Water Conservation & Rain water Harvesting BCV654A Module - 01

Study Materials
Water Conservation & Rainwater Harvesting
BCV654A
As per VTU syllabus CBCS –
OBE
2022 Scheme
By: Dr. K. Ramesh

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 Water Conservation & Rain water Harvesting BCV654A Module - 01

Course outcome (Course Skill Set)

At the end of the course, the student will be able to:
1. Understand the significance of water, its issues & current status
2. Acquire knowledge on principles of water harvesting & challenges
3. Calculate and prepare design rain harvesting structures
4. Identify various geophysical methods, water management laws and sustainability assessment
process
L1- Remember (this level include: cite, define, describe, identify, label, list, match, name, outline, quote, recall,
report, reproduce, retrieve, show, state, tabulate, and tell.)
L2 – Understand (level include: abstract, arrange, articulate, associate, categorize, clarify, classify, compare,
compute, conclude, contrast, defend, diagram, differentiate, discuss, distinguish, estimate, exemplify, explain,
extend, extrapolate, generalize, give examples of, illustrate, infer, interpolate, interpret, match, outline, paraphrase,
predict, rearrange, reorder, rephrase, represent, restate, summarize, transform, and translate.)
L3 – Apply (this level include: apply, calculate, carry out, classify, complete, compute, demonstrate, dramatize,
employ, examine, execute, experiment, generalize, illustrate, implement, infer, interpret, manipulate, modify,
operate, organize, outline, predict, solve, transfer, translate, and use.)
L4 – Analyze (this level include: analyze, arrange, break down, categorize, classify, compare, connect, contrast,
deconstruct, detect, diagram, differentiate, discriminate, distinguish, divide, explain, identify, integrate, inventory,
order, organize, relate, separate, and structure.)
L5 – Evaluate (this level include: appraise, apprise, argue, assess, compare, conclude, consider, contrast, convince,
criticize, critique, decide, determine, discriminate, evaluate, grade, judge, justify, measure, rank, rate, recommend,
review, score, select, standardize, support, test, and validate.)
L6 – Create (this level include: arrange, assemble, build, collect, combine, compile, compose, constitute, construct,
create, design, develop, devise, formulate, generate, hypothesize, integrate, invent, make, manage, modify, organize,
perform, plan, prepare, produce, propose, rearrange, reconstruct, reorganize, revise, rewrite, specify, synthesize, and
write.)

MODULE - 1
Syllabus
Water and its importance. Monsoon– types and behavior in India, rainfall– characteristics and
distribution, onset and withdrawal of effective rains, dry spells and wet spells, critical dry spells,
water loss from the soil, measurement and factors, hydrological cycle, Importance and issues
relating water status Scenario of water in Karnataka: sources, geographical distribution, quality.
Water (hydrological) cycle, influence of human activity on the water cycle, Surface water
resources.

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Monsoon

A monsoon is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes

in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and
precipitation associated with annual latitudinal oscillation of the Intertropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ) between its limits to the north and south of the equator. Usually,

The term monsoon is used to refer to the rainy phase of a seasonally changing pattern, although
technically there is also a dry phase. The term is also sometimes used to describe locally heavy but
short-term rains generally, across the world; the monsoons are experienced in the tropical
area roughly between 20° N and 20° S.

The climate of India is described as the ‘monsoon’ type. In Asia, this type of climate is
found mainly in the south and the southeast.

Out of a total of 4 seasonal divisions of India, monsoons occupy 2 divisions, namely.

 The south west monsoon season - Rainfall received from the south west monsoons
is seasonal in character, which occurs between June and September.
 The retreating monsoon season - The months of October and November are
known for retreating monsoons.

Factors Influencing South- West Monsoon Formation

 The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates a low pressure on
the land mass of India while the seas around experience comparatively high pressure
 The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) in summer,
over the Ganga plain (this is the equatorial trough normally positioned about 5°N of the
equator. It is also known as the monsoon - trough during the monsoon season).
Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ,) is a broad trough of low pressure in
equatorial latitudes. This is where the north east and the south east trade winds

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converge.
This convergence zone lies more or less parallel to the equator but moves north or
south with the apparent movement of the sun.
• The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Madagascar, approximately at
20°S over the Indian Ocean. The intensity and position of this high- pressure area
affect the Indian Monsoon.
• The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer, which results in strong
vertical air currents and the formation of low pressure over the plateau at about 9 km
above sea level.
• The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and the
presence of the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during
summer
• Tropical Easterly Jet (African Easterly Jet).
• Southern Oscillation (SO): Normally when the tropical eastern south Pacific
Ocean experiences high pressure, the tropical eastern Indian Ocean experiences
low pressure. But in certain years, there is a reversal in the pressure conditions
and the eastern Pacific has lower pressure in comparison to the eastern Indian
Ocean. This periodic change in pressure conditions is known as the SO.
El Nino
This is a name given to the periodic development of a warm ocean current along the
coast of Peru as a temporary replacement of the cold Peruvian current. ‘El Nino’ is a
Spanish word meaning ‘the child’, and refers to the baby Christ, as this current starts
flowing during Christmas. The presence of the El Nino leads to an increase in sea-
surface temperatures and weakening of the trade winds in the region.
Mechanism

Onset of the South-West Monsoon

• The location of ITCZ shifts north and south of the equator with the apparent
movement of the Sun.

• During the month of June, the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer

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and the ITCZ shifts northwards.

• The south east trade winds of the southern hemisphere cross the equator and start
blowing in south west to north east direction under the influence of Co roil is
force.

• These winds collect moisture as they travel over the warm Indian Ocean.

• In the month of July, the ITCZ shifts to 20°-25°N latitude a dislocated in the
Indo- Gangetic Plain and the south- west monsoons blow from the Arabian Sea
and the Bay of Bengal. The ITCZ in this position is often called the Monsoon
Trough.

• The shift in the position of the ITCZ is also related to the phenomenon of the
withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from its position over the north Indian plain,
south of the Himalayas.

• The easterly Jet Stream (Somali Jet) sets in along 15°N latitude only after the
western jet stream has withdrawn itself from the region. This easterly jet stream is
held responsible for the burst of the monsoon in India.

• As these winds approach the land, their south westerly direction is modified by the
relief and thermal low pressure over North West India. The monsoon approaches the
Indian land mass in two branches:

1. The Arabian Sea branch – The monsoon winds originating over the
Arabian Sea.
2. The Bay of Bengal branch-The Arakan Hills along the coast of Myanmar
deflect a big portion of this branch towards the Indian subcontinent. The
monsoon, therefore, enters West Bengal and Bangladesh from south and
southeast instead of from the south-westerly direction.
• Another phenomenon associated with the monsoon is its tendency to have
‘breaks’ in rain fall. The monsoon rains take place only for a few days at a time.

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They are interspersed with rainless intervals. These breaks in monsoon are
related to the movement of the monsoon trough.

Despite an overall unity in the general pattern, there are perceptible regional variations in
climatic conditions within the country.

Retreating Monsoon Season

 There treating southwest monsoon season is marked by clear skies and rise

in temperature. The land is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high temperature
and humidity, the weather becomes rather oppressive. This is commonly known as
the ‘October heat’.
 In the second half of October, the mercury begins of all rapidly, particularly in
northern India. The weather in there treating monsoon is dry in north India but it is
associated with rain in the eastern part of the Peninsula. Here, October and
November are the rainiest months of the year.
 The widespread rain in this season is associated with the passage of cyclonic
depressions which originate over the Andaman Sea and manage to cross the
eastern coast of the southern Peninsula. These tropical cyclones are very
destructive.
 A bulk of the rainfall of the Coromandel Coast is derived from these depressions
and cyclones. Unlike the rest of the country, which receives rain in the southwest east

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monsoon is crucial for farming monsoon season between June and September, the
north and Water security in the south.

Impact of Monsoons on Life in India

Positive
• About 64% of people in India depend on agriculture for their livelihood
and agriculture itself is based on monsoon.
• Agricultural prosperity of India depends very much on timely and
adequately distributed rainfall. If it fails, agriculture is adversely affected
particularly in those regions where means of irrigation are not developed.
• Regional variations in monsoon climate help in growing various types of
crops.
• Regional monsoon variation in India is reflected in the vast variety of
food, clothes and house types.
• Monsoon rain helps recharge dams and reservoirs, which is further
used for the generation of hydro-electric power.
• Winter rainfall by temperate cyclones in north India is highly beneficial

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for Rabi crops.

Negative
• Variability of rainfall brings droughts or floods every year in some parts of the
country.
• Sudden monsoon burst creates a problem of soil erosion over large areas in
India.
• In hilly areas sudden rainfall brings landslide which damages natural and
physical infrastructure subsequently disrupting human life economically as
well as socially.

Monsoon Prediction in India

• More than a century ago, when there were no computers, IMD’s forecasts
depended only on snow cover. Lesser cover meant a better monsoon.

• British physicist Gilbert Walker, who headed the IMD, designed a statistical
weather model–an empirical way of predicting the weather–based on the
relationship between two weather phenomena

• In 2014, the IMD started to use numerical models to supplement statistical

models for long- range forecasting as well.

• Now, although the numerical models used by the IMD are state-of-the-art–
developed by the US National Centers for Environmental Prediction –their
forecast capacity is still weak because a longer period of forecast creates
more uncertainty in prediction.

