMPARISON OF DIFFUSER
mR UACL PIPE DIFFUSERS UP TO 14: I P
\ WITH SPRENGER'S REFS CONICAL
\ DIFFUSER MTA

E
\ I I

I I
* *
I

Fig.33 Pipe diffuser effectiveness vs throat blockage

 7-29

a0 x
F

I I

\m

p:

cr!

* o o rc c4 ?
F '
7-30

-I
0
a
3
a
i5
W
(3
n
h
0)
rn
w
w
.r(

P
0)

Em a
.d
a
a *-

W O 3
-It d
w
0
W
I" Y
0)
E
c,
P
30
d
m
0
0)
2
E:
.r(

'U
0
C
0
.d
c,
d
.r(

2
>
W
m
i
.r(
E

I
v,

In 0 In
I
 7-31

v)
>
W
W
a
7-32

W.

3
W
.ln
,-I
h
0)
a
ln
W
"! a
0
.r(
c,
c,
ln
4
d
c,
d
(I)
c
W
0 8
24
0
4
c)

d d
c,c,
0 0
2 2
c,+
h 0
0)-

3
w
.d
"! a
I 0)
t:
>
a
h

40
P
d
a,
t a
.,-I
a
w
0
c
0
.d
h
a
a
0
U

00
0

P M
.,-I
G
.

cq

*m I
r! cr!
- 0
 8

S U P E R S O N I C C A S C A D E P E R F O R M A N C E

BY

H. STARKEN
H. J . LICHTFUA

DEUTSCHE FORSCHUNGS- UND VERSUCHSANSTALT

FUR LUFT- UND RAUMFAHRT E . V .
INSTITUT FUR LUFTSTRAHLANTRIEBE
GERMANY
8

SUMMARY

An introduction to the fundamentals o f supersonic flow through cascades is presented.

The effect of back pressure and the starting conditions are described using simplified
f l o w models.

Different design methods proposed in the literature are discussed. In detail, the inflow
conditions at design and off-design operations of a supersonic cascade are presented.
Finally, approximate methods are described for calculating shock losses and the depen-
dency o f total pressure losses from static pressure rise and axial-velocity-density
ratio.
 8

NOMENCLATURE
A flow a r e a

AT c r o s s s e c t i o n a r e a of t h r o t t l e behind t h e cascade
e l e n g t h o f t h e l e f t running c h a r a c t e r i s t i c through E
h energy p e r u n i t mass flow
chord l e n g t h
M Mach number
M" c r i t i c a l Mach number
d i f f e r e n c e o f t a n g e n t i a l components o f a b s o l u t e c r i t i c a l Mach
A'a' bs numbers.

P pressure
T temperature
t spacing
W v e l o c 1t y
6 flow a n g l e ( w i t r e s p e c t t o cascade f r o n t )
stagger angle
turning
r a t i o of specific heats
Mach a n g l e
V Prandtl-Meyer a n g l e
density
a x i a l velocity density r a t i o

-w =
:'tot 2-'t?t 1
t o t a l pressure l o s s coefficient
P t o t m-pm
- ' shock l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t
- profile loss coefficient

abs absolute values ( i n a r o t o r )

ax a x i a l component (normal t o cascade f r o n t )
C value a t point C (fig.4.15)
E , v a l u e a t p o i n t E ( f i g . 4 . 1 0 and 4.15)
I n e u t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a cascade ( f l g . 4 . 9 )
L value a t point L (fig.4.9)
max maximum v a l u e
N n e u t r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a s i n g l e p r o f i l e ( f i g . 4 . 1 4 ) .
P v a l u e a t p o i n t P on t h e p r o f i l e s u r f a c e (fig.4.17)
S s o n i c p o i n t on t h e bow wave ( f i g . 4 . 1 5 )
SP s o n i c p o i n t on t h e s u r f a c e ( f l g . 4 . 1 5 )
t component i n t a n g e n t i a l d i r e c t i o n ( p a r a l l e l t o cascade f r o n t )
8

tot t o t a l value
?k v a l u e a t t h e c r i t i c a l p o i n t (where M = 1)

A v a l u e behind shock
0 v a l u e a t t h e e x i t o f t h e Laval n o z z l e i n a cascade wind t u n n e l
I f i r s t t h r o a t of a Laval nozzle ( w i t h two t h r o a t s )
I1 second t h r o a t o f a Laval nozzle ( w i t h two t h r o a t s )
2 v a l u e s f a r downstream o f t h e cascade
m c o n d i t i o n s a t i n f i n i t y upstream.

Cascade n o t a t i o n .
 8-1

1. INTRODUCTION

The b a s i c philosophy o f t h e d e s i g n and development o f a modern compressor i s d i r e c t e d

towards t h e b i r t h o f an e f f i c i e n t , l i g h t and compact machine w i t h l a r g e flow c a p a c i t y
and h i g h compression r a t i o .

A compressor i s a p r e s s u r e producing mechanism i n v o l v i n g g e o m e t r i c a l and aerodynamical

problems. The i n c r e a s e i n p r e s s u r e a c r o s s a row o f b l a d e s o f an a x i a l flow compressor
depends n o t only on flow t u r n i n g , but a l s o on t h e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l V e l o c i t y o f t h e r o t o r .
The t u r n i n g a n g l e i s l i m i t e d t o a d e f i n i t e v a l u e , and a s such an i n c r e a s e i n t h e energy
t r a n s f e r becomes p o s s i b l e only by i n c r e a s i n g t h e r o t a t i o n a l speed.

I n o r d e r t o handle maximum mass flow p e r u n i t f r o n t a l a r e a , t h e a x i a l v e l o c i t y a t i n l e t

w i l l have t o b e q u i t e h i g h and even up t o t h e s o n i c speed. The r e l a t i v e flow v e l o c i t i e s
g e t s t h e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r a b l y i n c r e a s e d because of high c i r c u m f e r n t i a l and a x i a l Veloci-
ties.

I n t h e e a r l y stages o f compressor development, it was f e l t t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e flow ve-

l o c i t i e s should be w e l l w i t h i n t h e s o n i c value. The r e s e a r c h and development i n t h e l a s t
decade i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h i s could even b e s u p e r s o n i c without an a p p r e c i a b l e s a c r i f i c e i n
t h e e f f i c i e n c y . The l i m i t a t i o n s on t h e r e l a t i v e i n l e t v e l o c i t y o f a modern compressor
i s d i c t a t e d more by t h e mechanical s t r e n g t h o f b l a d e m a t e r i a l , t h e r e q u i r e d high e f f i -
c i e n c y and t h e very l i m i t e d scope f o r t h e v a r i a t i o n o f mass flow.

T h e o r e t i c a l l y t h e r e i s no l i m i t a t i o n on t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r a t i o a c r o s s a r o t o r and i s
J u s t dependent upon t h e i n l e t Mach number. It i s p o s s i b l e t o a c h i e v e t h i s high p r e s s u r e
r i s e i n an i n f i n i t e s i m a l y small d i s t a n c e a c r o s s a normal shock wave. But t h e i n h e r e n t
r i s e i n e n t r o p y a c r o s s a normal shock b e a t s down t h e e f f i c i e n c y t o a low v a l u e a t h i g h
r e l a t i v e Mach numbers, I n a f i n i t e d i s t a n c e , however, t h e same high s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e
could be accomplished by a p a r t i a l i s e n t r o p i c compression.

Simulation o f such flow c o n d i t i o n s i n an a c t u a l machine may g i v e t h e d e s i r e d h i g h

e f f i c i e n c y e v e n , a t high Mach numbers.

The p o t e n t i a l i t i e s o f a s u p e r s o n i c compressor were r e a l i z e d l o n g back, and i n f a c t such

r o t o r s have been b u i l t and t e s t e d by WEISE (1.1) and BETZ, ENCKE ( a s r e p o r t e d by
DAVIDSON ( 1 . 2 ) and ERWIN (1.3)) i n t h e middle o f t h i r t y ' s . A f t e r t h e second world war
t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s r e c e i v e d impetus, and f u r t h e r c o n t i n u a t i o n i n t h i s f i e l d was made
by KANTROWITZ (1.41, REDDING (1.51, FERRI (1.6) and many o t h e r s a t NACA. Up t o 1956,
many e x p e r i m e n t a l compressors o f d i f f e r e n t d e s i g n s were developed and t e s t e d - unfor-
t u n a t e l y none o f them had even t h e minimum d e s i r e d e f f i c i e n c y .

Some o f these compressors showed a s u r p r i s i n g l y good performance a t reduced i n l e t ve-

l o c i t i e s i n t h e t r a n s o n i c regime. Added t o t h i s , r o t o r s designed f o r h i g h subsonic
Mach numbers u s i n g c i r c u l a r - a r c b l a d e s e c t i o n s a l s o showed encouraging r e s u l t s a t
t r a n s o n i c i n l e t Mach numbers (up t o Ma, = 1.3). A t Mach numb,ers i n e x c e s s o f M- = 1.3
a s t e e p i n c r e a s e i n t h e shock l o s s e s w i l l be n o t i c e d f o r c i r c u l a r - a r c b l a d e s , t h u s de-
manding t h e development of s p e c i a l . p r o f i l e s . I n t e n s i v e work was d i s c o n t i n u e d around
1956 by NACA. Only a few y e a r s back t h e n e c e s s i t y o f i t s continuence was f e l t and t h e
work has been resumed.

A complete t h e o r e t i c a l s o l u t i o n o f t h e flow problem i n a s u p e r s o n i c turbo-compressor

i n c l u d i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f flow i n s t a b i l i t y , s t r o n g shock waves, boundary l a y e r e f f e c t s
and flow s e p a r a t i o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n s , i s f a r from being s o l v e d w i t h
8- 2

the existing knowledge.

In view of the complexity of the flow problem, comprehensive testing of blade profiles
in two-dimensional annular cascade tunnel and model compressors i s therefore strongly
necessary. In order to obtain a better understanding of the flow in a supersonic compres-
sor, it is advisible first to investigate simpler flow configurations in two-dimensional
models. This would at least give a qualitative picture of the complex flow problem. A
helpful and valuable tool for such investigations is a twodimensional cascade wind tun-
nel, The superiority of the two-dimensional cascade flow research lies In the low number
of flow parameters, simplicity of testing and the overall economy, as compared with a
three-dimensional rotating test rig.

The impact of the importance of two-dimensional testing is realized by way of several

new test apparatus in operation, and under construction all over the world.

A single volume summerizing all the important events that have taken place in the field
of supersonic compressors and cascades does'nt seem to exist. The current paper also
restricts itself to some of the special flow problems in a supersonic blade row.

Some of the important publications attempting to sumerize the state of art are from
HOTTNER ( 1.7 ) , LIEBLEIN (1.8 ) , SAVAffE ( 1.9) , KLAPPROTH (1.10) , JOHNSON (1.11 1, and
CHAUVIN (1.12).

2. FUNDAMENTALS OF SUPERSONIC CASCADES

2.1 Flow Field at Different Inlet Flow Mach Numbers

In order to present the important flow problem in a cascade at high inlet Mach numbers,
several Schlieren pictures and explanatory diagrams are shown (The dark lines and
spots in the Schlieren pictures, which are not shown in the diagrams, are due to pres-
sure tubes and stresses in the Plexiglas side walls ).Figs. 2.1 and 2.2 show a cascade
with an inlet Mach number M m = 0.9, in which the existence of a local supersonic velo-
city field on the suctiorl surface could be seen, together with a normal shock downstream
of the local supersonic flow field, which in turn forms the upstream of the next blade
profile. With increasing inlet Mach number, the local supersonic velocity field also in-
creases and to such a value wherein the shock wave ahead,of,the cascade reaches infinity
(M, = 1). Under these operating conditions the shock wave remains stable and stationary
(fig.2.j and 2.4). Further increase of the inlet Mach number results in a shift in the
shock position nearer to the leading edge.

The continuous change over from subsonic to supersonic inlet Mach number is possible,
only when the inlet flow angle Bm is large enough to accomodate the sonic line on the
suction surface still in front of the following blades as shown in figs. 2.3 and 2.4.
Choking occurs when the sonic line crosses the passage formed by two adjacent blade pro-
files, and thereafter no further increase in the inlet Mach number at a constant inlet
flow angle is possible (figs.2.5 and 2.6).

Shown in fig.2.7 and fig.2.8 is the flow field at MOD = 1.1. The supersonic flow field
ahead of the cascade gets itself increased, but the subsonic flow field in the passage
reaches up to the passage shock at the leading edge. Further increase in the upstream
Mach number results in a complete supersonic flow condition in the blade passage and
downstream of the cascade (figs.2.9 and 2.10). In such an operating condition,only a
small region of subsonic velocity flow field exists around the leading edge of the blade
 a- 3

p r o f i l e . When t h e a x i a l component o f t h e upstream flow v e l o c i t y r e a c h e s a s o n i c v a l u e ,

t h e n t h e detached shock wave c o l l i d e s w i t h t h e p r e s s u r e s u r f a c e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g b l a d e
and g e t s I t s e l f r e f l e c t e d ( f i g s . 2 . 1 1 and 2.12). I n t h i s c a s e t h e r e e x i s t s no i n f l u e n c e be-
tween t h e cascade and t h e upstream flow f i e l d .

2.2 The E f f e c t of Back P r e s s u r e

I n t h e f i g u r e s shown from 2.1 t o 2.12, t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e behind t h e cascade i s approxi-

mately o f t h e same o r d e r o f magnitude a s i n f r o n t o f t h e cascade. A s l o n g a s t h e flow i n
t h e b l a d e passage remains s u p e r s o n i c (figs.2.9 and 2.111, i t i s p o s s i b l e t o a l t e r t h e
s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e o f t h e cascade by t h r o t t l i n g ; t h i s means t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o ob-
t a i n d i f f e r e n t downstream s t a t i c p r e s s u r e v a l u e s but s t i l l m a i n t a i n t h e same i n l e t flow
condition.

It i s shown i n f i g s . 2 . 9 , 2.13 and 2 . 1 4 how t h e flow f i e l d i n a cascade w i t h d i f f e r e n t

t h r o t t l e s e t t i n g s change. These f i g u r e s show r e s p e c t i v e l y t h e flow f i e l d s corresponding
t o a low, a medium and maximum back p r e s s u r e . F u r t h e r i n c r e a s e of back p r e s s u r e r e s u l t s
I n t h e movement of t h e passage shock till it r e a c h e s t h e detached shock a t t h e l e a d i n g
edge. Occurence o f t h i s c o n d i t i o n l e a d s t o a change i n t h e upstream Mach number and t h e
i n l e t flow a n g l e . I n c h a p t e r 4.5 more d e t a i l s about t h i s p a r t i c u l a r phenomenon a r e d i s -
cussed.

The e f f e c t o f back p r e s s u r e on t h e flow i n a b l a d e passage i s synonymous t o t h e flow i n

a Laval n o z z l e . Thio one-dimensional model i s p a r t i c u l a r l y very good t o understand t h e
mechanism by which t h e s u p e r s o n i c flow f i e l d changes, when t h e back p r e s s u r e i s a l t e r e d .

The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n s are based on r e f . ( 2 . 1 ) . I n t h e forthcoming p i c t u r e s t h e flow

i n a d o u b l e - t h r o a t s u p e r s o n i c Laval n o z z l e i s d e s c r i b e d , wherein t h e l e f t p a r t s i m u l a t e s
t h e upstream flow c o n d i t i o n s and as i n d i c a t e d t h e r i g h t p a r t i s analogous t o t h e cascade
flow r e g i o n .

For back p r e s s u r e s lesser t h a n t h e p r e s s u r e corresponding t o c o r r e c t expansion, t h e r e re-

s u l t s i n an expans4on a t t h e n o z z l e e x i t ( f i g . 2 . 1 5 ) . T h i s I s of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t
e s s e n t i a l l y f o r t u r b i n e c a s c a d e s ( s e e f o r i n s t a n c e DEICH (2.2) and LAWACZECK ( 2 . 3 ) ) . An
i n c r e a s e i n back p r e s s u r e , o v e r and above t h e back p r e s s u r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o c o r r e c t ex-
pansion, l e a d s t o a compression a t t h e e x i t o f t h e n o z z l e ( f i g . 2 . 1 6 ) . ,

Because t h e boundary l a y e r a t t h e e x i t of t h e n o z z l e can w i t h s t a n d o n l y a d e f i n i t e p r e s -

s u r e g r a d i e n t , f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n back p r e s s u r e c a u s e s a s e p a r a t i o n t o o c c u r even be-
f o r e t h e n o z z l e e x i t ( f i g . 2 . 1 7 ) . This s e p a r a t i o n o f t h e boundary l a y e r l s a t t h e same
time I n t e r c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e occurence o f an o b l i q u e shock wave. The p o s i t i o n of t h e
p o i n t o f S e p a r a t i o n is determined by t h e maximum p r e s s u r e d i f f e r e n c e a c r o s s t h e shock
which t h e boundary l a y e r can w i t h s t a n d , and by t h e downstream compression beyond t h e
point of separation.

F u r t h e r i n c r e a s e o f t h e back p r e s s u r e c a u s e s a change from o b l i q u e shock t o normal shock

i n t h e n o z z l e , and hence r e s u l t s i n h i g h e r compression. I n a c o n d i t i o n l i k e t h i s , p r e s -
s u r e d i f f e r e n c e s a c r o s s t h e shock wave may be t o o high f o r t h e boundary l a y e r t o with-
s t a n d , and t h e r e f o r e a pseudo-shock o c c u r s ( f i g . 2 . 1 8 ) . I n t h e o t h e r c a s e t h e r e w i l l be
o n l y one normal shock and j u s t a l o c a l t h i c k e n i n g o f t h e boundary l a y e r without separa-
t i o n (fig.2.19).

F i n a l l y , any f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e i n t h e back p r e s s u r e r e n d e r s t h e flow j u s t subsonic i n

f r o n t o f t h e second t h r o a t ( f i g . 2 . 2 0 ) . This corresponds t o an u n s t a r t e d c o n d i t i o n o f t h e
0-4

c a s c a d e , which i s involved w i t h changes i n t h e upstream flow f i e l d ( s e e c h a p t e r 4.5).

2.3 S t a r t i n K . C o n d i t i o n s of Supersonic Flow

I f t h e t o t a l p r o p e r t i e s and t h e r e l a t i v e flow a n g l e upsfream of a Subsonic Cascade a r e

h e l d c o n s t a n t , t h e n t h e maximum flow c o n d i t i o n s a r e reached wherein i n t h e minimum pas-
sage a r e a s o n i c c o n d i t i o n i s a t t a c h e d ( c h o k i n g ) .

