Ocean Relief

 Ocean relief is largely due to tectonic, volcanic, erosional and depositional

processes and their interactions.
 Ocean relief features are divided into major and minor relief features.

Major Ocean Relief Features

Four major divisions in the ocean relief are:

1. the continental shelf,

2. the continental slope,
3. the continental rise,
4. the Deep Sea Plain or the abyssal plain.

Minor Ocean Relief Features

 Ridges,
 Hills,
 Seamounts,
 Guyots,
 Trenches,
 Canyons,
 Sleeps,
 Fracture zones,
 Island arcs,
 Atolls,
 Coral reefs,
 Submerged volcanoes

Continental Shelf
 Continental Shelf is the gently sloping seaward extension of continental plate.
 These extended margins of each continent are occupied by relatively shallow
seas and gulfs.
 Continental Shelf of all oceans together cover 7.5% of the total area of the
oceans.
  Gradient of continental is of 1° or even less.
 The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called the shelf break.
 The continental shelves are covered with variable thicknesses of sediments
brought down by rivers, glaciers etc..
 Massive sedimentary deposits received over a long time by the continental
shelves, become the source of fossil fuels [Petroleum].
 Examples: Continental Shelf of South-East Asia, Great Banks around
Newfoundland, Submerged region between Australia and New Guinea.

Continental Slope
 The continental slope connects the continental shelf and the ocean basins.
 It begins where the bottom of the continental shelf sharply drops off into a steep
slope.
 The gradient of the slope region varies between 2-5°.
 The depth of the slope region varies between 200 and 3,000 m.
 The seaward edge of the continental slope loses gradient at this depth and gives
rise to continental rise.
 The continental slope boundary indicates the end of the continents.
 Canyons and trenches are observed in this region.

Continental Rise
 The continental slope gradually loses its steepness with depth.
 When the slope reaches a level of between 0.5° and 1°, it is referred to as the
continental rise.
 With increasing depth the rise becomes virtually flat and merges with the abyssal
plain.
Deep Sea Plain or Abyssal Plain
 Deep sea planes are gently sloping areas of the ocean basins.
 These are the flattest and smoothest regions of the world because
of terrigenous [denoting marine sediment eroded from the land] and shallow
water sediments that buries the irregular topography.
 It covers nearly 40% of the ocean floor.
 The depths vary between 3,000 and 6,000 m.
 These plains are covered with fine-grained sediments like clay and silt.

Oceanic Deeps or Trenches

 The trenches are relatively steep sided, narrow basins (Depressions). These areas
are the deepest parts of the oceans.
 They are of tectonic origin and are formed during ocean – ocean convergence
and ocean continent convergence.
 They are some 3-5 km deeper than the surrounding ocean floor.
 The trenches lie along the fringes of the deep-sea plain at the bases of
continental slopes and along island arcs.
  The trenches run parallel to the bordering fold mountains or the island
chains.
 The trenches are very common in the Pacific Ocean and form an almost
continuous ring along the western and eastern margins of the Pacific.
 The Mariana Trench off the Guam Islands in the Pacific Ocean is the deepest
trench with, a depth of more than 11 kilometres.
 They are associated with active volcanoes and strong earthquakes (Deep Focus
Earthquakes like in Japan). This makes them very significant in the study of plate
movements.
 As many as 57 deeps have been explored so far; of which 32 are in the Pacific
Ocean; 19 in the Atlantic Ocean and 6 in the Indian Ocean.