• At the moment, the IMD provides district-wise weather data but it’s not
sufficient; because when IMD says there will be scattered rainfall over a
particular district, it means that26-50% that district (by area) will receive
rainfall.

• The IMD collects weather data like temperature, humidity, wind and
precipitation through 679 automatic weather stations, 550 surface
observatories, 43 radios weather balloons, 24 radars and three satellites.

• Currently, highly advanced dynamical models need super computers. Prediction

models will not run until proper data about current weather conditions is
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available.
Factors Responsible for Inaccurate Monsoon Forecast
• The lack of data due to insufficient monitoring stations.
• Automatic weather stations are of substandard quality. They need to be
calibrated and cleaned regularly, which does not happen often. That affects
data.
• Then, there are major data gaps, like those involving dust, aerosols, soil
moisture and maritime conditions are not monitored.
• The models that we have brought from the west have been developed by
western scientists to forecast in their region, little progress has been made is
the fine-tuning of weather models to suit Indian conditions.
• Lack of competent software professionals and scientists working with the
IMD.

Recent Indian Initiatives

It is crucial for farmers (sowing, harvesting, etc.) and policymakers (payment of

compensation, minimum support price, etc.) to know when and for how long the
monsoon will remain active over India. For that, better predictions and timely
advisories are needed.
To achieve this following initiatives have been taken:
1. Monsoon Mission of India
This initiative of Ministry of Earth Sciences, launched in 2012, has utilized new
approaches (high resolution, super parameterizations, data as simulation etc.) so that
fore cast skill gets quantitatively improved further for forecasting services of India
Meteorological Department (IMD). For the first time, India Meteorological
Department used the Monsoon Mission dynamical model to prepare operational
seasonal forecast of 2017 monsoon rainfall over India.
Objectives
1. To improve Seasonal and Intra- seasonal Monsoon Forecast

2. To improve Medium Range Forecast.

IMD in collaboration with Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)

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provides district-level agro-meteorological advisories to farmers through 130

agro-met field units in vernacular languages.

These advisories are used for critical farm

operations such as:

o Management of sowing (delayed onset of rains);

o Changing crop variety(delay in rainfall);

o Spraying Pesticides for disease control (occurrence of rainfall);

o Managing Irrigation (Heavy rainfall Forecast).

2. India Meteorological Department (IMD) provides meteorological
support to the Central Water Commission (CWC) for issuing flood
warnings.

RAINFALL–CHARACTERISTICS AND DISTRIBUTION

Rain is not only essential for plant growth but it is equally important for better survival of
life. Formation of rainfall occurs when saturated air is heated and rises either by a frontal action or
by a mountain. With the rising process saturated air or water vapor cools down and further they
attach themselves to tiny particles of dust salt, seeds or smoke in the atmosphere. These attached
particles are also known as condensed nuclei. When so many condensed nuclei join together then
there occurs a process of condensation. This condensation process is necessary for formation of
rain drop. Further raindrop leads to the formation of clouds.

Classification of Rainfall
On the basis of origin rain fall is classified into three types:
1. Conventional rainfall
2. Orographic rainfall or relief rainfall
3. Cyclonic rainfall or frontal rainfall

Convectional Rainfall:

The formation of convectional rainfall occurs when air is on the surface of the earth or a few
meters above the surface of the earth it is heated by the sun. Once the air is heated it becomes lighter

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and further this lighter air rises up and cools down and condenses on the condensation nuclei which
are present in the atmosphere. This is because of the fact that only a small surface of area is covered
by converging air. As soon as air convergent it gets condense to form a thick cumulus cloud. As the
cloud rises up they become unstable and because of this instability cloud drops on the ground in the
form of raindrops or rainfall.

Characteristic Features of Conventional Rainfall:

1. Once the air gets heated they become light and rise in convection current.
2. With the rise of air they expand and the temperature drops down and by this condensation
process takes place and forms clouds.
3. Convectional rain fall is usually in the summer or the hotter part of the day.
4. Such rainfall is mainly associated with hail and grapple.
5. The equatorial region and internal part of the continents mainly in the Northern
hemisphere receive conventional rainfall.

Orographic or Relief Rain fall:

When wind forces moist air landwards towards the mountain’s terrain then the mountain further
lifts the moist air in an upward direction that is into the atmosphere. Once the air reaches the
atmosphere it cools down and undergoes a precipitation process.
With rising in winter water vapor they started becoming unstable and heavy and because of this
they develop around conventional nuclei and form thick clouds. Further, this cloud moves up and
becomes an unstable water droplet. And after this, they fall on the ground as raindrops.

Characteristic Features of Orographic or Relief Rainfall:

1. The principal characteristic behind this type of rainfall is that the wind ward slope gets
heavy rainfall.
2. The reason located on the leeward side opposite side is known to be rain-shadow area.
3. This rainfall is seen in mountainous areas and along hills.
4. Mountains act as an obstacle that force vapor to rise which leads to orographic rainfall.

Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall:

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It is the last type of rainfall and occurs when two air masses that have different characteristics
combine to gather. For example when a warm Maritime air mass combines with a cold heavier air
mass then in that case the warm air mass is under cut by cold air mass. And because of this warm air
mass is forced to move up because of its light weightiness. And warm water vapor cools down as it
rises up which lead to the condensation process and a cloud is formed and the condensation nuclei in
the atmosphere. With rise in clouds they become unstable as more water droplets are accumulated in
the cloud and they fall on the ground in the form of cyclonic rainfall.

Characteristic Features of Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall:

1. The Tropic and Temperate Zones receive such rainfall.

2. The layer which separates two masses of air is known as the front.

3. The type of rainfall is mainly for a few hours to a few days.

Effects of Rainfall

Water is considered as one of the most valuable resources on the earth and rainfall is the only
way by which all the water reservoirs can be filled. This reservoir’s supply of drinking water is
done. Along with that water is also a Habitat for fish to leave, also nourishes the soil for proper
vegetation as while doing agriculture practice water helps both people and animals for harvesting
and for the consumption process also. Among all the sources of water, rainfall is considered as one
of the major sources. Sometimes rainfall also has a negative effect like it causes soil erosion when
rain is having high pH. Along with that, it can also cause natural disasters which destroy properties
and lives also.

Cyclonic Rainfall–Major Characteristics

Cyclonic activity causes cyclonic rain and it occurs along the fronts of the cyclone. When two
masses of air of unlike density, temperature, and humidity meet the nit is formed. The layer that
separates them is known as the front. A warm front and the cold front are the two parts of the front.

At the warm front, the warm lighter wind increases slightly over the heavier cold air. As the warm
air rises, it cools, and the moisture present in it condenses to form clouds this rain falls gradually for a
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few hours to a few days.

Types of Rainfall based on Intensity

The types of rainfall based on intensity can be classified as:

1. Light rain–Rate of rain varies between0to2.5millimetres
2. Moderate rain–Rate of rain varies between 2.6 millimeters to7.6 millimeters
3. Heavy rain–Rate of rain is beyond7.6millimetres
Notes on Rainfall: Characteristics and Distribution

1. Characteristics of Rainfall

 Definition: Rainfall is the process by which water vapor in the atmosphere condenses
into droplets that fall to the Earth's surface due to gravity. It is a key component of the
Earth's hydrological cycle.

 Measurement: Rain fall is typically measured in millimeters (mm) or inches (in)

using instruments such as rain gauges. The amount of rain fall is often recorded over a
specific period (daily, monthly, or annually).

 Intensity:

a. Light Rain: Less than2.5mmperhour.

b. Moderate Rain: 2.5mm to7.5mm per hour.

c. Heavy Rain: More than7.5 mm per hour.

d. Very Heavy Rain: More than 50 mm per hour.

 Duration: Rainfall can vary in duration, ranging from brief showers (minutes) to

prolonged periods of rain (days or weeks).

2. Distribution of Rainfall

 Tropical Regions:

a. High rainfall throughout the year.

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b. Rain is typically heavy and frequent, with distinct wet and dry seasons in some
areas.

c. Equatorial regions, such as the Amazon and Congo basins, receive abundant
rainfall due to convectional processes.

 Desert Regions:

a. Very low rainfall, often less than 250 mm annually.

b. Deserts like the Sahara and Arabian Desert receive minimal rainfall due to high-
pressure systems and descending air currents.

 Temperate Regions:

a. Moderate rainfall throughout the year.

b. Characterized by frontal rainfall, with distinct wet and dry seasons, as seen in
regions like Western Europe and the eastern United States.

 Mountainous Areas:

a. Orographic rainfall leads to high precipitation on the wind ward side of mountains
and much drier conditions on the lee ward side (rain shadow effect).Example: The
western slopes of the Andes or the Sierra Nevada mountains.

 Monsoon Regions:

o Monsoon winds bring seasonal heavy rainfall during specific periods, such as the
South Asian monsoon.

o Rainfall is concentrated in certain months, often resulting in a wet season followed

by a dry season.

 Polar Regions:

o Very low rainfall, often in the form of snow.

o Polar deserts, such as Antarctica, receive very little precipitation due to extremely cold
temperatures and limited moisture in the air.

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3. Factors Influencing Rainfall Distribution

 Latitude: Regions near the equator (tropical) experience more consistent rainfall, while Polar
Regions receive minimal rainfall.