Y
l o s s i n v o l v e d , t h e a r e a of t h e second t h r o a t AII eould be reduced even up t o AI, b e f o r e
a complete break down of t h e s u p e r s o n i c flow o c c u r s . I n t h i s c a s e t h e flow i n t h e second
t h r o a t i s a l s o s o n i c AII = AII
*
In t h e bottom p i c t u r e o f f i g . 2 . 2 1 i s shown a normal shock wave i n f r o n t o*f t h e second
throat. I n t h i s c a s e s o n i c c o n d i t i o n s e x i s t a t AII and t h e r e f o r e AII = AIIO But1 due t o
Y *
losses i n t h e normal shock AII h a s t o be g r e a t e r t h a n AI. Using t h e c o n t i n u i t y and t h e
energy e q u a t i o n s we have:

Continuity r e l a t i o n s h i p :
* t t t t t
(2.1) PIWI A I =
PI1 wII AII

Energy r e l a t i o n s h i p :

(2.2) T t o t I = T t o t I1

From (2.1) and (2.2) w e have,

*
(2.3) - --
-AII Ptot I
AIn P t o t I1

And so i t i s seen t h a t t h e a r e a r a t i o between t h e f i r s t and t h e second t h r o a t i s ' i n v e r -

s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e r a t i o o f t o t a l p r e s s u r e s . The r a t i o o f t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e s 1s
once a g a i n dependent upon t h e Mach number i n f r o n t of t h e normal shock. T h e r e f o r e t h e
XL
l o c a t i o n of t h e normal shock i s determined by t h e s i z e o f t h e second t h r o a t AzI, I n o r e a s e
i n t h e a r e a o f t h e second t h r o a t r e n d e r s , t h e normal shock t o move n e a r e r t o AII, and i t
r e a c h e s i t s l i m i t i n g p o s i t i o n a t Amax. Any f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e c a u s e s t h e normal shock t o
move completely downstream of t h e second t h r o a t , because t h e r e does n o t e x i s t any s t a b l e
*
c o n d i t i o n between Amax and AII. Now t h e n o z z l e flow i s completely s u p e r s o n i c , w i t h a
Mach number g r e a t e r t h a n u n i t y a t AII. It i s now p o s s i b l e t o reduce AII t o a v a l u e up t o
I
and i n c l u d i n g AI and t h e same h a s been shown a t t h e t o p i n fig.2.21. T h i s flow condi-
t i o n i s c a l l e d " S t a r t e d " whereas t h e flow f i e l d i n fig.2.21b i s u s u a l l y c a l l e d "Unstarted".
 8-5
- -

The t h e o r e t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e Mach number and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a r e a r a t i o 8

f o r t h e s t a r t e d and t h e s t a r t i n g c o n d i t i o n s a r e shown i n fig.2.22.

A p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e above onedimensional model t o a cascade flow problem demands accoun-

t i n g f o r a two-dimensional flow t h a t e x i s t s i n i t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , till now t h e r e [Link]
t o e x i s t no e x a c t t h e o r e t i c a l method by which a g e n e r a l two-dimensional flow f i e l d w i t h
s t r o n g shocks c o u l d be p r e d i c t e d . An a c c e p t a b l e and e m p e r i c a l estimate o f t h e probable
p o s i t i o n and shape o f t h e s o n i c l i n e i s t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y t o g e t an idea about t h e
s t a r t i n g o f a s u p e r s o n i c cascade.

The flow f i e l d s i n a s t a r t e d and u n s t a r t e d s u p e r s o n i c cascade a r e shown i n figs.2.23 and

2.24, w i t h Mach numbers M- = 1.1 and M- = 1.24 r e s p e c t i v e l y .

3. DESIGN METHODS OF SUPERSONIC BLADING

The geometry o f t h e s u p e r s o n i c b l a d i n g depends e s s e n t i a l l y on t h e flow c o n d i t i o n s re-

q u i r e d a t t h e e x i t o f t h e r o t o r . That means, t h e mode o f energy t r a n s f e r p l a y s an impor-
t a n t r o l e . T y p i c a l s u p e r s o n i c c a s c a d e s t o g e t h e r w i t h v e l o c i t y t r i a n g l e s a r e shown i n
fig.3.1. [Link] shows a cascade o f t h e impulse t y p e , wherein t h e r e l a t i v e c r i t i c a l
U
Machnumber M remains n e a r l y unchanged and o n l y high t u r n i n g e x i s t s symmetrical t o t h e
a x i a l flow d i r e c t i o n . However, such a r o t o r cascade i s i n h e r e n t w i t h s t r o n g a c c e l e r a t i o n
*
i n t h e a b s o l u t e flow Mabs followed by l a r g e d e f l e c t i o n . I n o t h e r words, it means t h a t t h e
*
change i n t h e a b s o l u t e c i r c u m f e r e n t i a l c r i t i c a l Machnumber AMt abs i s high. A s t h e p o s s i b l e
t
v a l u e o f AMt abs i s high f o r a b l a d i n g o f t h i s c l a s s , it i s seen from t h e Euler-Turbine
e q u a t i o n t h e energy t r a n s f e r h i s a l s o q u i t e high:
w *
(3.1) = Mt A't abs

I n a symmetrical b l a d i n g a s shown i n f i g . 3 . l a , i t i s seen t h a t t h e e n t i r e change i n t h e

s t a t i c p r e s s u r e h a s t o take p l a c e completely i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t o r a t a high s u p e r s o n i c
v e l o c i t y s i n c e t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e remains c o n s t a n t a c r o s s t h e r o t o r .

The o t h e r t y p e o f b l a d i n g a s shown i n f i g . 3 . l b has a very small camber and hence t h e de-

f l e c t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e flow i s a l s o small. The l a r g e t u r n i n g i n t h e a b s o l u t e flow i s
due t o t h e s e v e r e d e c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e flow ( p r e s s u r e r i s e ) and t h i s i s respon-
s i b l e f o r t h e energy t r a n s f e r .

The d e s i g n o f t h e b l a d i n g as such governs t h e a b s o l u t e o u t l e t v e l o c i t y ( i d e n t i c a l t o t h e

i n l e t v e l o c i t y of t h e s t a t o r ) , which may be subsonic o r s u p e r s o n i c . Apart from t h e above
s a i d two l i m i t i n g c a s e s , a v a r i e t y o f c o n f i g u r a t i o n s having d i f f e r e n t t u r n i n g s and s t a -
t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e s a r e p o s s i b l e and many o f them have a l s o been t e s t e d . Three d i f f e r e n t
t y p e s o f s u p e r s o n i c cascade can be thought o f f , t a k i n g i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e r e l a t i v e
components o f t h e flow.

a) Impulse t y p e cascade.
A cascade o f t h i s t y p e i s shown i n f i g . 3 . l a . To e s t a b l i s h t h e flow o f a n impulse t y p e
r o t o r , a cascade w i t h h i g h t u r n l n g and low p r e s s u r e r i s e i s r e q u i r e d . The same geo-
metry h o l d s good f o r an a c c e l e r a t i n g and d e c e l e r a t i n g machine. Hence t h e knowledge
a v a i l a b l e i n t h e f i e l d o f t u r b i n e b l a d i n g becomes a l s o u s e f u l f o r t h e d e s i g n o f
s u p e r s o n i c compressors. For t h e same i n l e t and o u t l e t c o n d i t i o n s c a l l e d f o r , t h e r e
are d i f f e r e n t ways o f g e t t i n g t h e p r o f i l e shape. SHAPIRO (3.1) h a s given a method
and such a p r o f i l e i s shown i n fig.3.2. The method c o n s i s t s i n i s e n t r o p i c a l l y ( s i m p l e
wave) d e c e l e r a t i n g t h e flow i n t h e i n l e t p o r t i o n o f t h e b l a d e s up t o a p a r a l l e l flow
a t t h e t h r o a t , and f u r t h e r a c c e l e r a t i n g i t w i t h i n t h e passage t o t h e flow Mach number
8-6

a t e x i t . Thus a d e f l e c t i o n . i n t h e flow i s o b t a i n e d .

A second p r o f i l e a f t e r STRATFORD (3.2) c o n s i s t s o f two c o n c e n t r i c c i r c l e s t o form

t h e b l a d e passage. Fig.3.3 shows a n approximate p r o f i l e o f t h i s t y p e , t o g e t h e r w i t h
some C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t h e o r e t i c a l l y c a l c u l a t e d z i g zag-pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n .

BOXER'(3.3) and OSWATITSCH (3.4) have developed a t h i r d method, which has been made
use o f by STRATFORD (3.21, COLCLOUGH (3.5) and GOLDMAN (3.6, 3.7). The p a r a l l e l
upstream flow i s transformed i n t o a p o t e n t i a l v o r t e x flow and f u r t h e r changed o v e r
t o a p a r a l l e l flow a t e x i t . To i l l u s t r a t e t h e method an example i s p r e s e n t e d i n
, f i g . 3 . 4 , t o g e t h e r w i t h a S c h l i e r e n p i c t u r e o b t a i n e d from NACA (unpublished work)
i n fig.3.5.

Another method proposed ( L I C C I N I (3.8, 3.91, OSWATITSCH (3.10)) f o r t h e development

of s u p e r s o n i c b l a d e p r o f i l e s c o n s i s t s i n d e f i n i n g one p o r t i o n o f t h e p r o f i l e and
f u r t h e r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e flow f i e l d by t h e method o f C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . A s t r e a m - l i n e
i t s e l f i s s e l e c t e d t o form t h e o t h e r h a l f of t h e p r o f i l e .

Although i t i s p o s s i b l e t o p r e s c r i b e t h e complete cascade i t s e l f , t h e b a s i c and

i n h e r e n t compression waves and nonuniformlty o f downstream flow poses s e v e r e l i m i -
t a t i o n s . I n e f f e c t , a l l t h e methods so f a r d e s c r i b e d n e c e s s i t a t e a l o c a l a c c e l e r a t i o n
and d e c e l e r a t i o n of t h e flow. Sometimes improper d e c e l e r a t i o n o f t h e flow may lead
t o s e p a r a t i o n of t h e boundary l a y e r . And t h e r e f o r e extreme c a r e i s n e c e s s a r y w h i l e
c o n s t r u c t i n g t h e p r o f i l e s , so a s t o e n s u r e minimum p r e s s u r e r i s e on t h e b l a d e s u r -
face.

The p o s s i b i l i t y o f boundary l a y e r s e p a r a t i o n and t h e a s s o c i a t e d d i f f i c u l t i e s makes

t h e p r o f i l e w i t h z i g zag p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n r a t h e r unfavourable. Also f o r pro-
f i l e s designed by o t h e r d e s i g n methods, a c a r e f u l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e boundary l a y e r
behaviour i s a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y . A c o n s i d e r a b l e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e p r e s s u r e gra-
d i e n t s i s found p o s s i b l e w i t h b l a d e s of h i g h s o l i d i t y .

I n t h e f i r s t method d i s c u s s e d , t h e r e i s a l i m i t a t i o n on t h e flow t u r n i n g depending

upon t h e upstream Mach number, s i n c e t h e minimum p o s s i b l e v e l o c i t y a t t h e t h r o a t
i s s o n i c . The maximum t u r n i n g g m a x has t h e form:

To s a t i s f y t h e s t a r t i n g c o n d i t i o n s , a s a l r e a d y d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r 2.3 (fig.2.22),
i t becomes n e c e s s a r y t o magnify t h e t h r o a t v e l o c i t y , e x c e p t i n t h e c a s e where a
v a r i a b l e geometry o f t h e b l a d e s i s provided. T h i s i n t u r n r e d u c e s t h e flow d e f l e c t i o n .

For v o r t e x flow c a s c a d e s t h e r e e x i s t s no l i m i t a t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o t u r n i n g a n g l e
b e a r i n g i n mind t h e p o s s i b l e s t a r t i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s .

b) Supersonic cascade w i t h low flow t u r n i n g .

To have a cascade o f t h i s t y p e i n o p e r a t i o n ( f i g . 3 . l b ) , a b l a d e row c a p a b l e o f
producing h i g h s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i n s p i t e of low t u r n i n g would be n e c e s s a r y . Two pos-
s i b l e methods o f r e a l i z i n g t h i s are:

a ) Compression due t o a shock f r o n t . The main p a r t i n p r e s s u r e r i s e i s accomplished

i n a normal shock i n t h e b l a d e passage.
b ) Combining t h e d e s i g n methods o f o b t a i n i n g s u b s o n i c and s u p e r s o n i c flows. Super-
s o n i c d e c e l e r a t i o n i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a r e d u c t i o n i n flow a r e a , t h a t means a de-
 8- 7

f l e c t i o n i n cascade flow, whereas d e c e l e r a t i o n i n subsonic flow c o n s i s t s o f an i n -

c r e a s e i n area and a flow d e f l e c t i o n o f o p p o s i t e s i g n , Combining t h e s e two p r i n c i -
p a l s i t i s p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n a b l a d e passage wherein t h e d e s i r e d d e c e l e r e d flow
could be g e n e r a t e d without a p p r e c i a b l e t u r n i n g .

T i l l now f o r shock compression, double c i r c u l a r a r c b l a d e s ( D C A ) a r e e s s e n t i a l l y made use

o f . A s shown i n f i g . 3 . 6 , both t h e s u c t i o n and t h e p r e s s u r e s u r f a c e s a r e made o u t o f c i r c u -
l a r a r c s . I n such a p r o f i l e t h e flow g e t s a c c e l e r a t e d a t t h e e n t r a n c e r e g i o n u n t i l a nor-
mal shock o c c u r s a t t h e e n t r a n c e o f t h e passage, and t h e r e a f t e r t h e flow g e t s d e c e l e r a t e d
t o subsonic v e l o c i t i e s . F u r t h e r downstream o f t h e passage t h e flow g e t s f u r t h e r d e c e l e -
rated depending on t h e c o n t o u r of t h e passage. The main d i s a d v e n t a g e o f shock compression
l i e s i n t h e a s s o c i a t e d r i s e i n entropy a c r o s s t h e shock, which i n c r e a s e s c o n s i d e r a b l y a t
h i g h e r Mach numbers. T h i s d i s a d v a n t a g e l e d t o t h e concept o f m u l t i p l e c i r c u l a r - a r c b l a d e s
(MCA), as shown i n f i g . 3 . 7 , where t h e s u c t i o n s u r f a c e i s made o u t o f two o r more c i r c u l a r
a r c s o f d i f f e r e n t c u r v a t u r e . T h i s p r o f i l e e n s u r e s reduced a c c e l e r a t i o n and shock l o s s e s
o f t h e flow i n t h e e n t r a n c e r e g i o n because, t h e upstream s u c t i o n s u r f a c e a r c is o f lower
camber ( s e e c h a p t e r 5 ) . T h i s concept was f i r s t proposed by SEYLER and SMITH (3.11). Compa-
r i s o n o f r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from r o t o r t e s t s w i t h MCA and DCA b l a d e s (GOSTELOW e t a1.(3.12))
i n d i c a t e s t h a t d e f i n i t e advantage by way o f e f f i c i e n c y and c o n t r o l behaviour e x i s t s when
m u l t i p l e - c i r c u l a r - a r c p r o f i l e s a r e used. A r e d u c t i o n i n t h e c u r v a t u r e o f t h e s u c t i o n s u r -
f a c e a t t h e e n t r a n c e r e g i o n up t o z e r o , l e a d s t o a new t y p e o f p r o f i l e c a l l e d t h e c i r c u -
lar-wedge p r o f i l e (CWl,fig.3.8).

T h i s t y p e o f p r o f i l e was f i r s t i n v e s t i g a t e d by EMERY (3.13). A cascade o f t h i s t y p e i s cha-

r a c t e r i z e d by constancy o f Mach number upstream and i n f r o n t o f t h e normal shock. T e s t
r e s u l t s showing a r e d u c t i o n i n t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s e s o f t h e s e p r o f i l e s a r e p u b l i s h e d i n
(3.14) and (3.15).

Improvements i n t h e performance r e a l i z e d by MCA and C W 1 p r o f i l e s w i l l no l o n g e r be t h e r e

when t h e flow Mach number M- becpmes l a r g e . A t about M- = 1 , 6 t h e r i s e i n e n t r o p y w i l l be
h i g h enough t o reduce t h e e f f i c i e n c y c o n s i d e r a b l y . It may be p o s s i b l e t o o b t a i n t h e d e s i -
r e d compression w i t h lower l o s s e s by d e c e l e r a t i n g t h e s u p e r s o n i c flow i n s e v e r a l o b l i q u e
shocks i n s t e a d i n one s t r o n g normal shock. T h e o r e t i c a l l y t h e shock l o s s e s could be a l -
t o g e t h e r avoided by u s i n g i s e n t r o p i c compression. T h i s was f i r s t proposed by OSWATITSCH
(3.16) f o r i n l e t s , and it has been s u c c e s f u l l y a p p l i e d i n p r a c t i c e . However t h e r e s u l t s
o b t a i n e d i n c a s c a d e s up t o now are n o t very encouraging.

I s e n t r o p i c compression can f u r t h e r be subdivided i n t o a ) i n n e r compression and b ) o u t e r

compression, depending on whether t h e i s e n t r o p i c compression takes p l a c e s w i t h i n t h e
passage o r i n t h e e n t r a n c e r e g i o n . I n a cascade b o t h t h e t y p e s o f compression o r combi-
n a t i o n o f t h e two a r e p o s s i b l e , i f t h e s t a r t i n g c o n d i t i o n i s t a k e n i n t o account.

E x t e r n a l compression c a s c a d e s , which have been e s s e n t i a l l y t e s t e d i n r o t o r s , were d e s i g -

ned by GRAHAM (3.17), CREAOH (3.181, JAHNSEN (3.19), and FRUHAUF (3.20). S c h l i e r e n p i c -
t u r e s o f such a l a t t i c e (3.20) a r e shown i n fig.3.9. The p r i n c i p a l flow c o n d i t i o n a t
maximum back p r e s s u r e i s shown i n fig.3.10, a l t h o u g h it was n o t p o s s i b l e t o e s t a b l i s h a
s t a b l e flow under t h i s c o n d i t i o n .

The i n s t a b i l i t y may perhaps be due t o t h e normal shock behind t h e passage t h r o a t . It can

be avoided by r e d u c i n g t h e back p r e s s u r e , which r e s u l t s i n a downstream movement o f t h e
passage shock.

The concept o f i n t e r n a l compression was employed by KANTROWITZ ( 1 . 4 1 , ( f i g . 3 . 1 1 ) , BEDER

( 9.211, (fig.3.121, LOW (3.221, f i g . ( 3 . 1 3 ) , and FEJER (3.231, (fig.3.14). The h i g h ex-
p e c t a t i o n s of a l l t h e s e c a s c a d e s remain y e t t o be f u l f i l l e d and i s seen a l s o from a
8-8

s t a t i s t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n c a r r i e d o u t by CONRAD (3.24).

The d i s c r e p a n c y may perhaps be due t o shock-boundary l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n and l a c k of

e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e d flow c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e r o t o r t e s t s . A comprehensive and
s y s t e m a t i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f two dimensional c a s c a d e s w i t h t h e s e p r o f i l e s is n o t t o be
found a t a l l .

c) High-turning s u p e r s o n i c compression cascade.

S t a t o r s t o be used a f t e r a n impulse t y p e r o t o r demand a p r o f i l e shape c a p a b l e o f en-
s u r i n g h i g h s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e and flow t u r n l n g , i n o r d e r t o reduce t h e flow moment
I o f momentum a f t e r t h e r o t o r .