Mid-Oceanic Ridges or Submarine Ridges

 A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of mountains separated by a
large depression. [Divergent Boundary]
 The mountain ranges can have peaks as high as 2,500 m and some even reach
above the ocean’s surface.
 Running for a total length of 75,000 km, these ridges form the largest mountain
systems on earth.
 These ridges are either broad, like a plateau, gently sloping or in the form of
steep-sided narrow mountains.
 These oceanic ridge systems are of tectonic origin and provide evidence in
support of the theory of Plate Tectonics.
 Iceland, a part of the mid-Atlantic Ridge, is an example.
Abyssal Hills

 Seamount: It is a mountain with pointed summits, rising from the seafloor

that does not reach the surface of the ocean. Seamounts are volcanic in origin.
These can be 3,000-4,500 m tall.
 The Emperor seamount, an extension of the Hawaiian Islands [Hotspot] in the
Pacific Ocean, is a good example.
 Guyots: The flat topped mountains (seamounts) are known as guyots.
 Seamounts and guyots are very common in the Pacific Ocean where they are
estimated to number around 10,000.

Atoll
 These are low islands found in the tropical oceans consisting of coral reefs
surrounding a central depression.
 It may be a part of the sea (lagoon), or sometimes form enclosing a body of fresh,
brackish, or highly saline water.
Marginal Seas
 In oceanography, a marginal sea is a sea partially enclosed by islands,
archipelagos, or peninsulas.
 Some of the major marginal seas include the Arabian Sea, Baltic Sea, Bay of
Bengal, Bering Sea, Black Sea, Gulf of California, Gulf of Mexico,
Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, and all four of the Siberian Seas (Barents, Kara,
Laptev, and East Siberian).
 The primary differences between marginal seas and open oceans are associated
with depth and proximity to landmasses.
 Marginal seas, which are generally shallower than open oceans, are more
influenced by human activities, river runoff, climate, and water circulation.

Marginal seas of the world

 Important marginal seas are mentioned below.

Marginal seas of the Arctic Ocean

 Barents Sea
 The Irish Sea
Marginal seas of the Atlantic Ocean
 Argentine Sea
 Caribbean Sea
 English Channel
 Gulf of Mexico
 Hudson Bay
 Irish Sea
 Labrador Sea
 Mediterranean Sea
 North Sea
 Norwegian Sea
 Scotia Sea

Marginal seas of the Indian Ocean

 Andaman Sea
 Arabian Sea
 Bay of Bengal
 Java Sea
 Persian Gulf
 Red Sea
 Sea of Zanj

Marginal seas of the Mediterranean Sea

Major conflict zones lie on the east of Mediterranean. Also recent refugee crisis is
constantly in news. Hence the locations from the region are important for prelims.

 Adriatic Sea
 Aegean Sea

Marginal seas of the Pacific Ocean

 Bering Sea
 Celebes Sea
 Coral Sea
 East China Sea
 Philippine Sea
 Sea of Japan
  Sea of Okhotsk
 South China Sea (another important conflict zone)
 Tasman Sea (between Australia and New Zealand)
 Yellow Sea (by the Korean Peninsula)

Other seas
 The Caribbean Sea is sometimes defined as a marginal sea, sometimes as a
Mediterranean sea.
 The Caspian Sea is also sometimes defined as a marginal sea, and also the Dead
Sea.
The Pacific Ocean
 Largest and deepest ocean.
 Covers about one-third of the earth’s surface.
 Average depth is generally around 7,300 metres.
 Its shape is roughly triangular with its apex in the north at the Bering Strait.
 Many marginal seas, bays and gulfs occur along its boundaries.
 Nearly 20,000 islands dot this vast ocean.

North and Central Pacific

 Characterized by maximum depth and a large number of deeps, trenches and
islands.
 Some well-known trenches are Aleutian and Kuril.
 There are also a large number of seamounts and guyots. [Hawaiian Hotspot]

West and South-West Pacific

 Average depth is about 4,000 m.
 It is marked by a variety of islands, marginal seas, continental shelves and
submarine trenches.
 Mariana Trench and Mindanao Trench are very deep with a depth of more than
10,000 metres.

South-East Pacific
 This part is conspicuous for the absence of marginal seas, and has submarine
ridges and plateaus.
 The Tonga and Atacama trenches are prominent.
The Atlantic Ocean
 The Atlantic is the second largest ocean after the Pacific.
 It is roughly half the size of the Pacific Ocean.
 It’s shape resembles the letter ‘S’.
 In terms of trade, it is the most significant of all oceans.