 Altitude: Higher altitudes can lead to increased rainfall due to orographic effects, where moist
air is lifted and cooled.

 Proximity to Water Bodies: Coastal regions tend to receive more rainfall due to the availability
of moisture from oceans or large lakes.

 Wind Patterns: Winds such as the trade winds, western lies, and monsoon winds influence the
amount of rainfall in different regions.

 Topography: Mountain ranges can create significant variations in rainfall patterns. Windward
side stands to receive more rain, while the leeward sides are drier.

 Seasonal Variations: The Earth's tilt and orbit around the sun lead to changes in seasonal
rainfall patterns, such as in regions affected by monsoons or temperate climates with
distinct wet and dry seasons.

4. Rainfall and Climate Zones

 Tropical Rainforest (AF): High rainfall throughout the year (over 2000mmannually), found in
regions near the equator.

 Desert (BW): Extremely low rainfall, less than 250mm annually.

 Temperate(C): Moderate rainfall with distinct seasonal variation, typically ranging from
600mm to1500 mm annually.

 Mediterranean ( Csa, Csb): Seasonal rainfall, with wet winters and dry summers.

 Continental (D): Rainfall varies greatly, with more precipitation in summer than winter.

 Polar (E): Low rainfall, often in the form of snow, and extreme cold conditions.

Rainfall: Characteristics, Distribution, Onset, and Withdrawal of Effective Rains

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1. Characteristics of Rainfall:
Rainfall is a key component of the hydrological cycle, and its characteristics can vary
significantly depending on several factors like geography, season, and climatic conditions. Some
key characteristics include:
 Amount: This refers to the total volume of rain received in a specific area over a period of
time. It is typically measured in millimeters (mm) or inches.
 Intensity: This is the rate at which rainfall occurs, usually measured in millimeters per hour
(mm/h). Intensity can vary from light showers to heavy downpours.
 Duration: Refers to how long the rain lasts. It can range from short, intense bursts to long-
lasting drizzles.
 Frequency: This refers to how often rainfall occurs in a given period, which can
influence the local climate (e.g., frequent rainfall in tropical areas vs. sporadic rainfall in
arid zones).
 Seasonality: Some regions experience rainfall only during certain seasons (monsoon seasons,
wet [Link] periods).
 Type: Rainfall can also be classified into different types:
o Convectional: Often occurring in tropical areas, due to rising warm air cooling and
condensing.
o Frontal: Occurs when a warm air mass meets a cold air mass, typically in temperate
zones.
o Orographic: When air is forced to rise over mountains, leading to cooling and
precipitation.
o Cyclonic: Associated with low-pressure systems, particularly in tropical and
subtropical regions.

2. Distribution of Rainfall:
Rainfall distribution is highly variable across the globe due to differences in climate
zones, geographical features, and atmospheric circulation patterns. It can generally be divided
into the following:
 Tropical Regions: The equator, particularly areas near the Inter tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ), experiences heavy, frequent rainfall, often throughout the year due to high

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temperatures and convection. Rainfall is often intense but of short duration.

 Desert Regions: These areas, typically found around 30° latitude (both north and south),
receive very little rainfall, often less than 250 mm annually.
 Temperate Regions: These regions have moderate rainfall, with distinct wet and dry seasons.
Much of the rainfall in these regions is frontal in nature, where warm air meets cold air.
 Mountainous Regions: Orographic rainfall results in high rainfall on the wind ward side of
mountains, while the leeward side (rain shadow) often remains dry.
 Polar Regions: Rainfall is very low in these areas, and precipitation often falls as snow.
Rainfall is also influenced by other climatic factors such as:
 Monsoons: Seasonal wind patterns that bring heavy rainfall during certain months, typically
affecting parts of Asia, Africa, and Australia.
 ElN: These phenomena can cause irregular rainfall patterns globally, often bringing droughts
to some regions and excessive rainfall to others.
3. Onset of Effective Rains:
The onset of effective rains marks the beginning of the rainy season, which is critical for
agricultural and ecological cycles in many regions. The onset is influenced by the following:

 Monsoon Onset: In South Asia, for example, the southwest monsoon usually arrives between late
May and June, bringing the onset of the rainy season. The arrival of effective rains is
associated with the shift in atmospheric pressure systems, where low-pressure areas in the Bay
of Bengal or Arabian Sea lead to moisture-laden winds reaching the subcontinent.
 Climate Shifts: The shift in oceanic and atmospheric conditions, such as the movement of the
ITCZ or the retreat of a dry air mass, signals the onset of effective rains. The arrival of tropical
storms or cyclones can also trigger the start of effective rains in coastal areas.
Factors affecting the onset:
Sea Surface Temperatures (SST): Warm ocean waters can intensify atmospheric
convection and lead to earlier or stronger monsoon rains.
 Wind Patterns: Shifting wind directions (e.g., the monsoon winds in India) are critical for the
onset.
 Pressure Systems: Low-pressure systems generally signal the beginning of heavy rainfall.
 Geographical Location: Coastal regions and areas near water bodies tend to experience an

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earlier onset compared to inland areas.

4. With drawl of Effective Rains:
The withdrawal of effective rains marks the end of the rainy season, when rainfall starts to
decrease and the dry season sets in. This process is influenced by various atmospheric and
geographical factors:
 Monsoon Withdrawal: In monsoon-driven climates, the retreat of the monsoon winds marks
the withdrawal of effective rains. For example, in South Asia, after the south west monsoon
peaks in August, it gradually withdraws from the north and west, leaving drier conditions.
 Shifting of the ITCZ: The ITCZ moves with the seasons. Its shift towards the equator during
the dry season causes the retreat of rainfall from higher latitudes.
 Temperature and Humidity: As temperatures decrease or atmospheric moisture levels drop,
the conditions become less favorable for sustained rainfall. This often happens after the peak of
the rainy season.
 Wind Changes: The prevailing winds often shift as the seasons change, leading to the
withdrawal of
Moisture - laden air and the arrival of dry, cooler winds that signal the end of rainfall. The
timing of rainfall withdrawal can vary significantly based on regional conditions:
 Tropical and Subtropical Regions: Withdrawal tends to happen gradually, often influenced
by cyclonic activities or the retreat of the monsoon trough.
 Temperate Regions: Effective rains often start to taper off in autumn as the atmospheric
pressure systems stabilize and temperatures cool.
 Desert and Semi- Arid Regions: In these regions, any rainfall tends to be sporadic, and the
withdrawal may be marked by long periods without rain.
Summary of Key Concepts:
 Rainfall Characteristics: Amount, intensity, duration, frequency, seasonality, and type
(convectional, frontal, orographic, cyclonic).
 Rainfall Distribution: Varies globally due to factors like latitude, geographical features,
atmospheric circulation, and seasonal shifts (e.g., tropical rainforests vs. deserts).
 Onset of Effective Rains: Initiated by changes in atmospheric pressure, wind systems,
and moisture availability (e.g., monsoon onset).
 Withdrawal of Effective Rains: Linked to shifts in atmospheric pressure, wind

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patterns, and seasonal temperature changes (e.g., monsoon retreat). Understanding these factors
is crucial for predicting rainfall patterns, managing water resources, and planning agricultural
activities.

Dry Spell, Wet Spell, and Critical Dry Spell

These terms are typically used in meteorology, agriculture, and hydrology to describe certain
periods in weather patterns and their impact on ecosystems, crop production, and water resources.
Here’s a breakdown:
1. Dry Spell
A dry spell refers to a period of below-average precipitation or drought-like conditions over a
specific duration. It’s characterized by the absence of significant reduction of rainfall for a
period, but it may not meet the threshold for what would officially be called a "drought."
 Duration: Can vary from a few days to several weeks, depending on the region.
 Characteristics:
o Low rainfall or no precipitation.
o Potential impact on agriculture, especially in areas reliant on rainfall for irrigation.
o Soil moisture levels decrease, leading to possible crop stress.
o Water supplies may begin to feel the effects, though it may not yet be critical.
 Implications:
o Short- term water stress for crops, pastures, and other natural vegetation.
o Possible fire risks due to dry conditions.
o Lower River or stream flow, particularly in areas with shallow ground water tables.

2. Wet Spell
A wet spell is essentially the opposite of a dry spell— a period of above-average rainfall or
excessive precipitation. These spells can lead to flooding, water logging, or other water-
related issues.
 Duration: Can last from a few days to several weeks, sometimes extending into months
depending on the season.
 Characteristics:
o Increased rainfall or precipitation that significantly exceeds the average for a specific

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region or season.
o Higher-than- normal moisture levels in the soil and groundwater.
o Potential for rivers, streams, and lakes to rise above their normal levels.
 Implications:
o Risk of flooding, especially in areas that are already prone to heavy rain events.
o Disruption to agricultural activities (e.g., planting, harvesting) due to wet soil or crop
damage.
o Possible delays in transportation, infrastructure damage, and erosion.