The blade c o n t o u r s can be c l a s s i f i e d under t h r e e headings depending on whether t h e

flow is first d e c e l e r a t e d through a shock and t h e n d e f l e c t e d s u b s o n i c , o r t h e flow
is first d e f l e c t e d a t s u p e r s o n i c speed and t h e n d e c e l e r a t e d , or t h e flow i s compres-
sed and d e f l e c t e d a t s u p e r s o n i c as well a s subsonic v e l o c i t i e s .

Fig.3.15 shows a blade s e c t i o h o f t h e f i r s t t y p e (WILCOX (3.25)). A similar p r o f i l e

shape has been used by HARTMANN (3.26).

Fig.3.16a shows b l a d e s o f t h e second t y p e a f t e r SCHMALFUA (3.27). The d i v i s i o n of

compression and t u r n i n g i n t h e second t y p e o f blades is c l e a r l y shown I n t h e tandem
arrangement of r e f . ( 3 . 2 7 ) , (fig.3.16b). Figs. 3.17 and 3.18 show t h e p r o f i l e s f o r
simultanous d e f l e c t i o n and d e c e l e r a t i o n , and were proposed by KLAPPROTH (3.28) and
SHAPIRO (3.1).

E v i d e n t l y , i f s t a r t i n g is p o s s i b l e , a l l t h e s e p r o f i l e forms could be made use o f f o r

t h e b l a d i n g o f compressor r o t o r s , a l t h o u g h t h e y a r e proposed a s s t a t o r b l a d i n g s . The
p o s s i b i l i t y o f u s i n g t h e SHAPIRO p r o f i l e w i t h simultanous d e f l e c t i o n and d e c e l e r a -
t i o n g e t s r u l e d o u t f o r l a c k o f experimental data. The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f experimen-
t a l r e s u l t s of t h o s e s t a t o r blades, t e s t e d behind impulse t y p e r o t o r s I s very d i f f i -
c u l t because it is n o t e x a c t l y known, i f t h e d e s i g n i n l e t flow c o n d i t i o n s have been
reached.

The tandem t y p e cascade (3.271, when t e s t e d i n a cascade wind t u n n e l , o p e r a t e s b e s t

i f t h e normal shock i s e s t a b l i s h e d a t t h e e n t r a n c e o f t h e cascade. Under these con-
d i t i o n s t h e t u r n i n g and most o f t h e p r e s s u r e r i s e w i l l be produced a t subsonic speed
and n o t a t t h e d e s i g n c o n d i t i o n . f

A new concept o f s u p e r s o n i c cornpression was developped by JOHNSON (3.29), where he

c o n s i d e r e d a b l a d e passage of n e a r l y c o n s t a n t c r o s s s e c t i o n (fig.3.19) g i v i n g r i s e
t o p r e s s u r e i n c r e a s e and t u r n i n g i n t h e channel, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f
pseudo shocks. The S c h l i e r e n p i c t u r e i n fig.3.20 I l l u s t r a t e s t h i s p r i n c i p l e . It was
expected from d u c t flow I n v e s t i g a t i o n s (2.1) t h a t t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e and t o t a l
p r e s s u r e loss c o e f f i c i e n t would be o f t h e same o r d e r o f magnitude a s t h a t o f a normal
shock.

Exhaustive experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have been c a r r i e d o u t on such b l u n t t r a i l i n g

edge c a s c a d e s (BTE) and compressor s t a g e s a t t h e V K I by C H A W I N and BREUGELMANS
(3.30, 3.31, 3.32, 3.33). Plane cascade measurements have been done by HEILMANN and
WEYER (3.34) and on b l u n t t r a i l i n g edge r o t o r s by WENNERSTRUM (3.35)and CARMAN (3.36).
The v a l u e o f t h e minimum measured t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s e s is g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t a c r o s s
a normal shock, and t h i s may perhaps b e due t o f i n i t e t h i c k n e s s o f t h e t r a i l i n g edge.
T h i s l e d t o a m o d i f i c a t i o n a t t h e r e a r p o r t i o n o f b l u n t t r a i l i n g edge blades a t V K I .
 8-9

Major d i f f i c u l t i e s o f a l l s u p e r s o n i c flow i n v e s t i g a t i o n s having p r e s s u r e r i s e are due

t o t h e complex behaviour of boundary l a y e r , p a r t i c u l a r y a t t h e p o i n t s o f i n t e r s e e t i o n
o f normal o r o b l i q u e shock? w i t h t h e w a l l boundary l a y e r . S t r o n g s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e
i n t h e s e compression shocks l e a d t o a t l e a s t l o c a l flow s e p a r a t i o n s . T h i s problem i s
being a t t e m p t e d a t d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s t o determine a s u i t a b l e s o l u t i o n . I n view o f t h e
e x i s t i n g s t a t e o f a r t , only a simple s e p a r a t i o n c r i t e r t a i s p r e s e n t e d here. When i n -
t e r a c t i o n between a normal shock wave and t u r b u l e n t boundary l a y e r takes p l a c e , sepa-
r a t i o n g e n e r a l l y o c c u r s i f t h e Mach number a t t h e w a l l i n f r o n t o f t h e shock wave
exceeds a v a l u e of M = 1.3 (a3.37, 3.38). If s e p a r a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e , t h e s t a t i c p r e s -
s u r e r i s e w i l l have a v a l u e l e s s t h a n t h a t o f a normal shock wave. A t h e o r e t i c a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p i s shown i n f i g . 3 . 2 1 ( 2 . 1 ) .

4 . RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN INLET FLOW ANGLE AND INLET MACH NUMBER

4 . 1 S t r a i g h t F l a t - P l a t e Cascade

Two p o s s i b l e c a s e s , which have e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , are met w i t h depending

whether t h e a x i a l component o f t h e i n l e t v e l o c i t y i s g r e a t e r o r l e s s t h a n t h e s o n i c ve-
l o c i t y . That is:

a) Max = M, s i n 8, 2 1 ( s u p e r s o n i c a x i a l v e l o c i t y ) and
b) Max = Mm s i n 8, < 1 (subsonic a x i a l v e l o c i t y ) .

I n t h e first c a s e , t h e r e w i l l be no i n f l u e n c e o f t h e flow upstream o f t h e cascade by t h e

very e x i s t e n c e of t h e cascade i t s e l f . T h i s i s shown i n f i g s . 4 . 1 and 4.2 f o r a f l a t - p l a t e
cascade.

Fig.4.1 shows t h a t i n t h e c a s e where t h e i n l e t flow d i r e c t i o n p o s e s s e s an i n c i d e n c e which

i s n e g a t i v e w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e b l a d e , t h a n an o b l i q u e shock a t t h e l e a d i n g edge on t h e
s u c t i o n s u r f a c e a p p e a r s . The p o s i t i o n o f t h e shock i s completely w i t h i n t h e blade passage.
I n t h e second p i c t u r e , t h e i n l e t flow a n g l e i s i n c r e a s e d and i n t h i s c a s e a c e n t e r e d
Prandtl-Meyer expansion o c c u r s w e l l w i t h i n t h e blade passage i n s t e a d o f t h e o b l i q u e shock
wave.

Both t h e c a s e s e x p l a i n t h a t t h e i n l e t flow d i r e c t i o n i s Independent o f t h e I n l e t ' M a c h

number, as l o n g as t h e d i s t u r b a n c e s caused by t h e l e a d i n g edges and t h e s u c t i o n s u r f a c e s
a r e enveloped by t h e b l a d e passages. T h e r e f o r e t h e flow i n f r o n t o f t h e f o l l o w i n g b l a d e s
i s not affected.

I n c a s e where t h e a x i a l component of t h e i n l e t v e l o c i t y i s rendered subsonic (Max,< 1) due

t o a d e c r e a s e i n i n l e t Mach number, t h a n t h e r e e x i s t s an i n f l u e n c e o f t h e cascade i n t o
t h e flow upstream.

T h i s flow can very well be e x p l a i n e d by t a k i n g a s e m i - i n f i n i t e f l a t - p l a t e cascade

(WEISE (l.l), KANTROWITZ ( 1 . 4 ) ) . Fig.4.3 shows such a s e m i - i n f i n i t e cascade, wherein t h e
c o n s t a n t flow upstream o f t h e f i r s t b l a d e i s such a s t o g i v e a c e n t e r e d Prandtl-Meyer
expansion a t t h e l e a d i n g edge o f t h e first, b l a d e and i n f r o n t o f t h e cascade. I n t u r n ,
because o f t h i s expansion, t h e flow g e t s r o t a t e d so t h a t it i s p a r a l l e l t o a l l t h e o t h e r
b l a d e s . I n view o f t h i s f a c t t h e r e o c c u r no f u r t h e r shocks o r expansions i n f r o n t o f t h e
f o l l o w i n g blades. Also when t h e i n c i d e n c e of t h e first b l a d e i s n e g a t i v e (fig.4.41, t h e r e
w i l l be an o b l i q u e shock a t t h e l e a d i n g edge o f t h e f i r s t b l a d e followed by t r u e p a r a l l e l
flow f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e b l a d e s . The d i r e c t i o n remains t h e same f o r t h e shock f r e e por-
t i o n j u s t i n f r o n t o f t h e cascade, f o r b o t h p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e i n c i d e n c e s of t h e semi-
8-10

i n f i n i t e cascade.

I n t h e c a s e o f an i n f i n i t e f l a t - p l a t e cascade t h e r e e x i s t s no " F i r s t Blade", and there-

f o r e oneznd o n l y one i n l e t flow d i r e c t i o n i s p o s s i b l e and i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f
t h e f l a t p l a t e s . T h i s flow d i r e c t i o n i s sometimes r e f e r r e d t o a s "Unique Incidence"
(CHAUVIN ( 1 . 1 2 ) ) .

A p l o t o f t h e i n l e t flow a n g l e 6, v e r s u s t h e i n l e t Mach number o f an i n f i n i t e f l a t - p l a t e

cascade e x h i b i t s a f l a t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s p a r a l l e l t o t h e M,-axis. T h i s i s shown i n f i g .
4.5 t o t h e l e f t o f t h e p o i n t o f branching, and i n t h i s r e g i o n t h e a x i a l v e l o c i t y i s sub-
s o n i c . A t t h e p o i n t o f branching, t h e a x i a l v e l o c i t y i s j u s t s o n i c . Beyond t h i s p o i n t t h e
curve t a k e s two l i m i t i n g p o s i t i o n s . The r e g i o n bounded by t h e s e two c u r v e s determines
t h e p o s s i b l e i n l e t flow d i r e c t i o n f o r a given upstream Mach number. The t o p curve c o r r e s -
ponds t o an a x i a l v e l o c i t y which i s j u s t s o n i c , t h a t i s M, sin6, = 1. A flow f i e l d w i t h
t h i s c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s shown i n fig.4.6. I n t h i s f i g u r e a s e m i - i n f i n i t e cascade w i t h super-
s o n i c i n l e t Mach number MO i n f r o n t o f t h e f i r s t b l a d e i s shown. The a x i a l component o f
MO i s subsonic. T h i s g e t s a c c e l e r a t e d a t t h e l e a d i n g edge o f t h e first b l a d e i n such a way
t h a t t h e a x i a l component o f t h e i n l e t v e l o c i t y f o r t h e r e s t o f t h e cascade i s j u s t s o n i c .

The bottom curve o f f i g . 4 . 5 shows an a x i a l i n l e t v e l o c i t y which i s s u p e r s o n i c . The o b l i q u e

shock wave a t t h e l e a d i n g edge o f each o f t h e b l a d e s h i t one a n o t h e r , and t h i s g i v e s r i s e
t o a c o n t i n i o u s o b l i q u e shock wave j u s t i n f r o n t o f t h e cascade ( f i g . 4 . 7 ) .

A n a l y t i c a l l y , t h e bottom curve i s determined by t h e r e l a t i o n :

T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p h a s a minimum v a l u e a t :
t 1

(4.2)

To summerize f o r a cascade o f f l a t p l a t e s , t h e r e g i o n t o t h e l e f t o f t h e p o i n t o f bran-

c h i n g ( f i g . 4 . 5 ) d e t e r m i n e s o n l y one i n l e t flow a n g l e 6, p o s s i b l e f o r d i f f e r e n t i n l e t
Mach numbers. To t h e r i g h t o f t h e p o i n t o f branching, w i t h i n t h e upper and lower bounda-
r i e s d e f i n e d by t h e t o p and t h e bottom c u r v e s , a v a r i e t y o f M, - 6, combinations become
p o s s i b l e . Flow a n g l e s 6, i n e x c e s s o f 6, a t t h e p o i n t o f branching g i v e r i s e t o a flow
f i e l d a s shown a l r e a d y i n fig.4.2. For a l l a n g l e s l e s s t h a n B, a t t h e p o i n t o f branching,
t h e flow f i e l d i s a s shown i n fig.4.1.

The e l e g a n t way of Hodograph r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h i s gasdynamic problems o f f i g . 4 . 5 i s

p r e s e n t e d i n fig.4.8.

T h i s a n a l y s i s i s v a l i d n o t o n l y f o r t h i n f l a t p l a t e c a s c a d e s , but a l s o f o r c a s c a d e s w i t h
f i n i t e t h i c k n e s s having a s t r a i g h t s u c t i o n s u r f a c e a t t h e e n t r a n c e r e g i o n and very s h a r p
l e a d i n g edges. Near s o n i c i n l e t Mach numbers, some d i s c r e p a n c i e s may o c c u r f o r r e a l b l a -
d e s due t o choking.

4.2 Cascade o f Blades w i t h Curvature

Constancy o f i n l e t flow a n g l e , which i s v a l i d f o r a f l a t - p l a t e cascade a t M, sin6,.< 1,

no l o n g e r h o l d s good when blade c u r v a t u r e s a r e involved. I n t h i s c a s e t h e i n l e t flow a n g l e
6, changes w i t h d i f f e r e n t i n l e t Mach numbers M,. F u r t h e r , t h e r e e x i s t s a d e f i n i t e func-
t i o n a l interdependency between M, and 8,. This means t h a t t h e o r e t i c a l l y , f o r every i n l e t
Mach number M, t h e r e w i l l be one p a r t i c u l a r v a l u e o f t h e i n l e t flow a n g l e 6, (KANTROWITZ
(1.4 1 and FERRI i n (1.3 1).
 8-11

The curvature of the'forward portion of the suction surface introduces flow disturbances
in front of the cascade. Fig.4.9 shows the flow field of such a cascade. This profile has
a pointed leading edge and a convex suction surface. This semi-infinite cascade has an in-
let flow direction upstream of the first blade, which is chosen tangential to the blade
leading edge. Assuming simple wave flow at the entrance region, the flow is accelerated
to a higher Mach number due to the curvature of the convex surface, and hence the incli-
[Link] the Characteristics also gets reduced.

The flow direction along the characteristic EL', which passes through the leading edge of
the following blade, runs parallel to the profile at the point E. Because the flow direc-
tion at E is something other than the direction of the profile contour at L', an oblique
shock wave appears at L'.

The flow along L-I-E and L1-I1-E1(fig.4.9) is identical as long as the change of entropy
is neglected. The logical conclusion of this is that the flow in the corresponding entrance
region L-I-E of all the following blades is also the same. Because a special flow direc-
tion Bo has been chosen for the first blade of this semi-infinite cascade, the flow field
ahead of this only one blade differs from the rest of the blades; however, the pressure
distribution on the suction surface of the entrance region remains still identical.

Looking at the flow field in the region L1-I1-E1,it is seen that:

a) The Characteristics which are generated between L 1 and I' meet the first bow wave
emitted at the leading edge L'
and
b) Characteristics which are generated between 1' and El go and meet the bow wave of the
leading edge L1' of the following blade. The bow waves at L', L" ... are Identical
in all respects with a periodicity of one pitch length, and therefore the Characteris-
tics at I', 1" ...
are the limiting Characteristics of the bow waves at infinity
upstream and are referred to as "Neutral Characteristics". It may also be'mentioned
that the flow is rendered periodic, because the interaction of the compression and
the expansion waves of each of the blades nullify oneanother.
$

The Neutral Characteristic wholly represents the inlet flow conditions of the infinite
cascade because, at infinity upstream the bow wave changes into a Characteristic which
is parallel to the neutral one, and so we have:

and

The obvious conclusions are:

For the calculation of 6, and M- of such a cascade, the Method of Characteristics is a

helpful tool. The inherent drawback of this method is the cumbersomeness in drawing all
the Characteristics up to infinity.

LEVINE (4.1, 4.2) suggests an analytical solution. The method consists in the determina-
tion of mass flow through the Characteristic EL (fig.4.10) for an arbitraryly chosen
Mach number at L, which defines the position of the point E by the Mach angle uE. The
8-12

mass flow p a s s i n g through one p i t c h of t h e cascade a t i n f i n i t y upstream must be t h e same

a s a t EL. The two unknown q u a n t i t i e s 8, and MOo are found by u s i n g t h e above s a i d c o n t i -
n u i t y r e l a t i o n and t h e Prandtl-Meyer e q u a t i o n a s f o l l o w s :

(4.3) t p, w, s i n 8, = e pE wE s i n YE

and
(4.4 1

T h i s method g i v e s no c l u e whatsoever about t h e flow f i e l d i n f r o n t o f t h e cascade. T h i s

would n e c e s s i t a t e t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n , when t h e flow f i e l d i s d e s i r e d .
YAMAGUCHI ( 4 . 3 ) has given a method by which t h e form of t h e bow wave could be determined.

For a s p e c i a l p r o f i l e shape, having t h e s u c t i o n s u r f a c e w i t h a kink made o u t o f two

s t r a i g h t l i n e s a t t h e e n t r a n c e r e g i o n , a method has been given by SCHWAAR ( 4 . 4 ) ' and
STRATFORD ( 4.5 1,

I n flg.4.11 a s e c t i o n of a n i n f i n i t e cascade w i t h a convex s u c t i o n s u r f a c e i s shown.

LICHTFUB (4.7) has c a l c u l a t e d t h i s flow f i e l d u s i n g t h e a n a l y t i c a l method o f Characte-
. r i s t i c s a f t e r OSWATITSCH (4.6). I n a d d i t i o n , t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n 8, = f ( M , ) a f t e r
LEVINE, has a l s o been p r e s e n t e d i n t h e same diagram.

The curve which l i m i t ' s t h e r e g i o n of a x i a l s u p e r s o n i c i n f l o w c o n d i t i o n below t h e bran-

c h i n g p o i n t has been c a l c u l a t e d f o r a f l a t p l a t e cascade i n t h e l a s t c h a p t e r u s i n g the'
e x a c t shock r e l a t i o n s (see f i g . 4 . 5 ) . I n t h e c a s e of a blade s e c t i o n w i t h curved s u c t i o n
s u r f a c e , t h i s boundary can be d e r i v e d under t h e assumptions of i s e n t r o p i c flow. It r e - 1

s u l t s as t h e second s o l u t i o n o f t h e above d e s c r i b e d method o f c a l c u l a t i n g t h e i n f l o w con-

d i t i o n s o f a s u p e r s o n i c cascade a t subsonic a x i a l i n l e t v e l o c i t y , w i t h t h e a i d o f c o n t i -
n u i t y and Prandtl-Meyer r e l a t i o n s .