Continental Shelf
 It has prominent continental shelf with varying widths.
 The length of the continental shelf is maximum in Northern Atlantic coasts.
 The largest width occurring off north-east America and north-west Europe.
 Grand banks continental shelf is the most productive continental shelf in the
world.
  The Atlantic Ocean has numerous marginal seas occurring on the shelves, like the
Hudson Bay, the Baltic Sea, and the North Sea, and beyond the shelves like the
Gulf of Florida (Mexican Gulf).

Mid-Atlantic Ridge
 The most remarkable feature of the Atlantic Ocean is the Mid-Atlantic Ridge
which runs from north to the south paralleling the ‘S’ shape of the ocean.
 The ridge has an average height of 4 km and is about 14,000 km long.

Seamounts and guyots

 They are present in significant numbers but not as significant as in pacific ocean.
 Several seamounts form islands of the mid-Atlantic. Examples include Pico Island
of Azores, Gape Verde Islands, Canary Islands etc..
 Also, there are coral islands like Bermuda and volcanic islands like, St
Helena etc..

Trenches
 Atlantic Ocean lacks significant troughs and trenches, which are most
characteristic to the Pacific Ocean.
 North Cayman and Puerto Rico are the two troughs and Romanche and South
Sandwich are the two trenches in the Atlantic Ocean.
The Indian Ocean
 Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world’s oceanic divisions.
 Smaller and less deep than the Atlantic Ocean.
Submarine ridges
 Submarine ridges in this ocean include the Lakshadweep-Chagos Ridge
[Reunion Hotspot], the Socotra-Chagos Ridge, the Seychelles Ridge,
the South Madagascar Ridge, Carlsberg Ridge etc..
 These ridges divide the ocean bottom into many basins. Chief among these are
the Central Basin, Arabian Basin, South Indian Basin, Mascarene Basin, West
Australian and South Australian Basins.

Islands
 Most of the islands in the Indian Ocean are continental islands and are present
in the north and west.
 These include the Andaman and Nicobar, Sri Lanka, Madagascar and Zanzibar.
The Lakshadweep and Maldives are coral islands and Mauritius and
the Reunion Islands are of volcanic origin. The eastern section of the Indian
Ocean is almost free from islands

Continental Shelf
 The ocean’s continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 kilometres (120 mi) in
width.
 An exception is found off Australia’s northern coast, where the shelf width
exceeds 1,000 kilometres (620 mi).
 The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m (12,762 ft).

Trenches
 Linear deeps are almost absent. Few exceptions are Sunda Trench, which lies
to the south of the island of Java and Diamantina Trench, west of Australia.
 Its deepest point is Diamantina Deep in Diamantina Trench, at 8,047 m. Sunda
Trench off the coast of Java is also considerably deep.

Straits
 Most of the straits in Indian Ocean are important trade roots.
 The major choke points include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, the Lombok
Strait, the Strait of Malacca and the Palk Strait.
Marginal seas
 Arabian Sea
 Persian Gulf
 Red Sea
 Gulf of Oman
 Gulf of Aden
 Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb connecting Arabian Sea
 Gulf of Kutch
 Gulf of Khambat
 Palk Strait connecting Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal
 Bay of Bengal
 Andaman Sea
 Malacca Strait
 Mozambique Channel
 Great Australian Bight
 Gulf of Mannar
 Laccadive Sea
Ocean Movements
 The movements that occur in oceans are categorized as: waves, tides, ocean
currents and thermohaline circulation

 Ocean currents are the most important ocean movements because of

their influence on climatology of various regions.
 Ocean currents are like river flow in oceans. They represent a regular volume of
water in a definite path and direction.
 Ocean currents are influenced by two types of forces namely:
1. primary forces that initiate the movement of water;
2. secondary forces that influence the currents to flow.
 The primary (causative) forces that influence the currents are:
 1. Atmosphere – Wind system, Heat and Pressure differential
 2. Earth rotation – Coriolis force
 The secondary forces that influence the currents are:
1. Temperature difference;
2. Salinity difference