3. Critical Dry Spell

A critical dry spell refers to a period of drought-like conditions that lasts long enough to have
significant adverse effects on water resources, agriculture, and ecosystems. A "critical" dry spell
typically has more severe and lasting consequences than a regular dry spell.
 Duration: A critical dry spell lasts longer than a normal dry spell and can extend for several
weeks or even months. The impact becomes more pronounced the longer it persists.
 Characteristics:
o Extremely low rainfall, often for weeks or months.
o Significant reduction in water levels in rivers, lakes, and ground water tables.
o Increased evaporation rates due to higher temperatures, further exacerbating the water
shortage.
o Severe soil moisture depletion, leading to drought conditions in agriculture.
 Implications:
o Agricultural Stress: Crops may fail, and livestock may suffer from water shortages and
lack of feed.
o Water Scarcity: Critical dry spells often lead to water rationing in affected regions, with
restrictions on usage for irrigation, industry, and sometimes even for domestic
consumption.
o Ecosystem Disruption: Forests, wetlands, and other natural ecosystems may suffer from
prolonged dry conditions, which can lead to biodiversity loss.
o Wild fires: The risk of wild fires is heightened due to the dry conditions, particularly in
regions with flammable vegetation.

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o Economic Impact: Critical dry spells can result insignificant economic losses,
particularly in agriculture-dependent economies, as crop yields fall and water shortages
impact industry.
Key Differences between Dry Spell, Wet Spell, and Critical Dry Spell:
Criteria Spell Dry Spell Wet Spell Critical Dry
Duration Short to moderate (days to Short to moderate (days to Longer (weeks to months)
weeks) weeks)
Precipitation Below – average ppt or Above - average
none precipitation Severe lack of rainfall,
leading to drought-like
conditions
Impact on agriculture Minor to moderate stress Can delay or hinder Severe crop damage, crop
agricultural work failures and live stock
stress
Water resources Minor impact on local Possible flooding, Significant water scarcity,
water resources increased water levels potential for water
rationing
Environmental impact Soil moisture decreases, Water logging, erosion Soil degradation and
risk of fires ecosystem disruption,
heightened fire risk

Soil Moisture Measuring Techniques and Factors Affecting the Moisture Dynamics: A
Comprehensive Review

Water Loss from Soil: Overview, Measurements, and Factors

Water loss from soil refers to the process by which water in the soil is depleted due to
evaporation, transpiration by plants, and drainage below the root zone. This is a critical process
for managing irrigation, agriculture, and understanding soil-water dynamics in ecosystems.
Key Processes Contributing to Water Loss
1. Evaporation:
The process by which water is lost directly from the soil surface to the atmosphere due to heat
energy. This is largely driven by solar radiation, wind, and air temperature.
2. Transpiration:
Water is absorbed by plant roots from the soil and then lost through small pores (stomata) on
the leaves into the atmosphere. This is often combined with evaporation and is referred to as
"evapotranspiration" (ET).
3. Drainage/Percolation:
Water can percolate or drain downward through the soil, typically below the root zone, due

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to gravitational forces. This movement may be temporary (e.g., during rainfall) or

continuous in some soils.
4. Runoff:
Water that is not absorbed into the soil due to saturation or high rainfall intensity may flow across
the soil surface into nearby water bodies.
Measuring Water Loss from Soil
1. Evapotranspiration (ET)Measurement
 Methods:
o Gravimetric Method: Weigh soil samples before and after evaporation to estimate the
amount of water lost.
o Pan Evaporation: A standardized approach where the evaporation rate from a water-filled
pan is used as an indicator of ET.
o Lysimeter: A device that directly measures water loss by monitoring the changes in water
content in a soil column.

There are two types:

 Weighing lysimeter: Measures the mass of water lost overtime.
 Non- weighing lysimeter: Measures the volume of water lost from the soil.
o Eddy Covariance: A sophisticated method for measuring actual ET at a larger scale,
using instruments that measure changes in air properties near the soil or plant canopy.
o Soil Moisture Sensors: Can be used to monitor changes in soil moisture, which is
indicative of water loss over time. Sensors such as TDR (Time Domain Reflectometry) or
capacitance probes are commonly used.
 Evapotranspiration Models:
o Penman- Monteith Equation: A widely used model that estimates ET based on weather
data (temperature, humidity, solar radiation, wind speed) and crop characteristics.
o FAO-56: A method provided by the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) for
calculating reference evapotranspiration, used for irrigation scheduling.
2. Soil Water Content Measurement
 Soil Moisture Tensiometer: Measures the tension in the soil (how hard roots must work to
extract water), giving an indirect measure of water availability.

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 Gravimetric Method: Soil samples are weighed before and after drying in an oven to determine
the moisture content.
 Neutron Probe: Measures soil moisture by detecting hydrogen atoms in water using neutron
scattering.
3. Soil Water Potential
 Measured with psychrometers or tensiometers to assess the potential energy of water in the soil,
providing insights into the availability of water to plants.
Factors Affecting Water Loss from Soil
1. Soil Properties:

Texture:
 Clay soils have a high water-holding capacity but low in filtration rates.
 Sandy soils allow water to drain quickly but hold less water.
Structure: Soil structure influences water movement; well- aggregated soils allow better
infiltration.
Organic Matter: Soils with high organic content hold more water and have better water
retention.
2. Climate and Weather Conditions:
o Temperature: Higher temperatures increase evaporation rates.
o Humidity: Low humidity accelerates evaporation since there is a greater gradient
between soil water and atmospheric moisture.
o Wind Speed: Wind increases evaporation by removing the saturated air above the soil,
thus enhancing the rate of water loss.
o Solar Radiation: More solar energy leads to higher evaporation rates, especially when
combined with higher temperatures.
3. Soil Moisture Levels:
o When the soil moisture content is high, the rate of evaporation and transpiration tends to
be higher. As the soil dries, these processes slow down, particularly transpiration, as
plants close their stomata to conserve water.
4. Vegetation Cover:
o Crop Type: Different plants have different transpiration rates. For instance, leafy crops
like corn transpire more water compared to root crops like potatoes.

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o Canopy Cover: Dense vegetation can reduce evaporation from the soil surface by
providing shade.
o Plant Growth Stage: During certain growth phases (e.g., flowering, fruiting), plants
may have higher transpiration rates.
5. Soil Cover and Surface Conditions:
o Mulching: Organic or synthetic mulches can reduce evaporation from the soil surface.
o Surface Crust Formation: A hard surface layer can impede evaporation, although this
layer can also limit water infiltration.
o Soil Surface Roughness: Rough surfaces may increase water retention and slow down
evaporation rates due to decreased wind speed at the soil surface.

6. Water Availability and Irrigation Practices:

o Irrigation: The amount and timing of irrigation directly affect water loss. Over-irrigation
can lead to excessive drainage, while under-irrigation can reduce plant transpiration.
o Rainfall: Periods of rainfall reduce the need for irrigation, influencing water loss
dynamics.
7. Soil Depth and Root Zone:
o A deeper soil profile holds more water, potentially reducing water loss due
to evaporation and transpiration, especially during dry periods.
o Shallow root zones in plants can lead to faster depletion of water resources,
increasing water loss.
Managing Water Loss from Soil
 Irrigation Scheduling: Optimizing irrigation timing to coincide with periods of high
evaporation or high plant water demand.
 Soil Conservation Techniques: Methods like mulching, contour farming, and no-till practices
can help reduce evaporation and improve water retention.
 Water Stress Management: For crops, managing periods of water stress can help control
unnecessary water loss, promoting efficient water use.
 Rainwater Harvesting: Collecting and storing rain water for later use during dry periods helps
reduce reliance on irrigation systems.
What is Water?

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 Water, a substance consists of the chemical elements oxygen and hydrogen and exists in solid,
liquid and gaseous states.
 It is abundant and crucial in nature. An odor less and tasteless liquid at room temperature, it
has the important ability to dissolve many other substances.
Distribution of the Water on the Earth

Water (Hydrological) Cycle

The hydrological cycle refers to the continuous movement of water with in the Earth's
atmosphere, surface, and subsurface regions. This cycle is driven by solar energy and includes
several key processes:
1. Evaporation: Water is heated by the sun and converted from liquid to vapor from bodies
of water such as oceans, rivers, and lakes.
2. Transpiration: Plants release water vapor into the air through small openings in their
leaves, contributing to the moisture in the atmosphere.
3. Condensation: Water vapor cools and condenses into droplets, forming clouds.

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4. Precipitation: The condensed water falls back to Earth in the form of rain, snow, sleet, or
hail.
5. Infiltration: Some of the water that reaches the ground infiltrates into the soil,
replenishing groundwater supplies.
6. Runoff: Water that does not infiltrate the soil flows over the surface, eventually reaching
rivers, lakes, and oceans. These processes ensure the continual movement and renewal of
water across the planet.

Influence of Human Activity on the Water Cycle

Human activities significantly impact the natural water cycle in various ways:
1. Deforestation: Removing trees and vegetation reduces transpiration, which is a key
process in the water cycle. This can lead to reduced atmospheric moisture and,
consequently, less precipitation.
2. Urbanization: The development of cities increases impervious surfaces such as roads and
buildings. This limits infiltration and increases runoff, which can lead to flooding and
reduced groundwater recharge. Additionally, urban heat islands can affect local
evaporation and precipitation patterns.
3. Agriculture: Large-scale irrigation, particularly in arid regions, can alter local water
availability by drawing large quantities of water from rivers and aquifers. Over use of
water resources for irrigation can also lead to groundwater depletion and Stalinization of
soil.
4. Water Pollution: Industrial, agricultural, and domestic pollutants can contaminate water
sources, affecting both surface and ground water. Pollutants can impact evaporation and
precipitation processes by altering water quality and ecosystem health.