The flow i n f r o n t of t h e cascade i s everywhere c o n s t a n t w i t h a s u p e r s o n i c a x i a l compo-

n e n t , and t h e curved o b l i q u e shock waves j u s t meet t h e l e a d i n g edges of t h e f o l l o w i n g
blades.

T h i s s p e c i a l flow c o n f i g u r a t i o n l e a d s t o c o n s i d e r a b l e changes i n flow d i r e c t i o n a t t h e

cascade f r o n t , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n c r e a s i n g e n t r o p y and t h e r e f o r e t h e assumption o f i s e n -
t r o p i c flow i s only v a l i d i n a s m a l l range o f i n l e t flow a n g l e s .

If t h e s u c t i o n s u r f a c e h a s a c o n c a v e l c u r v a t u r e i n s t e a d o f convex one, t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
flow f i e l d g e t s changed and f o r a s e m i - i n f i n i t e cascade it i s shown i n fig.4.12. It i s
seen from t h i s f i g u r e , t h e flow d i r e c t i o n i n f r o n t o f t h e f i r s t b l a d e i s such t h a t t h e r e
o c c u r s a c e n t e r e d Prandtl-Meyer expansion a t t h e p r o f i l e l e a d i n g edge L. Downstream, t h e
flow e x p e r i e n c e s a compression r e s u l t i n g i n an i n c r e a s e i n t h e i n c l i n a t i o n of t h e , Cha-
r a c t e r i s t i c s . Again f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g blade t h e r e o c c u r s t h e c e n t e r e d Prandtl-Meyer ex-
pansion a t L' s i m i l a r t o t h e p r e v i o u s one, and from L' t o E ' t h e flow f i e l d r e p e a t s it-
s e l f as from L t o E.

I n t h e p r o c e s s o f t h i s i s e n t r o p i c compression, t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s g e t s b e n t a l s o con-
t i n u o u s l y r e s u l t i n g i n an o v e r l a p of t h e d i f f e r e n t C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . An o b l i q u e shock
wave s t a r t s a t t h e cusp of t h e envelop o f C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and i s away from t h e b l a d e
s u r f a c e (fig.4.12). T h i s shock wave i n an i n f i n i t e cascade i s a g a i n p a r a l l e l t o t h e neu-
t r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c a t i n f i n i t y . The p o s i t i o n o f t h i s n e u t r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s a t t h e
l e a d i n g edges o f t h e b l a d e s , which means t h a t I c o i n c i d e s w i t h L.
' I
For t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e flow p a r a m e t e r s M- and B,, t h e methods a l r e a d y e x p l a i n e d f o r
1
 8- 13

t h e convex s u c t i o n s u r f a c e p r o f i l e s remain v a l i d . Fig.4.13 shows t h e flow f i e l d f o r a t y -

I
p i c a 1 i n f i n i t e cascade, c a l c u l a t i n g procedure being based on r e f . (4.7). I n t h e same f i g u -
r e a l s o i n c l u d e d a r e t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n 6- = f ( M - 1 a f t e r LEVINE and t h e l i m i t i n g curve
f o r a x i a l s u p e r s o n i c flow.

4.3 S e m i - I n f i n i t e Cascade

A two-dimensional cascade wind t u n n e l can only have f i n i t e dimensions. Hence, t h e flow

f i e l d i n such a t u n n e l can only be comparable t o t h a t o f a s e m i - i n f i n i t e cascade. The d i f -
f e r e n c e between an i n f i n i t e and s e m i - i n f i n i t e cascade i s t h e r e f o r e e x h a u s t i v e l y d i s -
cussed.

Figs.4.14a t o 4 . 1 4 ~ p r e s e n t s t h e flow f i e l d i n a s e m i - i n f i n i t e cascade, wherein i t i s seen

t h a t t h e flow parameters Mm and 6- of an i d e n t i c a l i n f i n i t e cascade a r e t h e same. The
d i f f e r e n c e between an i n f i n i t e cascade and a s e m i - i n f i n i t e cascade i s e s s e n t i a l l y due t o
t h e " F i r s t Blade". The p o s i t i o n o f t h e n e u t r a l p o i n t I, I * , I * * ...
and t h e o r i e n t a t i o n
o f t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c through it a r e t h e same.

The flow f i e l d ahead o f t h e f i r s t b l a d e , which r e f e r s t o t h e flow p r e v a i l i n g j u s t i n

f r o n t o f t h e t e s t s e c t i o n o f a cascade wind t u n n e l , d i f f e r s i n a l l t h e t h r e e c a s e s by way
o f flow d i r e c t i o n 6, and t h e Mach number MO. I n t h e first two f i g u r e s (4.14a and b ) t h e
n o z z l e e x i t a n g l e 6, i s g r e a t e r t h a n B,, and t h e n o z z l e e x i t Mach number MO is l e s s e r
t h a n Mm. One o f t h e p o s s i b l e c o n d i t i o n i s a shock-free expansion a t t h e l e a d i n g edge o f
t h e f i r s t b l a d e , which i s c h a r a c t e r i s e d by a c e n t e r e d Prandtl-Meyer expansion ( f i g . 4 . 1 4 a ) .
The o t h e r p o s s i b i l i t y , as shown i n fig.'[Link], i s t h e occurence o f a shock wave a t t h e
l e a d i n g edge o f t h e f i r s t b l a d e . The s t r e n g t h of t h i s shock i s something d i f f e r e n t from
t h a t o f t h e i d e n t i c a l i n f i n i t e cascade, and i t i s weaker t h a n t h a t of t h e f o l l o w i n g b l a -
des. A t i n f i n i t y upstream, t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e shock becomes z e r o f o r t h e i n f i n i t e cas-
cade, whereas f o r t h e first b l a d e t h e r e w i l l be s t i l l some r e s i d u a l shock s t r e n g t h a s
t h e flow has t o t u r n from MO a t N t o Mw a t I. The first shock wave a t i n f i n i t y and t h e
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c through N, which i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t of a s i n g l e i s o l a t e d b l a d e , a r e pa-
r a l l e l . The p o s i t i o n of t h e n e u t r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o r an i s o l a t e d b l a d e p r o f i l e (N) i s
d i s p l a c e d , and 1s. i n f r o n t o f t h a t o f t h e i n f i n i t e cascade ( I ) .

I n fig.4.14 c t h e flow ahead o f t h e f i r s t b l a d e (MO, Bo) i s such t h a t t h e shock i n f r o n t

o f i t i n t e r f e r e s w i t h t h e detached shocks o f t h e f o l l o w i n g b l a d e s . I n t h i s c a s e t h e neu-
t r a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e i s o l a t e d blade p r o f i l e l i e s downstream o f t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c
through I.

A method o t h e r t h a n t h a t used f o r fig.4.14 c o n s i s t s i n m a i n t a i n i n g a c o n s t a n t flow con-

d i t i o n ( M O ) a t t h e e x i t o f t h e wind t u n n e l n o z z l e . A l t e r i n g t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e cascade
(6,) f a c i l i t a t e s t h e achievement of t h e d e s i r e d Mach number M m i n f r o n t o f t h e i n f i n i t e
cascade.

4.4 Blade P r o f i l e s w i t h Blunt Leading Edaes

The c a s e s so f a r handled c o n s i d e r t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l and i d e a l flow p a s t b l a d e p r o f i l e s

w i t h a s h a r p l e a d i n g edge, which e n a b l e s us t o make t h e assumption t h a t t h e shock waves
are a t t a c h e d t o it. I n r e a l i t y , f i n i t e t h i c k n e s s of t h e l e a d i n g edges l e a d s t o a detach-
ment o f t h e shock waves. C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e i n l e t flow c o n d i t i o n (M-, 6-1 must account
f o r t h i s shock detachment. No e x a c t s o l u t i o n f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e detached shock
wave i n f r o n t o f t h e cascade p r o f i l e s seems t o have been published so f a r .

An approximate method f o r p r e d i c t i n g t h e shock i n f r o n t o f a b l u n t l e a d i n g edge i s o l a t e d

a i r f o i l has been given by MOECKEL ( 4 . 9 ) . With a f a i r l y good agreement, t h i s could a l s o be
 \

8- 14

a p p l i e d t o a cascade f o r d e t e r m i n i n g . t h e i n l e t flow Parameters M, and .,6 STARKEN (4.10)

and NQVLK ( 4 . 1 1 1 , around t h e same time, have e s t a b l i s h e d t h e use o f t h i s method f o r b l u n t
l e a d i n g edge cascades.

MOECKEL makes t h e f o l l o w i n g assumptions ( f i g . 4 . 1 5 ) :

a) The form of t h e detached bow wave f o l l o w s a h y p e r b o l l c r e l a t i o n .

b) The s o n i c l i n e i s l i n e a r .
c) The s t a g n a t i o n s t r e a m l i n e i s normal t o t h e detached shock and when extended, i t
p a s s e s through t h e c e n t e r of t h e l e a d i n g edge r a d i u s .

W i t h ' t h e above mentioned assumptions and t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e mass flow p a s s i n g through

t h e shock between C and S should be i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t c r o s s i n g t h e s o n i c l i n e S SP, -
t h e detachment d i s t a n c e of t h e detached shock wave from t h e c e n t e r of t h e l e a d i n g edge
could be e v a l u a t e d , T h i s i n t u r n a l s o e n a b l e s t o c a l c u l a t e approximately t h e rough form
o f t h e bow wave.

The flow upstream o f a b l a d e i n a cascade i s n o t c o n s t a n t , and s o it d i f f e r s from a

corresponding i s o l a t e d p r o f i l e . F u r t h e r , t h e flow i n f r o n t o f such a cascade has a n inhe-
r e n t p e r i o d i c i t y , which r e n d e r s independent v a r i a t i o n o f 13, -
M, n o t p o s s i b l e a t a x i a l
subsonic v e l o c i t i e s ( s e e c h a p t e r 4 . 2 ) . A s i t has been s a i d f o r t h e i n f i n i t e cascade w i t h
a t t a c h e d bow waves, here a l s o t h e mass flow c r o s s i n g t h e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c E-C must b e iden-
t i c a l t o t h a t a t i n f i n i t y upstream. F u r t h e r t h e Prandtl-Meyer r e l a t i o n h o l d s between E,
SP and upstream i n f i n i t y , i f t h e shock l o s s e s a r e n e g l e c t e d . With t h e s e two c o n d i t i o n s
i t becomes p o s s i b l e by i t e r a t i o n t o c a l c u l a t e t h e upstream flow and t h e detached bow wave
i n f r o n t of t h e cascade.

Fig.4.16 shows t h e p l o t o f such a c a l c u l a t i o n made f o r a d o u b l e - c i r c u l a r - a r c p r o f i l e , com-

pared w i t h e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s ( 4 . 1 0 ) . For s i m p l i f i c a t i o n t h e Mach number i s assumed t o
be c o n s t a n t between t h e p o i n t s C and S.

A s d i r e c t measurements of t h e flow a n g l e 6- i n f r o n t of t h e cascade i s n o t p o s s i b l e , t h e

t e s t p o i n t s ( f i g . 4 . 1 6 ) a r e d e r i v e d making use o f t h e Prandtl-Meyer r e l a t i o n :

(4.5)

I n t h e above e q u a t i o n 6 r e f e r s t o t h e c o n t o u r a n g l e a t a p o i n t P on t h e p r o f i l e ( f i g .
P
4.17). The Prandtl-Meyer a n g l e v i s worked o u t from t h e measurements of t h e s t a t i c p r e s -
P
s u r e a t P and t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e of t h e , i n l e t flow. The Mach number M, of t h e i n l e t flow
i s c a l c u l a t e d by a v e r a g i n g t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e i n f r o n t o f t h e cascade (fig.4.171, and
t h e v a l u e so o b t a i n e d i s i n good agreement w i t h t h e Mach number a t i n f i n i t y upstream
(4.10). From t h e v a l u e o f M, so c a l c u l a t e d , t h e Prandtl-Meyer a n g l e U, i s determined.

I n s p i t e o f t h e s i m p l i f y i n g assumptions, t h e agreement between t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and t h e

measured v a l u e s i s very good.

4.5 U n s t a r t e d Condition o f t h e Cascade

I n t h e c h a p t e r s 4 . 1 t o 4 . 4 t h e d i s c u s s i o n s were l i m i t e d t o t h e e x i s t a n c e o f d i f f e r e n t pas-
sage flow f i e l d s , which were never completely subsonic from t r a i l i n g edge t o l e a d i n g edge
a t supersonic i n l e t v e l o c i t i e s .

A s i m i l a r b l a d e passage w i t h r e g i o n s of d i f f e r e n t Mach numbers, s e p e r a t e d by a normal

shock, i s shown i n fig.4.18a. T h i s has i t s t h r o a t a t e n t r y of t h e b l a d e passage. The po-
s i t i o n o f t h e normal shock l s s o l e l y dependent on t h e e x t e n t of downstream t h r o t t l i n g ,
 8- 15

because t h e flow i n t h e t h r o t t l e d a r e a AT i s assumed t o be s o n i c . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g d i s -

c u s s i o n only t h e loss a c r o s s t h e normal passage shock i s accounted f o r . Hence, t h e t h r o t t -
l e d a r e a AT a l s o r e p r e s e n t s t h e c r i t i c a l a r e a behind t h e normal shock.

A d e c r e a s e i n AT c a u s e s t h e normal shock t o move n e a r e r t o t h e l e a d i n g edge. The i n l e t

flow f i e l d remains u n a l t e r e d till t h e normal shock i s J u s t a t t h e t h r o a t o f t h e passage,
and i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e it a l s o happens t o be a t t h e l e a d i n g edge o f t h e b l a d e pro-
f i l e (fig.4.18b). Any f u r t h e r t h r o t t l i n g c a u s e s t h e flow w i t h i n t h e blade passage t o be-
come completely subsonic.

F i g . 4 . 1 8 ~ shows such a completely subsonic flow passage and t h e f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s

could be made:

a) The bow wave d e t a c h e s i t s e l f from t h e l e a d i n g edge.

b) There i s a s h i f t i n t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e s t a g n a t i o n s t r e a m - l i n e , c a u s i n g a
r e d u c t i o n i n t h e i n l e t mass flow i n t o t h e blade passage
and
c ) A d e c r e a s e i n t h e i n l e t Mach number M- i s followed by an i n c r e a s e i n t h e i n l e t
flow a n g l e ,B

-
T h e o r e t i c a l c a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e i n l e t flow c o n d i t i o n (M, 6,) f o r t h i s c a s e must account
f o r t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s e s i n t h e normal p o r t i o n of t h e detached shock i n f r o n t o f t h e
b l a d e passage, and t h e mass flow as d i c t a t e d by t h e choking a t t h e t h r o t t l e d a r e a . D i P f e -
r e n t i n l e t flow a n g l e s 6, f o r a c o n s t a n t t h r o t t l e p o s i t i o n become p o s s i b l e f o r t h i s un-
s t a r t e d c a s e by an independent v a r i a t i o n of t h e t h r o t t l e p o s i t i o n . I n fig.4.19 t h e func-
t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p 6, = f(M,) f o r a d o u b l e - c i r c u l a r - a r c p r o f i l e i s shown. A t a x i a l sub-
s o n i c i n l e t v e l o c i t y t h e bottom l i m i t i n g curve corresponds t o t h e s t a r t e d c o n d i t i o n , which
h a s been c a l c u l a t e d w i t h t h e method d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r 4.4. Some l i n e s o f c o n s t a n t c r i -
t i c a l a r e a x * / t , which i n f r i c t i o n l e s s flow a r e e q u a l t o t h e c r o s s s e c t i o n ATLt o f t h e
downstream t h r o t t l e , a r e added i n t h i s f i g u r e . They correspond t o t h e u n s t a r t e d o p e r a t i o n
of t h e cascade. An i n c r e a s e i n t h e e x t e n t of t h r o t t l i n g , t h a t a l s o means a d e c r e a s e i n
t h e r a t i o A T / t , accomodates h i g h e r i n l e t flow a n g l e s 6,.
z
Experimental i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n a two-dimensional cascade t u n n e l , (fig.4.20) a s well a s i n
three-dimensional compressor r o t o r t e s t r i g s (fig.4.21), c l e a r l y r e f l e c t upon t h e e x i s -
t e n c e of a maximum i n l e t flow a n g l e a t t h e u n s t a r t e d c o n d i t i o n , which has n o t been so f a r
t h e o r e t i c a l l y w e l l explained,

Even when t h e t h r o a t l i e s w i t h i n t h e b l a d e passage, t h e above arguments hold v a l i d . A s

an example o f t h i s c a s e t h e cascade shown i n fig.4.19 has been modified. T h i s modifica-
t i o n c r e a t e s a t h r o a t w i t h i n t h e b l a d e passage. Although e s s e n t i a l l y t h e t h e o r e t i c a l cha-
r a c t e r i s t i c o f B, = f ( M , ) w i t h ( A T / t ) a s parameter remains t h e same, t h e r e i s a maximum
( A T / t ) - l i n e below which t h e t h r o t t l e has no e f f e c t t o change t h e i n l e t a n g l e (fig.4.22).
The shaded a r e a below t h i s maximum ( A T / t ) c h a r a c t e r i s t i c shows t h e r e g i o n where no opera-
t i o n is possible.

S i m i l a r t h e o r e t i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have been made by GRAHAM (3.17) and MILLER (4.13). I n

both t h e p a p e r s t h e emphasis i s placed'on shock l o s s e s . I n r e f . ( 3 . 1 7 ) a simple c a s e w i t h
s t r a i g h t s u c t i o n s u r f a c e a t t h e i n l e t has been a n a l y s e d , whereas i n r e f . ( 4 . 1 3 ) t h e i n t e r -
dependency of i n l e t Mach number and flow d i r e c t i o n has n o t a t a l l been t a k e n c a r e of.

5. SHOCK LOSSES I N SUPERSONIC CASCADES

What has been d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r 4 e n a b l e s t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f s u p e r s o n i c flow f i e l d and

8- 16

p o s i t i o n o f t h e normal and o b l i q u e shocks i n f r o n t of a cascade, under t h e assumption

t h a t t h e i n l e t flow i s i s e n t r o p i c . Using t h e w e l l known shock r e l a t i o n s , t h e t o t a l p r e s -
s u r e l o s s e s due t o shock waves can t h e r e f o r e be c a l c u l a t e d f o r s u p e r s o n i c c a s c a d e s having
d i f f e r e n t geometries.

The i n l e t r e g i o n o f an i n f i n i t e cascade, w i t h t h e a x i a l component o f t h e i n l e t v e l o c i t y

s u b s o n i c , i s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n f i n i t e number o f shock waves. E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e t o t a l shock
l o s s e s i n f r o n t o f a b l a d e passage, t h a t i s a l s o between two a d j a c e n t s t a g n a t i o n s t r e a m
l i n e s , c o n s i s t s i n t h e summing up o f a l l t h e shock l o s s e s a l o n g one shock wave up t o i n -
f i n i t y (5.1). Looking a t f i g u r e 5.1 i t i s seen t h a t t h e mesh o f shock waves and s t a g n a -
t i o n s t r e a m l i n e s resembles a m a t r i x w i t h i d e n t i c a l d i a g o n a l b i t s , and each s t a g n a t i o n
stream l i n e i n t e r s e c t s w i t h an i n f i n i t e number o f shock waves o f p r o g r e s s i v e l y d e c r e a s i n g
shock s t r e n g t h .