Types of Ocean Currents

Based on depth

 The ocean currents may be classified based on their depth as surface

currents and deep water currents:
1. surface currents constitute about 10 per cent of all the water in the ocean, these
waters are the upper 400 m of the ocean;
2. deep water currents make up the other 90 per cent of the ocean water. These
waters move around the ocean basins due to variations in the density and gravity.
 Deep waters sink into the deep ocean basins at high latitudes, where the
temperatures are cold enough to cause the density to increase.

Based on temperature
  Ocean currents are classified based on temperature: as cold currents and warm
currents:
1. Cold currents bring cold water into warm water areas [from high latitudes to low
latitudes]. These currents are usually found on the west coast of the
continents (currents flow in clockwise direction in northern hemisphere and in
anti-clockwise direction in southern hemisphere) in the low and middle latitudes
(true in both hemispheres) and on the east coast in the higher latitudes in the
Northern Hemisphere;
2. Warm currents bring warm water into cold water areas[low to high latitudes] and
are usually observed on the east coast of continents in the low and middle
latitudes (true in both hemispheres). In the northern hemisphere they are found
on the west coasts of continents in high latitudes.

General Characteristics of Ocean Currents

 Characteristics of Ocean Currents arise due to the interplay of the above-
mentioned factors.

The general movement of the currents in the northern hemisphere is clockwise and
in the southern hemisphere, anti-clockwise.

 This is due to the Coriolis force which is a deflective force and follows Ferrel’s
law.
 A notable exception to this trend is seen in the northern part of the Indian Ocean
where the current movement changes its direction in response to the seasonal
change in the direction of monsoon winds.
The warm currents move towards the cold seas and cool currents towards the warm seas.
 In the lower latitudes, the warm currents flow on the eastern shores and cold on the
western shores
 The situation is reversed in the higher latitudes. The warm currents move along the
western shores and the cold currents along the eastern shores.
 Convergence: warm and cold currents meet.
 Divergence: a single current splits into multiple currents flowing in different directions.
Effects of Ocean Currents
Ocean currents have a number of direct and indirect influences on human activities.

Desert formation

 Cold ocean currents have a direct effect on desert formation in west coast
regions of the tropical and subtropical continents.
 There is fog and most of the areas are arid due to desiccating effect (loss of
moisture).

Rains

 Warm ocean currents bring rain to coastal areas and even interiors. Example:
Summer Rainfall in British Type climate.
 Warm currents flow parallel to the east coasts of the continents in tropical and
subtropical latitudes. This results in warm and rainy climates. These areas lie in
the western margins of the subtropical anti-cyclones.

Moderating effect
  They are responsible for moderate temperatures at coasts. [North Atlantic Drift
brings warmness to England. Canary cold current brings cooling effect to Spain,
Portugal etc.]

Fishing

 Mixing of cold and warm ocean currents bear richest fishing grounds in the
world.
 Example: Grand Banks around Newfoundland, Canada and North-Eastern Coast
of Japan.
 The mixing of warm and cold currents help to replenish the oxygen and favor the
growth of planktons, the primary food for fish population. The best fishing
grounds of the world exist mainly in these mixing zones.

Drizzle

 Mixing of cold and warm ocean currents create foggy weather where
precipitation occurs in the form of drizzle [Newfoundland].

Climate

Results in

 Warm and rainy climates in tropical and subtropical latitudes [Florida, Natal etc.],
 Cold and dry climates on the western margins in the sub-tropics due to
desiccating effect,
 Foggy weather and drizzle in the mixing zones,
 Moderate clime along the western costs in the sub-tropics.

Tropical cyclones

 They pile up warm waters in tropics and this warm water is the major force
behind tropical cyclones.