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5. Climate Change: Human-induced climate change is altering precipitation patterns,

increasing the frequency of extreme weather events such as floods and droughts, and
changing the distribution of fresh water resources. Global warming can also accelerate the
rate of evaporation and melting of glaciers, influencing the water cycle on a larger scale.

Surface Water Resources

Surface water refers to water that is found in bodies of water such as rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and
wetlands. These resources are critical for human consumption, agriculture, industry, and ecosystem
health. Key characteristics of surface water resources include:
1. Rivers and Streams: These provide a continuous flow of water from higher elevations to
lower elevations, often feeding into larger bodies of water. They are essential sources of
fresh water for irrigation, drinking, and hydroelectric power generation.
2. Lakes and Reservoirs: These are stationary bodies of water that store large volumes of
water, often used for irrigation, drinking water supply, recreation, and flood control.
3. Wetlands: Wetlands such as swamps and marshes store water and act as natural filters,
improving water quality by trapping pollutants. They also provide habitat for biodiversity
and contribute to groundwater recharge.
4. Water Management: Human activities such as dam construction, water diversion, and
reservoir management are used to control and store surface water. These activities help
manage water availability for consumption and mitigate flood risks but can also disrupt
natural ecosystems and reduce water quality.
Water Resources in Karnataka
Water resources of Karnataka primarily constitute surface and groundwater. Rainfall is the
basic source of water in the state.

A. Surface water
It is available in Karnataka in the form of rivers, lakes, waterfalls, reservoirs, etc. Karnataka has
surface water potential of around 102 km. Being the seventh largest state in India(area-wise),
Karnataka possesses about six percent of the country’s total surface water resources of about 17 Lakh
million cubic meters (M cum). Karnataka is blessed with seven river basins. There are 36,753 tanks in
the state and they have a capacity of about [Link], along with their tributaries,

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account for much of Karnataka’s surface water resources. About 60percentofthe state’s surface water
is provided by the west flowing rivers while the east flowing rivers account for the remaining portion.
The annual average yield in the seven river basins of the state is estimated to be around 3,475TMC.
The yield in the six basins, excluding the west flowing rivers is estimated to be 1,440 TMC.

B. Ground water resources

Karnataka has groundwater resources estimated to be around 485 TMC. Ground water resources
have not been exploited evenly across the state. In areas where adequate surface water is available,
exploitation of groundwater resources is minimum. Exploitation of ground water in the dry taluks of
North and South interior Karnataka is higher as compared to Coastal, Malnad and irrigation command
areas of the state. In about 43 taluks there is over exploitation of ground water resources. Further,
ground water exploitation has exceeded 50% of the available ground water resources in 29 taluks of
the State. These 72 taluks are critical taluks from the point of view of the ground water exploitation. In
the 72 critical taluks about 4 Lakh wells irrigate an area of 7.5 Lakh ha. Due to over exploitation of
ground water resources, more than3 Lakh dug-wells have dried. Shallow bore wells have failed and
yield in deep bore wells are declining. Area irrigated by ground water extraction structures is
decreasing. Consequently, more than Rs. 2000 crores of investment made by the individual farmers on
the construction of wells, pumping equipment, pipelines, development etc., have become in fructuous.
Central Ground Water Board, South Western Region, Bangalore, is monitoring water levels in the
State of Karnataka from the established net work of 1538 monitoring stations, as a part of ‘Ground
Water
Monitoring’ programme. The monitoring is carried out four times in a water year during May, August,
November and January for water level. Water samples from these stations are collected once in a year,
during the month of May to assess the ground water quality.

C. Rainfall in Karnataka
Karnataka primarily enjoys a tropical climate that is largely dependent on its physio- graphic
and geographic location with respect to the Arabian Sea and the monsoons. The state receives the
benefit of two monsoons: the North-East monsoon and the South-West monsoon. Karnataka receives
mean annual rainfall of around 1,355millimeters. Morethan73percentofthis rainfall is received due to
the South-West monsoon. The state can be earmarked into three meteorological zones, namely, North
Interior Karnataka, South Interior Karnataka and Coastal Karnataka. The occurrence and distribution

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of rainfall in the state is not uniform. The region that receives the maximum rainfall is Coastal
Karnataka. It gets

an average annual rainfall of 3,456 mm. South Interior Karnataka receives only 1286 mm average
rainfall while North Interior Karnataka receives the least rainfall with 731 mm average figure
annually.

D. River Systems
There are seven river systems in Karnataka which with their tributaries drain the state. The
names of these river systems and area drained by them are given below as shown in Table 1 and in
Fig. 1.

Godavari River. The river Godavari rises in the Nasik district of Maharashtra about 80 km from the
shore of Arabian sea, at an elevation of 1067m, after flowing for about 1465km in a general south-
easterly direction, through Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh, Godavari falls into the Bay of Bengal
above Rajahmundry.

S. No. River System Drainage System

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1000 Sq Km Percentage
1 Godavari 4.41 2.31
2 Krishna 113.29 59.48
3 Kaveri 34.27 17.99
4 North Pennur 6.94 3.64
5 South Pennur 4.37 2.29
6 Palar 2.97 1.56
7 West flowing rivers 24.25 12.73
Total 190.50 100

The Godavari has a drainage area of about 3, 12,[Link]. The principal tributaries of Godavari
are the Pravara, the Purna, the Manjra, the Pranahita, the Indravathy and the Sabari.
Krishna River. The river Krishna is an Inter- State river in Southern India. It is the second
largest river in Peninsular India, rises in the Western Ghats at an altitude of 1337m. Near
Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra State. It flows across the whole width of the peninsula, from west to
east, for a length of about 1400 km, through Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The entire
catchment area of Krishna basin is 2, 58,948 sq km. including the other basin states, and their
catchment. The principal tributaries of Krishna in Karnataka are Ghata prabha, Mala prabha, and
Bhima and Tunga bhadra. All these rivers accept the Malaprabha River having their catchment area
both in Karnataka and Maharastra.

Cauvery River. The river Cauvery is an Inter-State river in Southern India. It is one of the major
rivers of the Peninsular flowing east and running into the Bay of Bengal. The Cauvery rises at
Talakaveri on the Brahmagiri Range of Hill in the Western Ghats, presently in the Coorg district of the
State of Karnataka, at an elevation of 1.341m (4,400 ft.) above mean sea level.

North Pennar. The north Pennar raises Nandi hills of Kolar Karnataka State at an elevation of
about 597Mts. It drains catchment area of 6337Sq kms in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
South Pennar. The south Pennar raises Talagavara village in Kolar, 900 meters in Karnataka
State. It drains catchment area of 4370Sq kms in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
Palar River. The south Pennar raises Nandi hills of Kolar Karnataka State. It drains catchment
area of 2813 Sq kms in Karnataka, Andra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
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West Flowing Rivers. The Western Ghats provides a principal geographical barrier in the path of the
Arabian Sea branch of the South west monsoon, and is principally responsible for the heavy rainfall
over the western coastal belt. The South west monsoon season (June to September) is the principal
rainy season; over 90 % of annual rainfall is realized in this period.

The rivers in the Western Ghats region generally originate at an elevation ranging from 400
meters to 1,600 meters above the mean sea level, close to the Western Ghats ridge. The rivers
generally flow westward and meet the Arabian Sea after a short run varying from 50 kms to 300 kms.
The rivers are very steep in the upper reaches and fairly steep in the middle reaches. It is only near the
sea that they have relatively flat gradients and some sort of flood plain.

Stressful situation of water resources in Karnataka The state of Karnataka enjoys a substantial
amount of rainfall and has a significant quantity of water resources but it is not enough to meet the
ever increasing water requirement of the state.

 Karnataka suffers repetitive droughts. In spite of the availability of water from the river
systems and tanks, Karnataka faces the serious issue of67 percent of its land marked for
irrigation falling under dry tracts.

 Increasing population and living standards. With a rapidly increasing population and
improved living standards, the pressure on the water resources is constantly on the rise.
The per capita availability of water resources is reducing day by day. Rainfall and water
deputes. The erratic behavior of rainfall and the Inter- State River Water disputes
aggravate the problem. The impact of climate change on the water resources also
cannot be ignored.
 Misuse and poor management. Siltation of water bodies, misuse of resources, poor
management of catchment area all add to the stressful water resource situation in the
state.
 Fast decline of ground water resources. The ground water is the major source of
drinking water in Karnataka.
I. WATER DEMAND AND SUPPLY DEMAND GAP

Karnataka’s water resources are fast dwindling due to population explosion and increased