The p o s i t i o n o f t h e passage shock, a s a l r e a d y d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r , i s dependent on t h e ex-

t e n t o f downstream t h r o t t l i n g . C a l c u l a t i o n o f t h e s u p e r s o n i c flow w i t h i n t h e b l a d e pas-
sage f o r d i f f e r e n t passage shock p o s i t i o n i s p o s s i b l e a s l o n g a s boundary l a y e r sepera-
t i o n e f f e c t s a r e n o t t o o l a r g e . It h a s n o t been p o s s i b l e up t o now t o c a l c u l a t e t h e e x a c t
p o s i t i o n o f t h e passage shock i t s e l f , a l t h o u g h i t i s known t o be dependent upon t h e back
pressure.

A p l o t o f c a l c u l a t e d shock l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t s ws
as a f u n c t i o n o f Mm f o r d o u b l e - c i r c u l a r -
a r c ( DCA) and wedge t y p e p r o f i l e s ( C W I ) i s p r e s e n t e d i n f i g . 5 . 2 , w i t h pitch-chord r a t i o
t / l a s parameter, based upon t h e assumption t h a t t h e passage shock i s j u s t a t t h e l e a d i n g
edge o f t h e blade. I n c a s e t h e t h r o a t o f t h e b l a d e passage a l s o happens t o l i e a t t h e
l e a d i n g edge, t h i s r e p r e s e n t s t h e optimum o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s i g n i f i e d by minimum t o t a l
p r e s s u r e [Link] (5.1) and YAMAGUCHI ( 4 . 3 ) have shown t h a t t h e l o s s e s due t o t h e
bow waves a r e small and hence, t h e y have been n e g l e c t e d f o r t h e purposes o f c a l c u l a t i o n .

The wedge t y p e p r o f i l e CW1 w i t h s t r a i g h t s u c t i o n s u r f a c e a t e n t r y i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a

f l a t 6 , r e l a t i o n ( s e e c h a p t e r 4.11, which i s independent o f t h e p i t c h chord r a t i o t / l
( f i g . 5 . 3 ) . T h e r e f o r e , t h e shock l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t is i s a l s o independent o f t / l ( f i g . 5 . 2 ) .
A c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e i n t h e shock l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t i s n o t i c e d t o be a f u n c t i o n o f t h e
s u c t i o n s u r f a c e c u r v a t u r e a t i n l e t , because t h e flow e x p e r i e n c e s a l a r g e a c c e l e r a t i o n i n
f r o n t o f t h e shock i n c a s e o f t h e DCA-cascade.

A s a r e s u l t of t h e above e x p l a i n e d phenomenon, developmentsof , m u l t i p l e - c i r c u l a r - a r c (MCA)

p r o f i l e s (fig.3.7) with a r e l a t i v e l y small suction surface curvature a t t h e entrance r e -
g i o n has r e c e i v e d g r e a t emphasis (3.1'1).

A p l o t of p r o f i l e losses o b t a i n e d by s u b t r a c t i n g t h e c a l c u l a t e d shock l o s s e s ( f i g .
P'
5.2) from t h e measured t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s e s , a s a f u n c t i o n o f i n l e t Mach number MOD i s
shown In. f i g u r e 5.4. The l i m i t e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n d i c a t e t h a t i s almost Independent o f
P
t h e i n l e t Mach number, t h e p r o f i l e shape and t h e cascade c o n f i g u r a t i o n .

6. RELATION BETWEEN STATIC PRESSURE RISE AND TOTAL PRESSURE LOSSES I N A CASCADE

A cascade a l r e a d y s t a r t e d and o p e r a t i n g under s u p e r s o n i c c o n d i t i o n s , i n c o n t r a r y t o t h e

subsonic c a s e , e n a b l e a change i n t h e s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e without a f f e c t i n g t h e i n l e t
flow by v a r y i n g t h e downstream p r e s s u r e .

The v a r i a t i o n i n t h e flow f i e l d w i t h i n t h e b l a d e passage a s a r e s u l t o f a change i n t h e

t h r o t t l e p o s i t i o n d o e s ' n t seem t o have been t h e o r e t i c a l l y c a l c u l a t e d , because of t h e
complicated and mixed subsonic-supersonic flow f i e l d e x i s t i n g t o g e t h e r w i t h a s e v e r e
boundary l a y e r s e p e r a t i o n .
 8-17

To g e t a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e flow mechanism o f a s u p e r s o n i c c a s c a d e , i n s p i t e o f
I
t h e complexity of t h e flow, a s i m p l i f i e d flow model has been I n d i c a t e d by DETTMERING I

( 6 . 1 ) , extended by STARKEN ( 3 . 1 5 ) f o r d i f f e r e n t a x i a l v e l o c i t y d e n s i t y r a t i o s . T h i s me-

thod p l a c e s i t s complete emphasis on t h e flow c o n d i t i o n s upstream and downstream o f t h e
c a s c a d e , without a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e p r o b a b l e and p o s s i b l e flow v a r i a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e c a s -
cade.

The c o n t i n u i t y e q u a t i o n between t h e i n l e t and o u t l e t p l a n e s o f t h e cascade can be w r i t t e n

a s:

(6.1) p, w, s i n 6, = p2 w2 s i n 62.

To account f o r t h e c o n t r a c t i o n o f t h e channel w i d t h due t o t h e growth and p o s s i b l e sepa-

r a t i o n o f boundary l a y e r on t h e s i d e w a l l s o f t h e wind t u n n e l , t h e "Axial V e l o c i t y Den-
s i t y R a t i o " n is i n t r o d u c e d as a parameter i n t o t h e c o n t i n u i t y r e l a t i o n :

Rewriting i n t e r m s o f t o t a l p r e s s u r e s , s t a t i c p r e s s u r e s and t o t a l t e m p e r a t u r e s , t h e above

e q u a t i o n can be transformed t o g e t an e x p r e s s i o n f o r t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t
-
w as f o l l o w s :

c c

'(sin)p2 .
sin 6- Pm
.(-) -
Ttot 2
Ttot m

Under t h e assumption t h a t t h e t o t a l t e m p e r a t u r e remains c o n s t a n t , t h a t i s

(6.4) Ttot
= T~~~ (energy e q u a t i o n ) ,

t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t O can be e x p r e s s e d as a f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n i n terms
o f t h e p r e s s u r e r a t i o p2/p,, t h e c o n t r a c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t n, t h e flow a n g l e s 6, and 62 l

and t h e f r e e s t r e a m Mach number M, as f o l l o w s :

(6.5)

F u r t h e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n is p o s s i b l e f o r t h e c a s e wherein t h e a x i a l component of t h e i n l e t
V e l o c i t y i s subsonic and M, n o t t o o low (M, > 1,2). For t h i s c a s e , a s d i s c u s s e d i n de-
t a i l i n c h a p t e r 4, t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a unique i n c i d e n c e h o l d s v a l i d and t h e r e f o r e ;takes
t h e form:

(6.6)

The a x i a l v e l o c i t y d e n s i t y r a t i o is t h e r e f o r e an independent parameter and can have any

value.

F i r s t l y when n i s c o n s t a n t , t h e l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t ;is dependent only on t h e p r e s s u r e r a t i o

p2/p,, t h e e x i t flow a n g l e B2 and t h e i n l e t Mach number M,.
8-18

To a first approximation, t h e e x i t flow a n g l e B 2 is a l s o assumed t o be c o n s t a n t . If t h e

v a l u e o f B2 i s determined e x p e r i m e n t a l l y , from t h e f u n c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n (eqn.(6.6) d e r i -
ved from t h e c o n t i n u i t y and energy r e l a t 1 o n s ) t h e l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t can be worked o u t i n
I
terms o f p2/p,.

Flg.6.1 shows a p l o t o f t h e numerical r e s u l t s c a l c u l a t e d on t h e above s a i d b a s i s f o r a

wedge t y p e p r o f i l e . A f a m i l y o f c u r v e s f o r d i f f e r e n t i n l e t and e x i t Mach numbers, as
shown i n f u l l and d o t t e d l i n e s r e s p e c t i v e l y , a r e p r e s e n t e d . The t o t a l p r e s s u r e loss
coefficient r e a c h e s a maximum v a l u e when t h e e x i t flow Mach number M2 is u n i t y . The
p o s s i b l e range o f p2/p, o p e r a t i o n c o n t i n o u s l y becomes l a r g e r and l a r g e r w i t h i n c r e a s i n g
'me

The v a l i d i t y of t h i s diagram depends on t h e e x i s t e n c e o f e x a c t two-dimensional flow w i t h

no c o n t r a c t i o n o f the; stream. I n a cascade wind t u n n e l i n e v i t a b l e c o n t r a c t i o n of t h e flow
s t r e a m due t o boundary l a y e r e f f e c t s makes t h e v a l u e of R d i f f e r e n t from u n i t y . T h i s is
t h e r e a s o n f o r showing t h e c u r v e s o f d i f f e r e n t R i n f i g . 6 . 2 . I n c r e a s i n g s i d e c o n t r a c t i o n
must r e s u l t i n d e c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e loss c o e f f i c i e n t , i f a l l t h e o t h e r flow parameters r e -
main u n a l t e r e d .

Both t h e diagrams 6.1 and 6.2 only g i v e t h e common r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t i n g between t h e i n l e t

and t h e e x i t p l a n e s o f a cascade, which have been e s s e n t i a l l y d e r i v e d from t h e energy and
c o n t i n u i t y e q u a t i o n s . Therefore i t is i m p o s s i b l e t o g e t any i n s i g h t i n t o t h e r e a l l y
e x i s t i n g flow phenomena i n a cascade.

Although a q u a l i t a t i v e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e t r e n d i n which t h e t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s e s vary i s

p o s s i b l e , e x a c t e v a l u a t i o n o f i t without an a c t u a l experiment s t i l l remains imposs,ible.
But a n i n s i g h t i n t o t h e e f f e c t o f a x i a l v e l o c i t y d e n s i t y r a t i o n on t h e o v e r a l l p e r f o r -
mance o f t h e cascade h a s become p o s s i b l e through t h i s aproach.

To r e f l e c t t h e emphasis of t h i s important parameter, t e s t p o i n t s o f a h i g h t u r n i n g c a s -

cade have been superimposed on t h e t h e o r e t i c a l l y determined ;-curves in f i g . 6 . 3 ( r e f .
(3.15)). A s t r o n g d e v i a t i o n from t h e expected t r e n d , t h a t is v a r i a t i o n o f n w i t h back
p r e s s u r e from 1.0 t o 1.7, s t r e s s e s t h e g r e a t importance of t h i s parameter. A sudden jump
i n t h e v a l u e o f n from 1.0 t o 1.5 o c c u r i n g when t h e cascade changes from a c c e l e r a t i n g
(p2/p- < 1) t o d e c e l e r a t i n g (p2/p, > 1) flow, can be e x p l a i n e d by a s i d e w a l l boundary
l a y e r s e p a r a t i o n o c c u r i n g i n t h e c a s e where p2 i s l a r g e r t h a n p,. F u r t h e r a s t h r o t t l i n g
beyond a c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n c a u s e s no i n f l u e n c e on (p2/pm.), i t ' c o u l d be argued o u t t h a t
t h e r e must be n a t u r a l l y a c o n t r a c t i o n o f t h e stream t u b e e x h i b i t e d by an i n c r e a s e i n n
from 1.5 t o 1.7.

From these t e s t r e s u l t s i t i s s t r o n g l y f e l t n e c e s s a r y t h a t t h e a x i a l - v e l o c i t y - d e n s i t y
r a t i o n has t o be t a k e n c a r e o f f i n a l l s u p e r s o n i c cascade measurements.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The a u t h o r s wish t o e x p r e s s h e r g r a t i t u d e f o r t h e h e l p given by [Link] Swamy

( N a t i o n a l A e r o n a u t i c a l Laboratory, Bangalore) i n t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of t h i s paper.
 8- 19

REFERENCES

Chapter 1
WEISE, A. Uberschallaxialverdichter.
Bericht 171 der Lilienthal-Gesellschaft, S.92 (1943).
DAVIDSON, B. Some Data Pertaining to the Supersonic Axial-Flow Compressor.
ARC R&M N0.2554 (1947).
HAWTHORNE, W.R. High Speed Aerodynamics and Jet Propulsion,
(Editor Volume X, Aerodynamics of Turbines and Compressors (1964).
KANTROWITZ, A. The Supersonic Axial-Flow compressor.
NACA Report 974 (1950).
REDDING, A.H. Superacoustic Compressor.
US Patent 2, 435, 236 (1948).
FERRI, A. Prelfminary Analysis of Axial-Flow Compressors Having Super-
sonic Velocity at the Entrance of the Stator.
NACA RM L 9G06 (1949).
HOTTNER, l'h. Amerikanische Versuche mit Uberschallverdichtern.
AVA-Bericht Nr. 59/A/25, (1959).
LIEBLEIN, S
JOHNSEN, I.A.
., R6sum6 of Transonic Compressor Research at NACA Lewis-Labora-
tory.
[Link] "Journal of Engineering for Power", 83 (1961),
Series A, No.3.
SAVAGE, M., Rt?sum6 of Compressor Research at the NACA Langley Laboratory.
BOXER, E., Trans .ASME "Journal of Engineering for Power", 83, (1961),
ERWIN, J.R. Series A.
KLAPPROTH, J.F. A Review of Supersonic Compressor Development.
[Link] "Journal of Engineering for Power", Series A, 83
(19611, s.258.
JOHNSON, E.G. Introduction to Lectures on Supersonic Turbomachinery.
AGARD Lecture Series, Varenna, May (1967).
CHAUVIN, J., Supersonic Compressors.
BREUGELMANS, F., AGARD Lecture Series, Varenna, May (19671, also: VKI CN 67.
JANIGRO, A.
Chapter 2
(2.1) EMMONS, H.W. Fundamentals of Gas Dynamics, High Speed Aerodynamics and
(Editor) , Jet Propulsion V01.111, (1958).
(2.2) DEICH, M.E. Flow of Gas through Turbine Lattices.
NACA TM 1393 (1956).
[Link] ch.7 from Tekhnickes Kaia Gazodinamika (1953).
(2.3) LAWACZECK, 0. Verfahren zur Ermittlung der AbstrbmgrbAen transsonischer
Turbinengitter.
[Link] Braunschweig (1969).
(2.4) EGGINK StrBmungsaufbau und Druckrilckgewinnung in UberschallkanUen.
Deutsche Luftfahrtforschung. Forschungsbericht Nr.1756,
(1943).
(2.5) KANTROWITZ, A., Preliminary Investigation of Supersonic Diffusers.
DONALDSON, C. NACA ACR No.L5D20, (1945).
Chapter 3
(3.1) SHAPIRO, A.H. The Dynamics and Thermodynamics of Compressible Fluid Flow.
Vol.1, The RonaldPress Corp., 1953, N.Y.
(3.2) STRATFORD, B.s., Theory and Tyne1 Tests of Rotor Blades for Supersonic
SANSOME, G.E. Turbines.
ARC R&M No.3275, 1962.
(3.3) BOXER, E., Application of Supersonic Vortex-Flow Theory to the Design o f
STERRET, J.R., Supersonic Impulse Compressor or Turbine-Blade Sections.
WLODARSKI, J. NACA RM L 52 B 06. April 1952.
(3.4) OSWATITSCH, K. Potentialwirbel-Gitter fur Uberschallgeschwindigkelten.
ZfW 4, (1956), Heft 112, Selte 53.
8- 20

(3.5) COLCLOUGH, C.D. Design o f Turbine Blades S u i t a b l e - f o r S u p e r s o n i c Relative In-

l e t V e l o c i t i e s and t h e I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e i r Performance i n
Cascades:
Part I - Theory and Design.
J o u r n a l Mechanical E n g i n e e r i n g S c i e n c e V01.8, N 0 . 1 ~ 1 9 6 6 .
P a r t I1 - Experiments, R e s u l t s and D i s c u s s i o n .
J o u r n a l Mechanical E n g i n e e r i n g S c i e n c e Vo1.8, No.2, (1966).

GOLDMAN, L.J., A n a l y t i c a l I n v e s t i g a t i o n of S u p e r s o n i c Turbomachinery Bla-

SCULLIN, V.J. ding.
I - Computer Program f o r B l a d i n g Design.
NASA TN D-4421, March 1968.

(3.7) GOLDMAN, L.J. A n a l y t i c a l I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f S u p e r s o n i c Turbomachinery Blading.

11- A n a l y s i s o f Impulse Turbine-Blade S e c t i o n s .
NASA TN D - 4422, A p r i l 1968.

(3.8) L I C C I N I , L.L. A n a l y t i c a l and Experimental I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f 90' S u p e r s o n i c

Turning P a s s a g e s S u i t a b l e f o r S u p e r s o n i c Compressors o r
Turbines.
NACA RM L 9GO7, 1949.

(3.9) L I C C I N I , L.L. Experimental I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e Mixing Loss Behind t h e

T r a i l i n g Edge o f a Cascade of Three 900 S u p e r s o n i c Turning
Passages.
NACA RM L 50F21a3 1950.

(3.10) OSWATITSCH, K. Ober d i e StrSmung i n einem U b e r s c h a l l g i t t e r .

Allgemeine WBrmetechnik, J a h r g a n g 6, 1955.

SEYLER, D.R. , S i n g l e S t a g e Experimental E v a l u a t i o n of High Mach Number Com-

SMITH, L.H. p r e s s o r Rotor Blading,
P a r t 1, Design of Rotor Blading.
NASA C R - 5 4 5 8 1 , A p r i l 1967.

GOSTELOW, J.P., Performance Comparisons of High

- Mach Number Compressor Rotor
KRABACHER , K. W. Blading.
SMITH, L.H.(Jr.! NASA CR-1256, 1968.

EMERY, J . C . , Experimental I n v e s t i g a t i o n of a T r a n s o n i c Compressor Cascade

DUNAVANT, J . C . , and Test R e s u l t s f o r Four Blade S e c t i o n s .
WESTPHAL, W.R. NASA TM X 197, Jan.1960.

HEILMANN, W., Cascade Wind Tunnel T e s t s on Blades Designed f o r T r a n s o n i c

STARKEN, H. , and S u p e r s o n i c Compressors.
WEYER, H. i n "Advanced Components f o r T u r b o j e t Engines", Part 1 ,
AGARD CP No.34, 1968.

STARKEN, H., Some E x p e r i m e n t a l R e s u l t s o f Two-Dimensional Compressor Cas-

LICHTFUA, H. J. cades a t Supersonic I n l e t V e l o c i t i e s .
To be p u b l i s h e d i n "[Link] ASME", J o u r n a l of E n g i n e e r i n g
f o r Power.

OSWATITSCH, K. P r e s s u r e Recovery f o r M i s s I l e s < w i t h R e a c t i o n P r o p u l s i o n a t

High S u p e r s o n i c Speeds.
NACA TM 1140, 1947.

GRAHAM, C., I n v e s t i g d t i o n o f Off-Design Performance o f Shock-In-Rotor

KLAPPROTH, J.F., Type S u p e r s o n i c Blading.
BARINA, F.J. NACA RM E51C22 (1951).

CREAGH, J.W.R., U t i l i z a t i o n o f External-Compression D i f f u s i o n P r i n c i p l e i n

KLAPPROTH, J.F. Design o f Shock-In-Rotor S u p e r s o n i c Compressor Blading.
NACA RM E 53F18, 1953.
I n v e s t i g a t i o n of S u p e r s o n i c Compressor R o t o r s Designed w i t h
JAHNSEN, L.J.,
HARTMANN M. J, . E x t e r n a l Compression.
NACA RM E 54 G 27a, 1954.

FRUHAUF , H. H. DFVLR, u n p u b l i s h e d .

BEDER, E.D., A s t u d y o f a Cascade System f o r S u p e r s o n i c Flow D i f f u s i o n .

BUHLER, R. WADC TR-54-261, (1954).

LOWN, H., I n v e s t i g a t i o n of a 24-Inch-Shock i n Rotor Type S u p e r s o n i c

HARTMANN, M . J . Compressor. Designed f o r Simple R a d i a l E q u i l i b r i u m Behind
Normal Shock.
NACA RM E51H08, 1951.
FEJER, A.A., SuDersonic Cascades S t u d i e s
WENZLAU, W.N. TR- NO. AEI
Research Foundation, [Link] Toledo (1951).
 6-21

(3.24) CONRAD, 0. Statistische Untersuchung von uberschallverdichtern.

WGLR-Jahrbuch 1965, Seite 374.
(3.25) WILCOX, W.W. Investigation of Impulse-Type Supersonic Compressor with Hub-
Tip Ratio of 0.6 and Turning to Axial Direction.
11-Stage Performance with Three Different Sets of Stators.
NACA RM E 55 F 28, 1955.
(3.26) HARTMANN, M.J., Investigation of a Supersonic-Compressor Rotor with Turning
TYSL, E.R. to Axial Direction.
11-Rotor Component Off-Design and Stage Performance.
NACA RM E 53L24, 1953.
(3.27) SCHMALFUA, H.G. Experimentelle Untersuchungen an stark umlenkenden Uberschall-
verztigerungsgittern.
Forschungsberichte des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen Nr.1677
(1966).+
(3.28) KLAPPROTH, J.F., Performance of an Impulse-Type Supersonic Compressor with
ULLMAN, G.N., Stators.
TYSL, E.R. NACA RM E 52 B 22 (1952).
(3.29) JOHNSON, E.G., A Blunt Trailing Edge Supersonic Compressor Blading.
von OHAIN, H. , WADC TN 59-269, (1959).
LAWSON, M.O.,
CRAMER, K.R.
(3.30) CHAWIN, J. The Concept of Blunt Trailing Edge Blading for Use in Super-
sonic Compressors.
Jahrbuch der WGLR, (1962), S.179.
(3.31) CHAUVIN, J. Research on the Concept of Blunt Trailing Edge Blades.
-
Part I High Speed Range. AF EOAR GRANT 63-84, SRl(1964).
(3.32) CHAUVIN, J. Research on the Concept of Blunt Trailing Edge Blades
GRANT AF EOAR 64-4 (1965).
(3.33) CHAWIN, J., Research on the Use of Blunt Trailing Edge Blades in Super-
BREUGELMANS , F. sonic Compressor Stages.
GRANT AF EOAR 65-65, SR 1 (1966).
(3.34) HEILMANN, W., Untersuchungen am Uberschall-Gitterwindkanal.
WEYER, H. Aufbau der NACA-6-inch-~berschall-MeAstrecke in der DVL,
Entwicklung des MeAsystems und erste Versuchsergebnisse.
DLR FB 68-28, (1968).
(3.35) WENNERSTRUM, A.J., Experimentally Determined Shock Configurations in a High-So-
JOHNSON, E.G., lidity Supersonic Rotor.
CARMAN, C.T. Advanced Components for Turbojet-Engines Part l.,
AGARD Conference Proceedings No. 34, (1968).
(3.36) CARMAN, C.T.. Experimental Investigation of Two-Blunt Trailing Edge Super-
MYERS, -J.R., sonic Compressor Rotors of Different Blade Thicknisses and
WENNERSTRUM, A.J., with Circular Arc Camber Line.
STEURER, J.W. AEDC-TR-68-197 (1968).
(3.37) NUSSDORFER, T.J. Some Observations of Shock-induced Turbulent Separation on
Supersonic Diffusers.
NACA RM E 51L26, 1951.
(3.38) PEARCEY, H.H. Some Effects of Shock-induced Separation of Turbulent Boun-
dary Layers in Transonic Flow past Aerofoils.
ARC R&M No.3108, 1959.
Chapter 4
(4.1) LEVINE, P. The Two Dimensional Inflow Conditions for a Supersonic Com-
pressor with Curved Blades.
WADC TR 55-38" (1956).
(4.2) LEVINE, P. Two Dimensional Inflow Conditions for a Supersonic Compres-
sor with Curved Blades.
[Link] [Link].Vol24, No.2, (1957).
(4.3) YAMAGUCHI, S. On the Inlet-Flow Field for a Two-Dimensional Supersonic Cas-
cade with Curved Entrance Regions.
Bulletin of JSME Vo1.7, No.25, (1964).
(4.4) SCHWAAR, P. Determination of the Stationary Flow Field in Front of a Su-
personic Cascade.
[Link] [Link]., Vo1.23, No.10 (1956).
8- 22

(4.5) STRATFORD, B.S., The Performance of Supersonic Turbine Nozzles,

SANSOME, G.E. R&M No.3273 (1962).
(4.6) OSWATITSCH, K. Das Ausbreiten von Wellen endllcher Amplitude,
-
ZfW 10, Heft 4/5, (19621, S.130.
(4.7) LICHTFUA, H.J. Die Berechnung der ebenen uberschallstrbmung, einschlieAlich
schwacher VerdichtungsstaBe, mit Hilfe des Analytischen Cha-
rakteristikenverfahrens.
Erscheint als DLR-FB.
(4.8) COURANT, R., Supersonic Flow and Shock Waves.
FRIEDRICHS, K.O. Pure and Applied Mathematics Vol.1, N.Y.(1948),
(4.9) MOECKEL, W.E. Approximate Method for Predicting Form and Location of De-
tached Shock Waves ahead of Plane or Axially Symmetric
Bodies.
NACA TN 1921, (1949).
STARKEN, H.
(4.10)
&it tern.
Untersuchung der StrBmung in geraden Uberschallverz6gerungs-
Erscheint als DLR-Forschungsbericht.
(4.11) NOVAK, 0. Flow in the Entrance Region of a Supersonic Cascade.
Strojnfcky Easopis XIX, E.2-3, Selte 138 (196'0, Vydavatel'
stvo, Slovenskej Akade'mie vied Bratislava.

(4.12) GOSTELOW, J.P., Single Stage Experimental Evaluation of High Mach Number
KRABACHER, K.W. Compressor Rotor Blading
part 5 -Performance of Rotor 2 B,
NASA CR-54585 , October 1967.
(4.13) MILLER, G.R. , Experimental Shock Configurations and Shock Losses in a
HARTMANN, M.J. Transonic-Compressor Rotor at Design Speed.
NACA RM E58Al'ob (1958).
Chapter 5
(5.1) KLAPPROTH, J.F. Approximate Relative-Total-Pressure Losses of an Infinite
Cascade of Supersonic Blades with Finite Leading-Edge Thick-
ness.
NACA RM E 9L21 (1950).
Chapter 6
(6.1) DETTMERING, W., Steps in the Development of a Supersonic Compressor Stage.
BECKER, B. Advanced Components for Turbojet Engines Part 1
AGARD CP No.34 (1968).
Fig.2.1: Schlieren picture of "Dauble circular Arc" (DCAI-
cascade at subaonie i n l e t Maoh number, M _ = 0.9.

/
I

sonic line

Fig.2.2: Diagmmatic vier or Schlieren picture or rlg.2.1.

8- 24

Flg.2.3: DCA-cascade at near sonic inlet Velocity,

M_ = 1.03.

I
I
I

M C1 'I M>1 M <1

Fig.2.4 D l a g r a m a t l c view of fig.2.3.

 8-25

Fig.2.5: DCA-cascade at choked [Link] conditions,

M _ = 0.9.

sonic line,/
I
/

Fig.2.6: Diagramatic v i e w O f fig.2.5.

8-26

shock

- M_=l,l
'passage shock

Fig.2.8: Diagrammatic view of fig.2.1.

 8- 27

Pig.2.9: DCII-caBcade a t supersonlo inlet velocity,

E", = 1.30.

M
dctnchcd shock

Fig.2.10: Diagrammatic view of fig.2.9.

 Fig.2.11: Schlieren Plcture of "Cincular Wedge" ( C W l )
CaBcade at axial supersonlo inlet Mach number,
M, : 2.0.

Pig.2.12: Dlagramatic view of Schlieren picture Of fig.2.11.

 8-29

‘1

-..,
T

Fig.2.13: Schlieren picture of DCA-cascade at M, = 1.3

and medium presswe ratio p2/p, = 1.52.

I .

&

Pig.2.14: Schlieren pictun of OCA-cascade at M _ = 1.21

and maximum prensure ratio p2/p. = 1.51.
 t
I
Cascade region

M<1 M >1 M>1

ansion waves

F i g . 2.15

Cascade reaion
1

Fig.2.16

Cascade region
-i I

M<1 I M >1

'////////////////////////I
Fig.2.17: Flow p a t t e r n s in a real Lava1 nozzle for varying
back pressures.
 -t Cascade region

Pseudo shock

Fig. 2.18

Cascade region
I

M>1 Normal shock

M< 1

Flg.2.19

Cascade region

-Normal shock
M<1

Fig.2.20 n o w patterns in a r e a l Lava1 n o z z l e for varying

back pressures.
8-32

- shock wave
b.1

Fig.2.21: I d e a l double throat supersonlc Lava1 n o z z l e under

d i f f e r e n t operating c o n d i t i o n s .

Fig.2.22: Area r a t i o s OC s t a r t e d and s t a r t i n g supersonic d i f f u -

ser as a f u n c t i o n of i n l e t Maoh number.
 8-33

Pig.2.23: Schlieren picture of LUI vnatarted cascade ( m i , tll =

0.7. 0. = 145' and M, = 1.1 ).

Fig.2.24: Schlieren picture of a atartcd cascade ( C W I , tll

0.1. = 145' and M, = 1.24).
[Link]: V e l o c i t y t r i a n g l e s of high turning supersonic impulse
% *
cascade: M2 = M**

circle

[Link]: Velocity t r i a n g l e s o f low turning supersonic d e c e l e -

r a t i n g cascade: M2* < M _*.
 8-35

Fig.3.2: Supersonic impulse blade section O f ref.(3.1).

Fig.3.3: Zlg-Zag pressure distribution in a blade pasaage Of

constant curvature of ref.(3.2).
8-36

Fi8.3.4: Superaonic impulse blade s e c t i o n with passage baaed on

p o t e n t i a l vortex flow of ref.(3.3).

Fig.3.5: S c h l i e r e n p i c t u r e of impulae t y p e cascade,

(J.R. ERWIN, NASA, Langley F i e l d ) .
 8-37

/ I

/ /
/
/
,
Mr,/ /
/
/
/
/

/ /

Pig.3.6: DQuble-circU1ar-arc blade section.

/
/ /
/
/
/
/ /
/ /
/
/
/ /
/
MCA
/

Pig.3.7: Multiple-circular-arc blade section fCA of ref.(3.11).

cw 1

Pig.3.B: Circular-wedge blade section CW1 of ref.(3.13).

 * **
-I

Fig.3.9: Schlieren picture of supersonic blade aaotion with

external compression of ref.(3.20).

Fig.3.10: Supersonie blade 8ection with external compression.

ref.(3.20).
 I

a-39

,
/

Flg.3.11: Supersonlc blade s e c t i o n with i n t e r n a l compression

of ref.(1.4).

Fig.3.12: Supersonic blade s e c t i o n with i n t e r n a l compression, of

ref. (3.21).

MI,
/
, *--, /

/
/
/
,
~

Flg.3.13: Supersonic blade s e c t i o n with i n t e r n a l compression o f

ref.(3.22).
R-40

Fig.3.14: Supersonic blade s e c t i o n with i n t e r n a l compreasion of

ref.(3.23).

Fig.3.15: High turning aupersonic d e c e l e r a t i n g blade section oi

ref.(3.25).

Flg.3.16a: High turning supersonic d e c e l e r a t i n g blade s e c t i o n of

ref.0.27).
 8-41

Fig.3.16b: High turning supersonic tandem cascade of ref.(3.27).

Fig.3.17: Supersonic blade section with internal compreaaion

of ref.(3.28).

Mc

Fig.3.18: High turning supersonic blade section with internal

compression of rer.(3.1).
 /
/

Fig.3.19: Blunt trailing edge (BTE) blade section of ref.

(3.29).

7
i

Fig.3.20: Schlieren picture of BTE-cascade at MI = 1.48.

 8-43

I
I

Fig.3.21: Maximum theoretical shock pressure rise in turbulent

boundary layer of ref.(2.1).
0- 44

/
/
/

Fig.4.1: Flat-plate cascade at axial supersonic inlet velo-

city with suction-surface shock.

/
/
/

’-OMiquo shock wave

/
/

Fig.4.2: Flat-plate cascade at axial supersonic inlet velo-

city with pressure-surface shock.
 Ill -Randtl -Meyrr
Expansion

iI /
/ /
Max (1 / /
/ /
Mm ,/ /
- '
I// /
/
/
/
I/

/ /
/ /

Fig.4.3: Semi-infinite flat-plate cascade at axial subsonic

inlet velocity with an expansion at the first blade.

Max
I-0bliqur shock wave

/
/ /
/
/

Fig.4.4: Semi-infinite flat-plate cascade at axial subsonic

inlet velocity with a shock at the first blade.
8-46

Flg.4.5: I n l e t flow a n g l e E, a s f u n c t i o n o f I n l e t Mach number

M, o f a f l a t - p l a t e cascade.
 8-47

/ / / / t d n a r P Expansion 1 ,,
/
/

bliqur shock wave

Fig.4.6: S e m i - i n f i n i t e f l a t - p l a t e cascade a t sonic a x i a l in-

l e t Mach number.

/
/
/
/
/
/

/
/
/
/

Fig.4.7: I n f i n i t e f l a t - p l a t e cascade a t supersonic a x i a l in-

l e t Mach number with shock i n the cascade f r o n t .
a- 48

Fig.4.8: Dependency of I n l e t flow a n g l e on I n l e t Mach number

of a f l a t - p l a t e cascade I n hodograph plane.
 8-49

neutral characteristic of
infinite cascade

Fig.4.9: S e m i - i n f i n i t e cambered p l a t e cascade a t subsonic

axial inlet velocity.

/
/ /
/ // /'
/ / /
/ / /
/

/
/
/
/
/
/
/

/
/
/ /
/ / /

Fig.4.10: Entrance region of a supersonic cascade.

8-50

axial sonic

1 no' supersonic

calculated with the method

of analytical characteristics
i

Fig.4.11: I n l e t flow a n g l e E, v e r s u s i n l e t Mach number M,,

t o g e t h e r w i t h flow p a t t e r n of a convex s u c t i o n s u r -
face blade section.

--- neutral charactrrirtic

E of infinitr c a x a d r

Flg.4.12: Flow p a t t e r n of s e m i - l n f i n l t e s u p e r s o n i c cascade

having b l a d e s w i t h concave s u c t i o n s u r f a c e .
 8-51

Bo

160

1S I

calculatet with the method

of analytical characteristics
0

IS(
1 2

Flg.4.13: I n l e t flow angle 6, versus I n l e t Mach number M-

together with flow pattern o f a concave s u c t i o n
surface blade s e c t i o n .
8-52

a.)

neutral characteristic of
infinite cascade

/I I I

-. neutral characteristic of
isolated profile

- - - neutral chamcteristic of
infinite cascade

neutral characteristic of
isolated profile

Fig.4.14: Flow pattern in front of a semi-infinite super-

sonic cascade at different nozzle flow conditions
(MO* 0 0 ) 9 but constant cascade upstream flow
(M,,,* 8-1.
 8-53

detcrhed shock wave

/
/ \ /

+ E
/

,
/

/ /
/ /

Flg.4.15: Detached shock wave In f r o n t o f a cascade blade.

P,
t
155

154

153

152

151

150

Flg.4.16: Measured and c a l c u l a t e d I n l e t flow a n g l e s 6 , a s

a f u n c t i o n of I n l e t Mach number Mm f o r a s t a r t e d
DCA cascade w i t h detached shock waves.
8- 54

p'
p'

/
f/ 'side wall static pressure

/
/ pressure tap on profile suction surface

Fig.4.17: Location of p r e s s u r e t a p s f o r t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
d e t e r m i n a t i o n of i n l e t Mach number M,'and i n l e t
f l o w a n g l e 6,.

' 1
 8- 55

I
I

a.) / / ‘oblique shock

/
/ /

/ /

C.) / / ‘detached shock

throttle

Flg.4.18: Shock pattern o f supersonic cascade f o r three

d i f f e r e n t s e t t i n g s of downstream t h r o t t l e area AT.
8-56

P
OD
DCA p,= 145"

t
160
t/l= OJ7

158
I

156

154

152

150

Fig.4.19: T h e o r e t i c a l i n l e t flow a n g l e 6, a s f u n c t i o n o f In-

l e t Mach number M_ f o r a DCA cascade a t s t a r t e d
and u n s t a r t e d o p e r a t i n g c o n d i t i o n s .

DCA U 0 Test Points

Pa
t/l= OJ85 - Calculation for

t
155
p s = 145" Started Flow

154
0
0
153 0

152

151

150

Fig.4.20: Two-dimensional cascade measurements of t h e i n l e t -

flow a n g l e o f a DCA blade s e c t i o n ( r e f . ( 4 . 1 0 ) ) .
 8- 57

Fig.4.21: Rotor measurements Of the Inlet flow angle o f a

DCA blade section (ref.(4.12))

P,

t
160
I
/
158

156

154
I f '

152

150

Fig.4.22: Theoretical inlet flow angle 8- as a function of

Inlet Mach number M_ for a DCA blade section with
minimum passage area ( A /t = 0.44).
8- 58

Fig.5.1: Shock pattern and stagnation streamlines in front

of an infinite supersonic cascade.

Qs

OJ2O
t
OJ15

0) 0

0,o 5

Fig.5.2: Theoretically determined shock loss coefficient

is plotted against inlet Mach number M- for DCA-
and CWl cascades at optimum back pressure.
 8-59

Fig.5.3: V a r i a t i o n of c a l c u l a t e d i n l e t flow a n g l e 8- w i t h
i n l e t Mach number M_ f o r DCA- and CWI-cascades
( s t a r t e d condition).