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utilization of water for the rapidly growing economic activities. Water demand on the one hand
for consumptive (drinking, health and sanitation needs) and productive uses (agriculture,
industrial production, power generation, mining operations and navigation, and recreational
activities) has increased tremendously, and on the other hand, water supply has declined with
depletion and degradation of water resources causing water distress or scarcity in the state.
Depletion of quantity and degradation of quality of water has restricted the availability of
water for consumptive and productive uses and has consequently caused “negative externality”
which imposes economic and social cost on society.
The Considering domestic and non-domestic water requirement including wastage totaling
140 liters per capita per day, the recommendation made at the conference of Secretaries, Chief
Engineers responsible for Urban Water Supply and Sanitation at Mysore during 1989 (Million
liters per day) the water demand projections have been made. For Krishna basin, it is estimated
that the population for Karnataka for 2050 will be 59.90 million for rural areas and 21.08
million for urban areas. Considering the per capita requirement of 150 liters per day for rural
and 220 liters per day for urban, the drinking water needs are 115.62 TMC for rural and 59.78
TMC for urban population. The total requirement for water is 150.31TMC for rural and
77.71TMC for urban including the T and D losses of30 percent. The total demand for the State
including all areas can be conveniently taken as twice that of the demand for Krishna basin.
Accordingly the total requirement for domestic water needs for urban and rural population in
Karnataka in 2050 is 456.04 TMC. The estimated demand and supply is subject to limitation of
methodology used and the source of data used. The positive gap shown is due to lack of
infrastructure to store the rain / river water. Ground water utilization according to volume
exceeds 70 percent of supply or availability.
There are obvious differences between the sources of data as well as between volumetric
measurement and the area measurement regarding supply and demand for water as a thumb rule,
usually 1TMC of water can irrigate 4000 ha of semi dry crops or 1000 ha of paddy or 1600 ha of
sugarcane.
II. FINDINGS AND SUGGESTIONS

The state of Karnataka enjoys a substantial amount of rainfall and has a significant quantity of
water resources but it is not enough to meet the ever increasing water requirement of the state.
1. Karnataka suffers repetitive droughts. In spite of the availability of water from the river

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systems and tanks, Karnataka faces the serious issue of 67 percent of its land marked for irrigation
falling

2. Increasing population and living standards. With a rapidly increasing population and
improved living standards, the pressure on the water resources is constantly on the rise. The per capita
availability of water resources is reducing day by day.
3. Rainfall and water deputes. The erratic behaviour of rainfall and the Inter-State River
Water disputes aggravate the problem. The impact of climate change on the water resources also
cannot be ignored.
4. Misuse and poor management. Siltation of water bodies, misuse of resources, poor
management of catchment area all add to the stressful water resource situation in the state.
5. Fast decline of ground water resources. The groundwater is the major source of drinking
water in Karnataka. Over 90 percent of the drinking water supply schemes in the rural areas of the
state are based on ground water. This over exploitation is causing the fast decline of ground water
resources in the state. The result is the scarcity of safe drinking water across many parts of Karnataka.
Water Status in Karnataka: Importance and Issues
Karnataka, a state located in the southern part of India, has a diverse and complex water scenario.
Its water resources are influenced by geography, climate, and population pressures. Below is a detailed
look at the importance and issues related to water status in Karnataka, focusing on sources,
geographical distribution, and quality.
1. Water Sources in Karnataka
The primary water sources in Karnataka are:
 Rivers: Karnataka is blessed with several rivers, both perennial and seasonal. Major rivers
include the Kaveri, Krishna, Godavari and Tungabhadra. The Kaveri River is
especially crucial, serving as a major source of irrigation and drinking water for large parts
of the state.
 Lakes: The state also has a significant number of lakes, including those around Bangalore.
These lakes act as critical sources for domestic and irrigation purposes.
 Groundwater: Groundwater plays a crucial role in supplying water for agricultural,
domestic, and industrial uses. However, over-exploitation of ground water is a growing
concern, particularly in urban and industrial areas.
 Reservoirs: Karnataka has several major reservoirs, including the Krishna Raja Sagara

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and Tungabhadra Reservoir, which store water for both drinking and irrigation purposes.

2. Geographical Distribution of Water in Karnataka

Water distribution across Karnataka is highly uneven, with some regions being water-rich, while
others face severe scarcity.
 South and Western Parts: The southern and western parts of Karnataka, including
districts like Kodagu, Chikkamagalur, and Hassan, receive a good amount of rainfall due
to the Western Ghats, which catch the monsoon winds. These regions are the primary
catchment areas for several rivers.
 Northern and Eastern Parts: Areas like Raichur, Bellary, and Bidar are more arid and
face water scarcity. These regions often depend on water from the Krishna and Kaveri
river basins, but the available resources are limited.
 Urban Areas: Cities like Bengaluru have a high demand for water, leading to pressure on
surrounding resources and groundwater.
3. Water Quality Issues in Karnataka
The quality of water in Karnataka varies widely, and several issues affect both surface and ground
water:
 Pollution from Industrial and Domestic Waste: Rivers, lakes, and groundwater in urban
areas like Bengaluru and industrial zones face contamination due to untreated industrial
effluents, sewage, and house hold waste. The Krishna rivers, which flow through the
state, have been subject to pollution from agricultural runoff and industrial discharge.

 Groundwater Contamination: Over-extraction of groundwater, combined with

contamination from chemicals, fertilizers, and waste disposal, has led to the degradation of
water quality in many areas. Some regions also face salinity intrusion due to over-pumping
of groundwater.

 Pesticide and Fertilizer Runoff: In agricultural regions, the use of pesticides and chemical
fertilizers leads to runoff, which pollutes water bodies, affecting both the quality of water
and aquatic life.

 Fluoride Contamination: Some districts, such as Raichur and Gulbarga, face issues with

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high fluoride concentrations in groundwater, leading to health issues like fluorosis.

4. Water Scarcity and Management Challenges
Water scarcity is a growing issue, particularly in the arid and semi- arid regions of the state. The
following factors exacerbate water stress:
 Decreasing Rainfall: The state is experiencing irregular rainfall patterns due to climate
change. T his affects the availability of water for both agriculture and consumption,
especially in rain fed regions.
 Over-exploitation of Resources: Excessive use of groundwater for agriculture, urban
supply, and industrial purposes has led to a depletion of water tables. This is particularly
severe in cities and rural areas that depend on wells for their water supply.
 Inter-State Water Disputes: Karnataka shares rivers with neighboring states, leading to
disputes over Water sharing. The most notable example is the Kaveri water dispute
with Tamil Nadu, which has been ongoing for decades and affects water availability in
southern Karnataka.
 Lack of Proper Water Management: There is insufficient infrastructure for water
conservation and efficient distribution, especially in rural areas. The state also faces
challenges in the proper maintenance of reservoirs, canals, and pipelines, leading to water
loss.

5. Government Initiatives and Solutions

The government of Karnataka has taken several steps to address water issues:
 Rainwater Harvesting: Various programs to promote rain water harvesting have been
implemented, especially in urban areas like Bengaluru, to conserve rainwater and recharge
groundwater.
 Desalination Plants: The state is exploring desalination technologies for coastal regions to
meet increasing water demands.
 Irrigation Projects: Major irrigation projects, including the Kaveri Basin Irrigation and
Tungabhadra Irrigation Project, aim to improve water use efficiency in agriculture.
 Water Quality Monitoring: Efforts are being made to monitor and control pollution in
rivers, lakes, and other water bodies, with the establishment of water quality testing and
treatment facilities.

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 Water Conservation Awareness: Programs to encourage water conservation among

citizens and promote sustainable agricultural practices have been launched to tackle the
growing water scarcity.
Human Influences on the Water Cycle
Humans significantly affect the water cycle through pollution, climate change (from fossil
fuels), deforestation, and altering water flow with dams, irrigation, and urbanization, leading to
changes in precipitation, increased evaporation, contaminated water bodies, and disrupted natural
water storage and movement. These actions either directly manipulate water, like building reservoirs,
or indirectly impact it by changing atmospheric conditions and ecosystems, altering the natural
balance.

Direct Impacts (Manipulation)

 Dams & Reservoirs:
Building dams blocks rivers, changing water storage, flow, and sediment movement, affecting
downstream ecosystems and water availability.

 Water Withdrawal:

Pulling water for agriculture (irrigation), industry, and homes depletes rivers, lakes, and groundwater.

 Urbanization:

Paved surfaces increase runoff and reduce groundwater recharge, while redirecting water from natural
paths.
Indirect Impacts (Atmosphere & Quality)
 Climate Change: Burning fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases, warming the planet,
increasing evaporation, melting ice, and changing rainfall patterns.

 Deforestation: Fewer trees mean less transpiration (water vapor released), reducing local
humidity and rainfall, and increasing runoff.

 Pollution: Industrial, agricultural (fertilizers/pesticides), and urban runoff introduce

contaminants, harming water quality in rivers, lakes, and groundwater.

Role of forests in the hydrological cycle

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Forests play a very important role within the global and local hydrological cycles. They transmit
huge quantities of water into the atmosphere via the transpiration of plants (in which plants release
water from their leaves during photosynthesis) and from evaporation from their leaves. Tree roots tap
moisture from deep in the soil. This circulation system is driven by releases of moisture into the air
through their leaves via transpiration.

Deforestation and the hydrological cycle

When deforestation occurs, this cycle is interrupted. At a local level deforestation can have immediate
effects on the hydrological cycle. In tropical forests;

1. Less plants means less evapotranspiration. Subsequently there is a decline in rainfall,

subjecting the area to drought.

2. 2. Rainfall can be lost from the area, permanent drying can occur and flood regimes of rivers
are altered. This can result in drought in former rainforest areas. Rainforests of Borneo and
the Amazon have experienced very severe droughts.

3. The regular flow of clean water from forests and protecting communities from flood and
drought can be affected.

4. Interception rates are affected – Tropical forests in particular are multi layered and catch huge
volumes of rainfall falling from the sky. This is delivered to the forest floor via stem flow and
through fall from leaves. This would stop and water would fall directly onto the forest floor.