QP

t
OJ20

O,l5

910

OJ05

Fig.5.4: P r o f i l e loss c o e f f i c i e n t s o f DCA- and CW1-blade

s e c t i o n a t supersonic i n l e t v e l o c i t i e s .
8- 60

Ei p s = 145' p2= 139' R = 1,O

0,40
t
0,30

0,20

0,lO

0
0 1j0

~ig.6.1: V a r i a t i o n of t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t W
w i t h s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e f o r a stream tube a t
d i f f e r e n t e n t r a n c e Mach numbers.

iii
M, = 1,60 P, - 145' pz = 139O

/
'0
0,40

0,30

0,20

0,lO

Fig.6.2: V a r i a t i o n of t o t a l p r e s s u r e l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t
w i t h s t a t i c p r e s s u r e r i s e f o r a stream t u b e a t
d i f f e r e n t flow c o n t r a c t i o n r a t i o s n.
 8-61

MCA
M,= lJ37
p,= 149JA0
p2 = 108O

0 OJ5

Fig.6.3: Variation of measured and c a l c u l a t e d t o t a l pres-

sure l o s s c o e f f i c i e n t s 'w with s t a t i c pressure r i s e
p2/p, and a x i a l - v e l o c i t y - d e n s i t y r a t i o $2 f o r a
high turning supersonic blade s e c t i o n MCA).
 9

APPLICATION OF THROUGH-FLOW THEORIES

TO RADIAL WHEEL DESIGN

M. H. Vavra

Naval Postgraduate School

Monterey, C a l i f o r n i a 93940
9

SUMMARY

A review i s presented of the basic flow equations f o r the analysis of flows i n r o t o r s , together
,with a discussion of the e f f e c t s of simplifying assumptions t h a t are necessary t o obtain solutions.
Particular flows i n r a d i a l compressor rotors are treated, and the approach necessary to calculate
a r b i t r a r y flow patterns f o r given blade shapes i s described. The necessity of using a correct
description of the blade surface i s demonstrated, and the applicability of the r e s u l t s t o the design
of compressor rotors is discussed.
 9- 1

APPUCATI ON OF THROUGH- FLOW THEORIES

TO RADIAL WHEEL DESIGN

1. INTRODUCTION

The present l e c t u r e is not concerned with the procedures t o c a l c u l a t e the flow p a t t e r n s i n r a d i a l

compressor wheels but endeavors t o discuss the e f f e c t 8 of simplifications t h a t have t o be made i n most
t h e o r e t i c a l treatments t o obtain solutions.

All rigorous calculating methods must be based on the fundamental laws of f l u i d dynamics which are
formulated i n Ref. l*. Some of the p e c u l i a r i t i e s of flows i n r o t o r s and the nature of blade-to-blade
solutions are diecussed i n Ref. 2.*

2. FUNDAMENTAL FLOW ELATIONS

I r r e s p e c t i v e of i t s p a r t i c u l a r nature or f i e l d of a p p l i c a t i o n , a flow w i l l adapt i t s e l f t o conditions

where the laws of conservation of momentum, mass, and energy a r e s a t i s f i e d . I n addition, a flow has t o
meet specified boundary conditions of the f i e l d and it i s a l s o affected by the thermodynamic processes
which it undergoes. I f the f l u i d is a gas, it must s a t i s f y the so-called condition of s t a t e , which
r e l a t e s i t s mass density t o pressure and temperature.

The formulations of t h e t h r e e aboved-mentioned conservation laws f o r r o t a t i n g flow channels d i f f e r

from those f o r flows i n s t a t i o n a r y passages because of the e f f e c t s of the c e n t r i p e t a l and and Coriolis
forces. If the angular velocityA@ of a r o t o r with fixed a x i s i s constant, the three b a s i c r e l a t i o n s
f o r the r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t y f i e l d W of a compressible f l u i d i n the Eulerian description are:

Equation of Motion, Eq. [7(35)11:

A
& - A a
d
,
' + v H R =W X ( V ~ W , + Z U ) + T V S + ~
at
Equation of Continuity, Eq. [7(29)1l:

-
A

v*(pW L 0
at
Energy Equation, Eq. [7( 43)Jl:

The d e r i v a t i v e s a,( )/at express the non-steady, or time-depending character of the flow i n the r o t a t i n g
frame of reference, and the d i f f e r e n t i a l s d i ( ) i n Eq. 3 represent changes of t h e flow properties along
the r e l a t i v e flow paths t r a v e l l e d by the f l u i d p a r t i c l e s .

The so-called r e l a t i v e t o t a l enthalpy HR per u n i t mass i s defined by

where;

h s t a t i c enthalpy a t the s t a t i c p r e s s u r e 2 and the s t a t i c temperature T

-
w - magnitude of r e l a t i v e Yelocity vector W
u - peripheral r o t o r speed
go -
g r a v i t a t i o n a l constant
z - elevation from a specified l e v e l surface
Also ,

s - entropy of f l u i d per u n i t mass

T - absolute s t a t i c temperature
3 - f r i c t i o n a l force acting on f l u i d p a r t i c l e per u n i t mass '

P - mass density
Q - heat added t o u n i t mass partic;le along its path from sources outside the flow f i e l d

For so-called absolute flows i n s t a t i o n a r y passages w h e r e o and U are zero, the absolute t o t a l
enthalpy H is obtained f r o m Eq. 4 i f W i s replaced by the magnitude V of t h e absolute v e l o c i t y vector V.
-
~~~

*For simplicity, chapter, page, flgure, and equation numbers, f r o m these sources a r e put i n square
brackets with postfixes 1 o r 2 pertaining t o Ref. 1 o r Ref. 2 , respectively. E.@., Eq.[47]2 i s
equation 47 of reference 2.
9- 2

If for (a, )/at and d;( ) there are substituted the quantities a( )/at and d'( ), which represent l o c a l I

time r a t e of changes,and d i f f e r e n t i a l changes along the absolute flow paths of p a r t i c l e s , respectively,

i n the stationary frame of reference, Eqs. 1 t o 3 give the principal equations f o r absolute flows.

,
For incompressible f l u i d s with constant mass d e n s i t y p the i n t e r n a l energy, and thus the tunpera-
t u r e of the fluid, i s nearly constant and the s t a t i c enthalpy h i s equivalent t o p/p , where p i s the
s t a t i c pressure of the f l o w . For the same reason, it i s i l l o g i c a l t o consider entropy changes, hence
T o e i s zero. The quantities HR and H for incompressible flows change t o WP and P d p , respectively,
with pR and P t being the so-called r e l a t i v e and absolute t o t a l pressures, defined by

2 ' I
PR = P f- f w - P u + ~ o z (5)
2 2

and

For r e l a t i v e incompressible flows, from Eq. 1

From Eq. 2, f o r f = constant, I

m e energy equation along the r e l a t i v e flow paths cannot be obtained d i r e c t l y from E .3 because the
work of the f r i c t i o n a l forces reduces the r e l a t i v e t o t a l pressure PR. By Eq. C7(44)?1, the energy
equation for incompressible r e l a t i v e flows is

since heat added t o the f l o w from sources outside the flow f i e l d does not a f f e c t the pressure PR.

3. DISCUSSION OF SIMPLIFYING ASSUMPTIONS

Equation 1,and i t s counterpart for absolute flows, have v a l i d i t y . Major prcblems occur
however i f attempts a r e made t o r e l a t e the f r i c t i o n a l force velocity changes i n the flow and
t o the physical properties of the fluid. A d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n between laminar and turbulent flows must
also be [Link] these formulations. For laminar flows, where the f r i c t i o n a l forces are d i r e c t l y
proportional t o the velocity gradients and the coefficient of viscosity of the f l u i d , the Nayier-
Stokes equation i s obtained. However, even f o r constant f l u i d v i s c o s i t the formulation of f f o r
compressible flows leads t o very complicated expressions (see_Eq. [3(64!1) which de@ solutions f o r
a r b i t r a r y f l o w f i e l d s . Even for incompressible flows, where f = V 0' for constant kinematic
viscosity v , formidable d i f f i c u l t i e s occur for general solutions, although they could be achieved
with modern computers t h a t have extremely large storage capacities. The usefulness of such r e s u l t s
i s however of questionable value, not only because of t h e i r limited application t o l i q u i d s , or gases
a t low Mach numbers, but because of the f a c t t h a t flows i n turbomachines have high Reynolds numbers,
and a r e therefore turbulent and not laminar.

Because of the complicated and not yet completely understood mechanism of turbulent motions it has
not been possible t o e s t a b l i s h a generally valid mathematical formulation of the turbulent shear
stresses. Approximations are available f o r the conditions i n the v i c i n i t y of walls (see p. [3911) but
these r e l a t i o n s cannot be used for a general three-dimensional flow f i e l d . Analyses t h a t apply Navier-
Stokes equation t o turbulent floWs,and use the non-steady velocity term t o account for the turbulent
exchange of momentum l a t e r a l t o the mean f l o w path,are a t b e s t crude approximations of the actual
conditions f o r simple flows and p a r t i c u l a r boundary conditions. From a rigorous point of view it is not
permissible t o use the equation of Navier-Stokes for turbulent motions,

It i s evident from t h i s discussion t h a t the presently available mathematical t o o l s are not powerful I
enough t o analyze flows i n machines with great accuracy, and it is doubtful whether much progress can be
expected i n the near future. Attempts have been made t o study turbulent flows from a molecular viewpoint
by taking account of t h e possible random motions t h a t can occur. However, even i f computers vere
available with access times by a f a c t o r of 100 smaller than present nano-second machines, a turbulent
flow with simple boundaries would require years of computer time for i t s analysis. As i n a l l engineering
endeavors it i s necessary therefore t o use simplified methods. From experiments it i s known t h a t the
l a r g e s t shear s t r e s s e s i n laminar and turbulent flows occur i n the boundary layers along s o l i d w a l l s I
where the greatest veolcity gradients e x i s t , and t h a t outside of the boundary layers the flow is nearly
f r i c t i o n l e s s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n turbulent motions. For the f l o w region away from the w a l l s it seem I
possible therefore t o ignore the f r i c t i o n a l force i n Eq. 1. Moreover, because flows i n turbomachines
are nearly adiabatic; t h a t i s , the quantities of heat denoted by s, i n Eq. 3 are negligibly small, it
seema permissible t o assume t h a t flows away from the w a l l s are isentropic. For such flows the l a b t two
 9- 3

terms on the right-hand side of Eq. 1 vanish, and the a i f f e r e n t i a l d i q, i n Eq. 3 can be ignored a l s o ,
It must be recognized however t h a t the assumption o f constant entropy limits the analysis t o reversible
processes, hence these simplified r e l a t i o n s cannot be used for flows with i r r e v e r s i b i l i t i e s t h a t are
caused by supersonic phenomena. I n the absence of shocks, the solutions f o r reversible flows could
then be considered t o represent a good estimate of the a c t u a l conditions i f the boundary layers have
small thickness. Because experience shows t h a t i n 5oundaxy layers the s t a t i c pressure remains nearly
constant perpendicular t o the walls, the t h e o r e t i c a l pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s along the guiding surfaces
could be taken a s those occurring i n actuality. Experimental data of turbulent boundary layers and
approximate calculating methods could then be used t o determine the f r i c t i o n a l forces t h a t are exerted
on the w a l l s . Evidently t h i s approach breaks down i f flow separations occur, because they w i l l cause
major changes i n the flow pattern awq? f r o m the walls, which cannot be handled by the simplified equations,
primarily not because it i s nearly impossible t o predict what boundaries a separated flow w i l l follow.

These. d i f f i c u l t i e s can be avoided i f measures are taken t h a t no flow separations occur, f o r instance,
by more complete guiding of the flow w i t h additional blade surfaces. However the b e s t turbomachine
alwws has a minimum of guiding surfaces so that,similary t o wing sections, there i s obtained the highest
r a t i o of lift and drag. This optimum always occurs i f the flows are nearly separated and experience even
seems t o indicate t h a t r a d i a l compressor wheels operate most e f f i c i e n t l y i f they have s l i g h t l y separated
flows. This conjecture is supported by Fig. [1412, where the wheel with the highest flow deceleration
has the highest efficiency.

Even i n the absence of flow separations, the ignoring of the f r i c t i o n a l forces along the walls
produces conditions t h a t deviate greatly from r e a l i t y i f flows undergo l a r g e deflections, as for
instance, i n the inducer of a r a d i a l wheel. Large turnings of flows are associated with l a r g e transyeterse
pressure gradients which the p a r t i c l e s i n the w a l l boundary layers can overcome only i f they follow
d i f f e r e n t paths than those of the p a r t i c l e s a w q from the w a l l s . As sham i n Fig. t13(22)11, these
conditions produce the so-called secondary flows which, because of the formation of the peculiar vortex
p a t t e r n of Fig. [l3(21)]1, cause major changes i n the main body of flow outside the boundary layers,
which can be responsible f o r a large f r a c t i o n of the t o t a l losses. Although attempts have been made
by many sources t o e s t a b l i s h t h e o r e t i c a l methods for the prediction of secondary flow phenomena and
the associated losses, t h e i r limited success i s due t o the d i f f i c u l t i e s i n analyzing actual turbulent
flow motions.

The non-steady character of flows i n turbomachines i s mostly ignored, although it i s recognized

t h a t the actual flows i n these machines cannot be steady, A stationary row of blades arranged a f t e r
a r o t o r w i l l have non-steady absolute i n l e t v e l o c i t i e s , even though the r e l a t i v e flow a t the r o t o r
discharge is steady. These conditions occur because of the r o t o r blade wakes and the varying v e l o c i t i e s
i n peripheral d i r e c t i o n between neighboring blades. A x i a l machines with l a r g e numbers of blades w i l l
not be affected g r e a t l y by these conditions, but i n r a d i a l compressors the non-steady e f f e c t s can have
a major influence because of the s m a l l numbers of blades i n r o t o r and diffbsor. I n these machines, where
an e f f e c t i v e diffusor i s necessary f o r high overall e f f i c i e n c i e s , the diffusor not only has an i n l e t
f l o w with great amplitude changes but also with large o s c i l l a t i n g flow angles.

4. PARTICULAR AXSYMMETRIC FLOWS I N ROTORS

Since solutions of the equations f o r isentropic steady flows through f i n i t e l y spaced blades are
d i f f i c u l t t o obtain, it i s customary tg solve the problem i n two steps. For the f i r s t s t e p it i s
assumed t h a t the r o t o r has an i n f i n i t e number of t h i n blades whose geometry corresponds t o , say, the
mean section of the actual blade. For given i n l e t conditions t h i s analysis establishes a s e r i e s of
axisymmetric stream surfaces between the hub and the t i p contours of the rotor. If these axisymmetric
surfaces are intersected by the actual blades, one obtains the so-called quasi two-dimensional flows of
A r t . El211 between neighboring axisymmetric surfaces, which can be solved by a number of d i f f e r e n t
methods. These methods are discussed on pp. [1112 t o [15]2, together with a comparison of the obtained
r e s u l t s with r e a l flow patterns i n radial wheels. I n t h i s paragraph the discussion i s r e s t r i c t e d t o
the f i r s t s t e p which i s considered as a well defined problem f o r which an exact solution has t o be
established. Special cases w i l l be considered o n l y , and general solutions are discussed i n paragraph 5.

An indiscriminate use of Eq. 1 f o r the c i t e d assumptions would give an equation of motion of the
form

vHR ic Wx (0x2, 2 w')

velocity components Vu s a t i s f y the r e l a t i o n R Vu -

For a steady absolute f l o w at the r o t o r i n l e t t h a t has constant t o t k l enthalpy H, and whose peripheral
constant, hence i f they have the same d i s t r i b u t i o n as
i n a free-vortex flow, it can be shown (see Art: cll.411) t h a t the r e l a t i v e t o t a l enthalpy HR i s constant
a t the r o t o r i n l e t i f t h e blade surfaces a r e so designed t h a t the r e l a t i v e f l o w can enter the r o t o r a t
zero incidence angle a t all s t a t i o n s along the leading edges. Since, by Eq. 3, HR i s constant a l s o along
t h e r e l a t i v e streamlines f o r adiabatic, steady conditions, it i s evident t h a t HR must be constant every-
where i n the r e l a t i v e flow f i e l d , or VHR must vanish, hence

This equation i s expressed i n Table E3, p. 15, of Ref. 3 f o r three-dimensional velocity f i e l d s by means
of the axisymmetric, orthogonal, curvilinear system shown i n Table U-1, p. 13, of Ref. 3, or by Fig. [A3(2)11.
Such coordinate systems w i l l henceforth be celled Am-systems, f o r short;
For the assumed axisynunetric flows a t consta$ t o t a l r e l a t i v e enthalpy HR, Eq. 11 establishes a flow
p a t t e r n of the meridional velocity components of W which i s i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t of an absolute i r r o t a t i o n a l
944

flow a t constant t o t a l enthalpy H i n the sane flow channel but without blades. Therefore, it i s
neither affected by the blade shapes nor i s it influenced by d i f f e r e n t angular r o t o r v e l o c i t i e s . As
shown i n Art. C~t.411, it i s solely depending on the shape and the curvatures of the meridional channel
contours and the generatrices of the axisymmetric stream surfaces.

A t an e a r l i e r stage o f t h e development even t h i s approximation had a considerable impact on the

design of r a d i a l wheels. Inspite of i t a shortcomings it showed t h a t meridional generatrices with large
and r a d i c a l Chan@;e6i n curvature could produce considerable changes i n the meridional velocity components
between the inner and outer wheel contours, and could be responsible for large flow decelerations,
especially along the outer wheel contour. These conditions could create the non-uniformities of r o t o r
discharge flows t h a t were often observed. Indeed, the introduction of wheels with larger a x i a l extensions,
giving hub and t i p contours with small and gradually changing curvatures, produced the first significant
increase i n efficiency a f t e r many years of stagnant development.

A closer examination of the problem indicates, however, t h a t the i n f i n i t e l y small pressure changes
i,n peripheral direction between adjacent blades have a f i n i t e efxect because of the i n f i n i t e number of
blades,which must be accounted f o r by introducing a blade force Fg i n the equation of motion, representing
the force t h a t an element of blade surface exerts on a u n i t mass of f l u i d .

For a steady r o t o r f l o w having a free-vortex type absolute i n l e t flow at constant t o t a l enthalpy H,

there is from Eq. 1 f o r isentropic conditions,

For the assumed f r i c t i o n l e s s flows the vector of the blade force must be perpendicular t o the blade
surface a t a l l s t a t i o n s , and must point i n such directions as t o require t h a t a compresgor r o t o r needs
t o be driven by an outside source. Hence the blade surface must be known t o e s t a b l i s h FB,and it must be
so arranged t h a t the desired i n l e t and discharge flow conditions can be achieved without sudden changes
i n f l o w angle.

Equation 12 w i l l now be applied t o a compressor wheel of the type shown i n Fig. h12, i n p a r t i c u l a r ,
t o the impeller w i t h s t r a i g h t meridional blades a r r q e d a f t e r the inducer. For the axisynrmetric through-
f l o w sclution the a c t u a l impeller blades are replaced by an i n f i n i t e iiumber of mxridional half-planes.
Thus, Fg points everywhere i n peri&eral s r e @ o n , and the r e l a t i v e v e l o c i t i e s W cannot have peripheral
velocity components. Expressing w x ( V ~ W + ~ ~for ) t h i s condition,by using the r e l a t i o n s of Table E!-3,
p. 15, of Ref. 3, it can be seen t h a t
A 2 -
FB 2 wxw
and

Equation U shows t h a t the blade force ?B per u n i t m&s d f l u i . equals the Coriolis acceleration.
Hence, the flow exerts a force -
FB on the blade surface. Then, i f W has r a d i a l components t h a t point
away from the axis, the necessary r o t o r driving moment i s i n opposite d i r e c t i o n t o w , as i s the case f o r
a canpressor.

EquQion 14 indicates t h a t the vectors $ and V x ? have t o be p a r a l l e l without necessarily requiring

that V x W must be zero. It can be shown t h a t , f o r the impeller with straight meridional blades, the
flow p a t t e r n specified by Eq. 14 is i d e n t i c a l with t h a t obtained from Eq. ll. Hence f o r meridional blades
t h e velocity d i s t r i b u t i o n s are also not affected b y w , but depend odly on the shape of the axisynrmetric
stream surfaces, i n p a r t i c u l a r , on the curvatures of t h e i r generatrices.

5. AXTSYMMETRIC FLOWS I N ROTORS WITH ARBITRARY BLAEE SHAPES

Although several methods of solution are available t o obtain flow patterns i n r o t o r s with a r b i t r a r y
blade shapes, the present discussion i s r e s t r i c t e d t o the approach of Ref. 1. Further, a l i m i t a t i o n i s
made by considering only the equation of motion of Eq. 12 which is v a l i d f o r steady r o t o r flows with
constant r e l a t i v e t o t a l enthalpy HR. To solve Eq. 12 correctly for the above-mentioned assumptions it i s
necessary that the shape of the i n f i n i t e l y m a n y and i n f i n i t e l y t h i n blade surfaces be specified a t a l l
s t a t i o n s i n the f i e l d .

Since the meridional flow channel of an a r b i t r a r y r o t o r is bounded by surfaces of revolution a t hub

and t i p , and because the flows under consideration have axisymmetric stream surfaces, it i s of advantage
t o use the earlier-mentioned AOC-coordinate systems f o r the evaluation of the flow patterns. Cylindrical
and spherical coordinate systems are special cases of a general ACC-system. Most calculating schemes
involve methods of successive approximations i n the manner t h a t axisynrmetric stream surfaces are assumed,
and t h a t they are modified i n the course of the calculations u n t i l the equations of motions and continuity,
and the energy equation, are s a t i s f i e d . These stream surfaces between hub and t i p are taken as coordinate
surfaces having the so-called m-generatrices, or meridians, along which the coordinates m are measured i n
actual lengths. Evidently, the generatrices of the inner and outer w a l l s are m-generatrices also. They
are, i n f a c t , the o n l y ones t h a t are fixed. For this discussion it w i l l be assumed t h a t the whole f a m i l y
of m-generatrices i s known. It i s possible then t o e s t a b l i s h a net of so-called n-generatrices, o r normals,
t h a t are werywhere orthogonal t o t h e m-generatrices, and along which the coordinates n are measured.
Obviously i f the m-generatrices are modified during the successive approximations, the n-generatrices w i l l
have t o be adjusted a l s o t o maintain theorthogonalitybetween t h e two nets of curves. All AOC-systems
contain further a fan of M f - p l a n e s through the axis of symmetry, the so-called meridional planes, o r
planes wit! e= constant. Each one of these planes is specified by i t s angle 8 with respect t o a fixed
 9-5

reference meridional plane. Thus, s t a t i o n s i n the flow f i e l d are completely specified by t h e i r

coordinates my n, and 8 .
A s shown on page [51411, it is possible t o e s t a b l i s h the d i f f e r e n t i a l
parameters V, V- ,
V x , etc., f o r general AOC-systems. They are functions of the distance R f r o m
the axis of symmetry, the angle a between the tangents Bo the n-curves and the axis, the curvatures
and kn of the m- and n-curves, and the coordinates m y n, and 8 .
Because the m-curves are supposed
t o be the generatrices of the stream surfaces of the flow, no velocity canponents can e x i s t i n d i r e c t i o n
of the normals n. However, there do occur components Wm and Wu along the m-curves and i n peripheral
dire$Son, respectively. For these components it i s then possible t o express the quantity
w X ( v xW + zz)of Eq. 12, which represents a vector f i e l d with components i n directions of the
coordinates m y n, and 8 .
A given blade surface,that meets the i n l e t and discharge flow conditions of the rotor, is described
completely by i t s intersections with a number of successive meridional planes which i n t u r n are
specified by t h e i r angles B . The i n t e r s e c t i o n of the blade surface with a p a r t i c u l a r plane 8 = constant
i s called the 8 -curve of the blade surface. All these 8 - c u r v e s can be shown i n a p a r t i c u l a r meridional
plane and form a family of curves which, together with the pertaining angles 8 of the planes B = constant,
where the blade i n t e r s e c t i o n occurs i n a c t u a l i t y , specify the blade surface i n i t s entirety. Evidently,
the @-curves of a given blade surface remain fixed even though the nets of m-curves and n-curves have t o
be modified during the calculations.

Article c l l . 2 1 1 shows how the 8 -curves can be used t o determine the deviations of the blade surface
from the r a d i a l directions t o estimate, f o r instance, the bending s t r e s s e s i f t t h e blades due t o centrifugal
forces, and gives r e l a t i o n s t o e s t a b l i s h the d i r e c t i o n s of the blade forces %which are everywhere perpen-
dicular t o the blade surface. A t all s t a t i o n s , the r e l a t i v e velocity vectors W muet be tangent t o t h 5
closely spwed blade surfaces. "he r e l a t i v e flow angles /3 are defined as the angles of the veciors W
with the meridional planes. They a r e not given by the blade surface alone, because the vectors W must
a l s o be tangent t o the stream surfaces which have the m-curves as generatrices. However f o r a given s e t
of these curves the angles p a r e known. Then

wu = wm tanp
A
where Wu anda% are the peripheral and meridional velocity components of W. For known angles p the
blade force Fg can be formulated also, and from Eq. 1 2 there is then obtained a d i f f e r e n t i a l equation
of the form

where XI, 4,X3 are known functions of m and n t h a t depend on the nets of the m-curves and 11-curves,
and on the shape of the blade surface.

Equation 15 can be used t o determine the d i s t r i b u t i o n ef the meridional velocity component Wm i n

the f i e l d . It c+ be noted, however, t h a t Eq. 15 contains derivates of W, i n the directions of n and m.
The term with aWm / a m occurs because of the blade force. I n p a r t i c u l a r the function X1 equals

where b i s the angle between the 0 -curve of the blade surface and the normal n a t p a r t i c u l a r stations.

The p a r t i a l d i f f e r e n t i a l equation of Eq. 15 can be transformed i n t o an ordinary d i f f e r e n t i a l

equation i f the method of solving along p w t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s applied. These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a r e curves i n the meridionalplane t h a t have the angle y with the normals, where

I f the lengths measured along these characteristicsaredenoted by x, Eq. 15 can be written as

where the functions Y1 and Y2 are r e l a t e d t o the functions X1, $, and 5, Equation 18 represents a
l i n e a r d i f f e r e n t i a l equation which has the solution

C is a constant t h a t can be determined by applying the equation of continuity.

Some methods t r y t o avoid the complications associated with the establishing of the c h a r a c t e r i s t t c s ,
by limiting the analysis t o p a r t i c u l a r blade shapes, namely, frequently t o those which are ealled "normal"
blade surfaces i n Ref. 1, and whose angles d of Eqs. 16 a n i 17 are everywhere zero. Thus, a normal
blade surface h a s 8 -curves t h a t coincide everywhere w i t h the normals, o r n-generatrices. Then the
function Xl of Eq. 16 i s zero and the velocity components % can be obtained d i r e c t l y from Eq. 19 by
integration along the normals. Hence, these methods do not deal with a fixed blade surface, but with one
9- 6

t h a t changes i t s shape i f the n-generatrices must bg modified i n the course of performing the successive
approximations. Such methods usually specify the flow angles p along the normals. I n some cases it
then occur t h a t the blade surfaces t h a t r e s u l t , namely, those with the f i n a l n-generatrices f o r the
chosen flow angles, have shapes which e i t h e r cannot be b u i l t for manufacturing reason, o r deviate so
much f r o m the r a d i a l direction t h a t the bending s t r e s s e s during r o t a t i o n become excessive.

If the method of solution with c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s applied, it &an be shown t h a t the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

terminate at the leading and t r a i l i n g edges of the blade surfaces, and then continue as "normals" i n t o
the non-bladed regions of the flow channel. Hence i f it i s assumed a p r i o r i t h a t the blade surfaces a r e
normal blade surfaces, the analysis cannot investigate the condilions t h a t occur with obliquely cut-off
leading edges o r t r a i l i n g edges of the blades, i n f a c t , the method has d i f f i c u l t i e s i n producing compatible I
flow conditions a t the r o t o r i n l e t and discharge unless the blade terminates at locations where the correct
normals can be established a p r i o r i also.

6. APPLICABILLTY OF AXISYMMETRIC THROUGH-FLOW METHODS

For the analyses discussed above it i s necessary t o assume t h a t the flow follows the hub and t i p
contours of the flow channel, hence these surfaces must be the stream surfaces t h a t form the boundaries
of the f l o w f i e l d . The velocity p r o f i l e s of and the cushionin@;e f f e c t s due t o t h e boundary l a y e r s a t
these surfaces, and the velocity changes and disturbances that are created by the t i p clearance flows and
scrubbing e f f e c t s i n unshrouded wheels, cannot be taken i n t o account. Although the conditions t h a t
occur with f l o w incidence angles a t the blade leading edges can be treated i n an approximate manner,
primarily a s f a r a s the associated changes i n r e l a t i v e t o t a l enthalpy are concerned, the assumption of
a x i a l flow symmetry precludes investigations t o establish optimum conditions a t the r o t o r i n l e t . The
same assumption makes it .impossible a l s o t o take account of losses. They can be considered only i n the
equation of continuity as a uniformly distributed e f f e c t t h a t changes the mass density of the f l u i d .

Reference 2 discusses the lack of knowledge i n predicting the permissible flow decelerations i n
compressor rotors. Equally lacking i s information t h a t gives c r i t e r i a for the permissible velocity
changes along the inner and outer wheel contours.

I n a c t u a l i t y the described methods cannot take account of disturbances t h a t are created by the flows
downstream of the r o t o r , i n f a c t , t h i s s i t u a t i o n very frequently creates incompatfbilities between the
calculated pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n s a t the t r a i l i n g edges of the blading and those which are imposed by
elements arranged a f t e r the r o t o r .

It was shown e a r l i e r t h a t the methods give only limited information about the flow i n the impeller
p a r t s t h a t have r a d i a l blades, inasmuch as the flow patterns are only influenced by the streamline
curvatures and t h a t the e f f e c t s of the Coriolis accelerations have no bearing on the velocity changes.
Hence small changes i n the assumed net of streamlines,which can s t i l l be associated with large changes
i n t h e i r curvatures,may produce considerable deviations i n the f l o w d i s t r i b u t i o n s which are d i f f i c u l t
t o evaluate f o r lack of a firm basis.

It seems t o the writer t h a t the maximum benefits of the method a r i s e with determination of the flow
conditions i n the inducer p a r t of a radial wheels, not so much as far absolute acouracy i s concerned but
with regard t o comparison of r e l a t i v e e f f e c t s of design changes. Limitations are however imposed because
of the i n a b i l i t y of the method t o deal with supersonic flow phenomena. Reference 2 mentions the possible
advantages of p a r t i c u l a r leading edge configurations, and calculations i n t h i s direction have produced
i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s by applying the method of solution with the afore-mentioned c h a r a c t e r i s t i c curves,
i n contrast t o the approach with "normal" blade surfaces which cannot deal with such blade shapes. A s
pointed out i n Ref. 2 also, the discussed method represents the only approach, a t l e a s t t o t h i s date,
t h a t can provide data with regards t o the e f f e c t s of blade shapes of the inducer p a r t s , since these
bladings cannot be analyzed with the usual cascade theories because the flow a t the inducer discharge
enters the individual blade channel of the r a d i a l wheel.

Although the so-called blade-to-blade solutions are discussed i n Ref. 2, it should be pointed out
here t h a t the usual approach of applying the r e s u l t s of the axisymmetric calculations t o f i n i t e blade
spacings, t h a t i s based on the moment of momentum considerations of Art. [ll.l.211, gives erroneous
r e s u l t s near the rotor discharge because it cannot take account of the equalizing of the pressures on the
suction and pressure sides of the blades. However, a t the discharge of the inducer, where i t s blades
meet the impeller blades, t h i s approach w i l l provide interesting information which can be used f o r the
design of improved inducer bladings.

FEFERENCES

1. Vavra, M. H. Aerothermodynamics and Flow i n Turbomachines, Wiley Bros., New York 1960.

2. Vavra, M. H. Basic Elements for Advanced Designs of Radial-Flow Compressors, AGARD Lecture
Series No. 39, 1970.

3. Vavra, M. H. "Axial Flow Turbines," Von Karman I n s t i t u t e , Brussels, Lecture Series 15,
April 1969.
 10

CONCLUSIONS

bY
J. C H A W I N - Leoture Seriee Direotor
10

The i n t e r e s t i n advanced compressors has been shown by t h e number and q u a l i t y of people a t t e n d i n g

t h e course (84 i n t o t a l ) , r e p r e s e n t i n g most of t h e companies, r e s e a r c h or t e a c h i n g establishments
coping with turbomachinery i n Europe, with a small d e l e g a t i o n from t h e U.S.A. and Canada.

%om i t s i n i t i a t i o n , t h e Leoture S e r i e s has been l i m i t e d i n time t o two days i n each of t h e h o s t

o c u n t r i e s , Belgium and Norway. T h i s has, i n t u r n , l i m i t e d i t s scope, which was a r b i t r a r i l y chosen,
t o oover only some of t h e main f o r e f r o n t problems of t h e f l u i d mechanio design ofadvanoed (i.e. high
p r e s s u r e r a t i o ) axial and r a d i a l compressors. It i s t h e r e f o r e fragmentary, b u t it i s t h e course
d i r e c t o r ' s f e e l i n g that it i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of t h e main a r e a of p a s t progress and f u t u r e research.

Due t o t h e l i m i t e d time, t h e verbal p r e s e n t a t i o n s had t o be r a t h e r s u c c i n t , b u t t h e message was

obviously c a r r i e d a c r o s s t o t h e a u d i t o r s . The w r i t t e n c o n t r i b u t i o n s a r e c l e a r l y more comprehensive, and
t h e a u t h o r s have t o be thanked f o r providing a n e x c e l l e n t s e t o f n o t e s , which cover, i n most c a s e s ,
h i t h e r t o unpublished or o r i g i n a l d a t a or approaches. Some of t h e v e r b a l p r e s e n t a t i o n even included
a d d i t i o n a l o r i g i n a l information gained between t e x t p u b l i c a t i o n and p r e s e n t a t i o n .

Although turbomachinists can be proud of t h e achievement made i n high performance axial and radial
compressors, t h e Lecture S e r i e s has c l e a r l y shown t h e urgent need f o r m o r e information and t h e r e f o r e
more d e t a i l e d r e s e a r c h on t h e d e t a i l e d flow behaviour between blade passages. This i s v a l i d as w e l l f o r
a x i a l compressors as for inducers, i m p e l l e r s and d i f f u s o r s of h i g h p r e s s u r e r a t i o , small mass flow
r a d i a l compressors. The r e a l behaviour of t h e flow, a f f e c t e d by boundary l a y e r s e p a r a t i o n , shook
boundary l a y e r i n t e r a c t i o n , unsteady flow, C o r i o l i s and c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e s i s n o t y e t f u l l y understood.
Even t h e a p p a r e n t l y simple q u e s t i o n of t h e v a l i d i t y of high speed cascade data when a p p l i e d t o real
machine or of t h e way t o apply them, i s n o t s a t i s f a c t o r i l y solved, although t h e work c a r r i e d o u t by t h e
groups of P r o f e s s o r Vavra, Mr. F a b r i and Mr. Starken i s expeoted t o throw much more l i g h t on this
p a r t i c u l a r problem i n t h e near future.

It i s e v i d e n t that i f we want t o progress f u r t h e r , and in p a r t i c u l a r t o achieve within the n e x t

decade, t h e same order of i n c r e a s e of p r e s s u r e r a t i o per stage, a t almost c o n s t a n t e f f i c i e n c y that has
been achieved i n t h e last t e n y e a r s , we need t o develop more t h e o r e t i o a l work, b u t p a r t i o u l a r l y , b e t t e r
experimental techniques t o explore t h e complicated three-dimensional, unsteady v i s c o u s compressible flow
i n s i d e t h e turbomachines, without d i s t u r b i n g t o o much t h e flow by t h e i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n (laser-beam holo-
grams, probe m i n i a t u r i s a t i o n , measurements i n r o t a t i o n ) . We a r e confident that success can be achieved
w i t h i n a reasonable period of time and that t h e corresponding investment i s worthwhile. Already, t h e
development of advanced material has removed t h e l i m i t a t i o n s on p e r i p h e r a l speed.

As mentioned e a r l i e r , only some p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t s of t h e problems a s s o c i a t e d with advanoed

compressors have been examined i n t h i s Lecture Series.

It would be worthwhile, as a follow-iup, t o envisage a d d i t i o n a l courses on s u b j e c t s such as off-

design performanoe, s t a l l and surge e v a l u a t i o n , mechanical problems, such as bearings, shaft, s t r e s s i n g
and v i b r a t i o n s of d i s k s and bladings, manufacturing problems and m a t e r i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h i n a
reasonable p e r i o d of time.

fiom t h e experienoe of t h i s course, we a r e confident that t h e i n i t i a t i v e would be w e l l r00eIved.

' I
0 i
I-.

0
a
cl
0
a

m m
N
I- c
N

*
W A
W
Po Po
W
0
r 8
r
W W

Y Y.

m a
N N
I-
r

*
W *
W
m Po
0
r
W 0
IW
-

W W
 m
N
c

w
m
0
2
w

r i.
0 0
E?
5 <2
I-.
m
a
cl
0
a"

sr
w
m
0
c
W

w
 NATIONAL DISTRIBUTIOh CENTRES,'FOR UNCLA8SIFIED AOARD PUBLICATIONS
Onclusified MMD plbllcationa w distributed k i NMQ k b r N a t i m
tbrourtl ths UIICIMlifi'ed National D i S t r i b n t h h t n s fietad blow

mwNx
Zratralstelle fur Liiftfnbrtdohantation
und Infonution
uuia-mweaia str. 21
I) wiinchen n
Attn: Dr Ins H . J . R A u I U i m
Q-E
Hellenic h d mrcss W a n d
DBrmch. A t I S M

UJ ba pumhved ira:
Microfiche
I