5. Infiltration and percolation would increase but this would result in the water table being closer
to the soil surface. Rainforests soak up rainfall brought by tropical storms both by intercepting
rainfall and allowing slow infiltration into the soil. This regulates floods and river levels.
Without forest cover infiltration rates are affected and more overland flow occurs. This means
more destructive flood and drought cycles can occur when forests are cleared.

6. Overland flow increases when forest cover is lost. Rainfall turns into runoff which rapidly
flows into streams, raising river levels and creating potential flood risks during wetter periods.

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During the dry season areas downstream of deforestation can be prone to months-long
droughts.

7. Less water is stored in the biosphere as a result of deforestation

8. Transpiration and shading from trees help to cool rainforests - this is lost from deforestation
which can increase evaporative losses. In the Amazon, Michael Coe of the Woods Hole
Research Centre recently reported a difference of 3 degrees Celsius (5.4°F) between the cool of
14
the forested Xingu indigenous park and surrounding croplands and pastures.

Links to the Carbon Cycle

A result of changes to the hydrological cycle caused by deforestation can have impacts upon the
carbon cycle. The obvious link is that the loss of forest cover puts huge volumes of carbon into the
atmosphere, replacing biospheric carbon with atmospheric carbon. However, increased drought risk
increases fire risk for the scrublands and grasslands that replace the forest cover. These fires also
release carbon into the atmosphere. It is also known that carbon dioxide emissions from deforestation
add 10 percent or so to global warming by reducing the quantity of CO 2 that the world’s forests pull
from the atmosphere.

In addition, forests release a range of volatile organic compounds that “have an overall cooling effect
on our climate,” mostly by blocking incoming solar energy, Removing forests eliminates this cooling
effect and adds to warming.
Impact of Agriculture on the hydrological cycle

Modern agriculture has a large impact upon the hydrological cycle. In many parts of the world
agriculture has replaced natural vegetation with crop cover and pasture, drastically altering the way
that water moves through altered drainage basin systems.

We need agriculture to feed the world’s population but this has altered the water balance;

 Huge quantities of water are used in food production – this water redistributes water away from
its natural pathways. Precipitation is trapped and stored in surface reservoirs; groundwater and

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river water is extracted, and then reused on fields to water crops during drier periods. The
abstraction of river-water will reduce downstream flow.

 Water is stored in biomass that is the plants and animals being farmed. In our global
agriculture system much of this food enters world markets and thus the water is exported from
one country to another.

 The evapotranspiration regime of areas is affected, rather than natural annual plants cover of
native ecosystems agriculture changes when plants are grown and in what quantities. This
alters evapotranspiration rates, evapotranspiration from the crops may be reduced if the
previous habitat was forest, or it may be increased if an arid area was cultivated and irrigated.

 Groundwater stores are affected – wells are drilled into the ground and water pumped to the
surface for use in irrigation. This can deplete groundwater levels under the ground and damage
aquifer resources, this can also cause surface water features such as springs, rivers and
marshland to dry up.

 Surface runoff can increase as post-harvest fields are bare of vegetation. Farmed crops often
intercept less precipitation than natural vegetation cover too. Subsequent precipitation can
exceed infiltration capacities of the soil resulting in increased overland flow.

 Drainage patterns are changed too. Farmers intentionally dig drainage ditches within and
around their fields to prevent water logging of plants. This means that water moves initially
via overland flow and then via small channels into rivers, affecting both the hydrograph and
annual regimes of those rivers.

 Agriculture often reduces vegetation cover and soil compaction from machinery can occur.
Both of these can reduce the amount of water that infiltrates into the soil and therefore increase
run off.

WATER ABSTRACTION

Rainfall doesn’t only reach rivers by running off over the land surface. Much of the water that falls to
earth as rain enters the soil and rock beneath our feet to become ground water. We often forget about
this water because, unlike rivers and surface water, it is out of sight. The level beneath the ground at
which the rock becomes saturated is called the water table. Water in this saturated zone will flow from

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where it has infiltrated to a point of discharge. This might be a spring, a river or the sea.
Whilst water can be found in many locations underground, some geological or rock formations are
impermeable. This means that water can hardly flow through them; whilst others are permeable (they
contain fine holes that allow water to flow). These permeable rocks that contain groundwater are
known as aquifers.

Groundwater abstraction is the process of taking water from a ground source. It is often pumped
through boreholes and wells from underground aquifers, as a source of freshwater. 8 A lot of this water
is used for irrigation for crops or to produce drinking water. As water is abstracted the water table (the
upper limit of water in the soil or rock beneath the ground) is lowered around the borehole. If rates of
abstraction exceed rates of groundwater recharge within an aquifer, the water table can fall across a
wide area. Taking too much water, or over abstraction can lead to surface rivers drying up or the level
of groundwater aquifers and the water table reducing.

Effects of over abstraction

Over abstracting ground water can have negative effects?

 Wells can dry up – this can occur as over abstraction lowers the water table (the upper limited
of ground saturated with water). Unless the well owner can deepen the well or drill a new
well, water shortages occur.

 Reduction of water in streams and lakes – Rivers often get a lot of their water from through
flow and groundwater flow from soil and groundwater sources. The amount or proportion of
stream water that comes from groundwater inflow varies according to a region's geography,
geology, and climate. Removing water from groundwater sources through abstraction reduces
the amount available for rivers and streams on the surface. This can cause some surface rivers
to dry up.

 Deterioration of water quality – this can occur in coastal regions where saline water can
migrate inland and upward when freshwater is pumped out of the ground in these locations.
This is known as saltwater intrusion and can contaminate the water supply

 Land subsidence – This occurs as water is part of the subsurface support for the land above.
When water is taken out of the soil and rock, the soil & rock collapses, compacts, and drops.

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Surface water resources

Surface water is water located on top of land, forming terrestrial (surrounding by land on all
sides) water bodies, and may also be referred to as blue water, opposed to the seawater and water
bodies like the ocean.

The vast majority of surface water is produced by precipitation. As the climate warms in the
spring, snowmelt runs off towards nearby streams and rivers contributing towards a large portion of
human drinking water. Levels of surface water lessen as a result of evaporation as well as water
moving into the ground becoming ground-water. Alongside being used for drinking water, surface
water is also used for irrigation, wastewater treatment, livestock, industrial uses, hydropower, and
recreation. For USGS water-use reports, surface water is considered freshwater when it contains less
than 1,000 milligrams per liter (mg/L) of dissolved solids.

There are three major types of surface water.

Permanent (perennial) surface waters are present year round, and include lakes, rivers and
wetlands (marshes and swamps).

Semi-permanent (ephemeral) surface water refers to bodies of water that are only present at
certain times of the year including seasonally dry channels such as creeks, lagoons and waterholes.

Human-made surface water is water that can be continued by infrastructures that humans have
assembled. This would be dammed artificial lakes, canals and artificial ponds (e.g. garden ponds) or
swamps. The surface water held by dams can be used for renewable energy in the form of hydropower.
Hydropower is the forcing of surface water sourced from rivers and streams to produce energy.

Measurement
A stream gauge used to measure surface water. Surface water can be measured as annual runoff. This
includes the amount of rain and snowmelt drainage left after the uptake of nature, evaporation from
land, and transpiration from vegetation.
Impacts of climate change
Effects of climate change on the water cycle and Effects of climate change

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Due to climate change, sea ice and glaciers are melting, contributing to the rise in sea levels.
As a result, salt water from the ocean is beginning to infiltrate our freshwater aquifers contaminating
water used for urban and agricultural services. It is also affecting surrounding ecosystems as it places
stress on the wildlife inhabiting those areas. It was recorded by the NOAA in the years 2012 to
2016, ice sheets in Greenland and the Antarctic reduced by 247 billion tons per year. This number will
continue to increase as global warming persists.

Climate change has a direct connection with the water cycle. It has increased evaporation yet
decreased precipitation, runoff, groundwater, and soil moisture. This has altered surface water levels.
Climate change also enhances the existing challenges we face in water quality. The quality of surface
water is based on the chemical inputs from the surrounding elements such as the air and the nearby
landscape. When these elements are polluted due to human activity, it alters the chemistry of the
water.

Conjunctive use of ground and surface water

Conjunctive use implies the planned and coordinated harnessing of ground and surface- water
resources so as to achieve optimal utilization of total water resources.
The ground water may be used to supplement surface-water supplies to reduce peak demands for
irrigation and other uses, or to meet deficits in years of low rainfall. On the other hand, surplus surface
water may be used in over-draft areas to increase the ground-water storage by artificial recharge.
Surface water, ground water or both, depending on the surplus available, can be diverted from areas
plentiful to water-deficit areas. In recent years, increasing canal and stream flows from augmentation
wells is gaining currency.
Better understanding of irrigation methods, irrigation intervals, crop requirements Stalinization, etc. is
of much importance to successful implementation of conjunctive use project.

Irrigation–Concepts & Understanding :-

Irrigation is the artificial supply of water for agriculture, the controlled distribution and the removal of
excess water to natural drains, after it has been put to optimum use.

A key element in the definition of irrigation is that the facilities for irrigation are man – made, man
– managed and man – used with the aim to divert water from a source and to bring it to fields via a
network of irrigation canals or pipes, and to evacuate excess water to outside the production unit

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via a drainage network to ensure or improve agricultural production.

Of the total land area cultivated in the world only 20% is irrigated, which produces more than 40%
of the world’s agricultural output. The traditional method of surface (gravity) flooding is still the
most widely used irrigation method. Water is spread across the land using basin, border or furrow
methods.Morethan95% ofall irrigation is done this way.

Irrigation practices are methods to spread water from a conveyance network of pipes or channels as
uniformly as possible over the plot and in the soil in order to supply the crops. The irrigation water
infiltrates from the top soil into the soil reservoir to wet the usable root zone of the crops.
The methods for wetting the root zone are, to:

Surface irrigation : run the water over the surface so that it

infiltrates into the soil
Sub-surface irrigation : pass water into the soil at depth until capillary
Action raises
Over head irrigation : water sprayed over the field in such a way that it
Damages neither crop nor soil.

The required amount of timing of irrigation supplies is governed by climate, crops (type and
growth stage), and the soil and soil moisture characteristics.

The climate governs the rate of evaporation of the water. The type of crops determines the use of
water by the crops. One of the factors that determine the frequency of irrigation supplies is the
capacity of the soil to retain water and make it available to the crops.

Other important aspects that have to be taken into account in delivery of water for irrigation is the
efficiency of the method of field irrigation (surface, sprinkling or drip systems) and the supply of
water form the source to the fields.

Depths to which mature plants will extract available moisture from deep, fertile and well – drained
soils from Root depth is given below

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Crop Depth(cm) Crop Depth(cm)

Alfala 180 Sweetpotato 120

Orchards 180 Carrots 90
Grapes 180 Peas 90
Sorghums,grains 180 Pepper 90
Tomatoes 180 Corn 90
Maize 150 Beets 90
Melons 150 Beans 60
Smallgrains 150 Cabbage 60
BeansCitrus 120 Pasture 60
Cotton 120 Potatoes 60
Sugar beets 120 Spinach 60
120 Onions 30

The Irrigation Interval

The purpose of water for crops is to bring back the moisture content in the root zone up to field
capacity after the readily available moisture (RAM) has been [Link] period in days required for the
crop to consume that amount of water is called the irrigation interval.

The maximum allowable irrigation interval (T in days) can be calculated as follows:

Where: T <(RAM/ETc)

RAM is the readily available moisture in mm T

is the irrigation interval in days
ETc is the crop evapotranspiration in mm/day

IRRIGATIONMETHODS

There are some basic methods of irrigation, most of which have several variations. The basic

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components and operation for each are:

01. Basin

A level area of any size or shape bounded by borders and without any depression, which cannot be
readily drained. The borders retain all the applied water for a sufficient time to obtain a relatively
uniform depth of infiltration over the area and then the remaining water is drained off the surface and
used to irrigate an adjacent basin. Water is lost mainly by deep percolation and evaporation.(Fig.1)

(i) Border–strip

A slopping area, usually rectangular, bounded by borders that guide a water layer as it flows down the
bordered strip. There should be little or no slope at right angles to the flow direction. The inflow is
usually cut off when the advance flow has moved 0.6 to 0.9ofthe distance down the strip. Water is lost
mainly by deep percolation and runoff. (Fig.2)

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(ii) Furrow or corrugation

A small sloping channel is made into the soil surface. For high uniformity or wetting the irrigation
stream should reach the end of the channel in about ¼ofthe time allotted for the irrigation, but the
stream is not shut off until the root zone at the lower end is adequately irrigated. Water in the soil
moves both laterally and downward. Water is lost mainly by deep percolation and run off. (Fig.3)

(iii) Sprinkler
Any device spraying water over the soil surface. Water discharged from a sprinkler into the
air should infiltrate the soil where it fails, but it should not saturate the soil surface. For
high uniformity of wetting, the spray patterns from adjacent sprinkler must be properly
overlapped. Evaporation, wind drift and deep percolation are main causes of loss of water.
(Fig.4)

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(iv) Trickle (or drip) emitter

A device used in trickle (or drip) irrigation for discharging water at very low rates (less than
10-15 liters per hour through small holes in tubes, placed near the soil surface. Water
moves through soil both sideways and downward away from the point of application to
forma “bulb” of wet soil. Typically, only a portion of the soil mass is kept quite moist by
very frequent or continuous application. Water loss is mainly be deep percolation.

(v) Water Table

In certain areas the water table can be adequately controlled and periodically raised to sub
irrigation the crop’s root zone. Precise control of the water table

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requires certain natural conditions: pervious soil, level soil surface, naturally high water table and low
salinity of water.
Ground water Table

Part of the water applied to the soil surface drains below the root zone and feed deeper soil layers
which are permanently saturated. The top of the saturated layer is called groundwater table. (Fig.5)

The depth of the ground water table varies from place to place mainly due to topography and
from time to time. Following heavy rainfall or irrigation, the ground water table rises.

It may even reach peak levels and saturate the root zone. If prolonged, this situation can be
disastrous for the crops which cannot resist “wet feet” for a long period. The groundwater table
lowers when water is extracted from the ground water reservoir because of evaporation, uptake by
the plants, recovery by human interference via pumps, or by natural ground water flows.

Water can also move upwards because of the sucking capacity of the small pores or capillers rise.
In fine textured soils (clay), the upward movement of water is slow because of the great
resistance, but it covers a long distance. On the other hand, in coarse textured soil (sand) the
upward movement of water is fast but covers only a short distance.

Salinity Control and Leaching Requirement

A soil may be rich in salts because the parent rock from which it was formed contains salts.

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Seawater is another source of salts in low lying areas along the coast.A very common source of
salts in irrigated soils is the irrigation water itself. Most irrigation waters contain salts.

After irrigation, the water added to the soil is used by the crop or evaporates directly from the
moist soil. The salt, however is left behind in the soil. If not removed, it accumulates in the soil
and makes the soil useless for agricultural purposes. This process is called salinization. Very salty
soils are sometimes recognizable by a white layer or dry salt on the soil surface. (Fig.6)

Salty groundwater may also contribute to salinization. When the water table rises (e.g. following

irrigation in the absence of proper drainage), the salty groundwater may reach the upper soil
layers and, thus, supply salts to the root zone. (Fig.7) Soils that contain a harmful amount of salt
are often referred to as salty or saline soils. Soil or water that has a high content of salt is said to
have a high salinity. Water salinity is the amount of salt contained in the water and may be
expressed in grams of salt per litre of water (g/l) or in milligrams per litre (which is the same as

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parts per million p.p.m.).However, the salinity of water and soils is easily measured by means of
an electrical device. It is then expressed in terms of electrical conductivity: millimhos/cm.A salt
concentration of 1 gram per litre is about 1.5 millimhos per cm.
The salt concentration in the water extracted from a saturated soil (called saturation
extract)defines the salinity of the soil. If this water contains lessthan3 g/l the soil is said to be non
saline. If it exceeds 12 g/l, then the soil is said to be highly saline.
Most crops do not grow well on soils that contain salts. One reason is that salt causes a
reduction in rate and amount of water that the plant roots can take up from the soil. Another
reason is that some salts are toxic to plants when present in high concentrations. The tolerance of
crops to salts differs from highly tolerant to sensitive. Some examples are given in the table
below:

Crop tolerance to salinity

Highly tolerant Moderately Sensitive<2.5 g/l

<10g/l tolerant<5g/l
Date Wheat Red
palm Tomato clover
barely Oats peas
sugar beet Alfalfa beans
cotton Rice sugarcane
asparagus Maize peas
spinach Orchards fruits
Potatoes
Fig
Olive
Grapes

Improvement of saline soils implies the reduction of the salt concentration of the soil to a level
that is not harmful to the crops. To that end more water is applied to the field than is required for
crop growth. This additional water infiltrates into the soil and percolates through the root zone.
During percolation, it takes up part of the salts in the soil and transports these to deeper soil
layers. In fact the water washes the salts out of the root zone. This washing is called leaching.

The additional water required for leaching must be removed from the root zone by means of a
subsurface drainage system. If not removed, it could cause a rise of the ground water table which
would bring the salts back in the root zone. Thus, improvement of saline soils includes essentially
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leaching and sub-surface drainage.

To prevent salinization of the topsoil, salts have to be washed down which is known as leaching.
The leaching requirement is the ratio between the drainable excess and the quantity of irrigation
water applied to keep the salt content in the root zone below the crop tolerance level. The
tolerance level is found from relations between crop yield and the salt concentration of the
saturation extract.

Module – 1 important question

1. What is a monsoon low? Describe how it influences the monsoon system.
2. Define Monsoon write in detail about monsoon in India with its feature
3. Write a short note on Dry sells and critical dry spells
4. Write the importance of water conservation
5. Discuss the consequences of reduced surface water flow on aquatic ecosystems and
biodiversity.
6. Briefly explain the effects of urbanization on the natural water cycle.
7. What is the hydrological cycle? Why is it important for maintaining life on Earth?
8. Explain Hydrological cycle with neat sketch
9. Explain the key factors that contribute to the uneven distribution of water resources in
Karnataka.
10. Explain the geographical distribution of water in Karnataka
11. Write the different possibilities of water loss from soil
12. Briefly mention the key indicators used to identify the withdrawal phase of monsoon rains.

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