Navigation

 Currents are referred to by their “drift”. Usually, the currents are strongest near
the surface and may attain speeds over five knots (1 knot = ~1.8 km). [At depths,
currents are generally slow with speeds less than 0.5 knots].
 Ships usually follow routes which are aided by ocean currents and winds.
 Example: If a ship wants to travel from Mexico to Philippines, it can use the route
along the North Equatorial Drift which flows from east to west.
 When it wants to travel from Philippines to Mexico, it can follow the route along
the doldrums when there is counter equatorial current flowing from west to east.
Sargasso Sea
 The Sargasso Sea is a region in the gyre in the middle of the North Atlantic
Ocean.
 It is the only sea on Earth which has no coastline.
 It is bounded on the
1. west by the Gulf Stream;
2. north, by the North Atlantic Current;
3. east, by the Canary Current; and
4. south, by the North Atlantic Equatorial Current.
 This system of ocean currents forms the North Atlantic Gyre.
 All the currents deposit the marine plants and refuse they carry into this sea.
Indian Ocean Currents and Monsoons
 The currents in the northern portion of the Indian Ocean change their direction
from season to season in response to the seasonal rhythm of the monsoons.
The effect of winds is comparatively more pronounced in the Indian Ocean.

Winter Circulation

 Under the influence of prevailing trade winds [easterly trade winds], the north
equatorial current and the south equatorial current start from the south of
Indonesian islands, moving from east to west.
 This raises the level of western Indian (south-east of horn of Africa) ocean by few
centimeters. And this creates a counter-equatorial current which flows between
the north equatorial current and the south equatorial current in west-
east direction.
 The north-east monsoons drive the water along the coast of Bay of Bengal to
circulate in an anti-clockwise direction.
 Similarly, the water along the coast of Arabian Sea also circulate in an anti-
clockwise circulation.
Summer Circulation – North Equatorial Current Counter-Equatorial Current
are Absent

 In summer, due to the effects of the strong south-west monsoon and the
absence of the north-east trades, a strong current flows from west to east, which
completely obliterates the north equatorial current. Hence, there is no
counter-equatorial current as well.
 Thus, the circulation of water in the northern part of the ocean
is clockwise during this season.
Southern Indian Ocean Currents – Agulhas current,
Mozambique current, West Australian current
 The general pattern of circulation in southern part of the Indian Ocean is quite
similar to that of southern Atlantic and Pacific oceans. It is less marked by the
seasonal changes.
 The south equatorial current, partly led by the corresponding current of the
Pacific Ocean, flows from east to west.
 It splits into two branches, one flowing to the east of Madagascar known
as Agulhas current and the other between Mozambique and Western
Madagascar coast known as Mozambique current.
 At the southern tip of Madagascar, these two branches mix and are commonly
called as the Agulhas current. It still continues to be a warm current, till it merges
with the West Wind Drift.
 The West Wind Drift, flowing across the ocean in the higher latitudes from west
to east, reaches the southern tip of the west coast, of Australia.
  One of the branches of this cold current turns northwards along the west coast of
Australia. This current, known as the West Australian current, flows northward
to feed the south equatorial current.

The ocean water is heated by three processes.

1. Absorption of sun’s radiation.

2. The conventional currents: Since the temperature of the earth increases with
increasing depth, the ocean water at great depths is heated faster than the upper
water layers. So, convectional oceanic circulations develop causing circulation of
heat in water.
3. Heat is produced due to friction caused by the surface wind and the tidal
currents which increase stress on the water body.

The ocean water is cooled by

1. Back radiation (heat budget) from the sea surface takes place as the solar
energy once received is reradiated as long wave radiation (terrestrial radiation
or infrared radiation) from the seawater.
2. Exchange of heat between the sea and the atmosphere if there is temperature
difference.
3. Evaporation: Heat is lost in the form of latent heat of evaporation (atmosphere
gains this heat in the form of latent heat of condensation).

Factors Affecting Temperature

Distribution of Oceans
 Insolation: The average daily duration of insolation and its intensity.
 Heat loss: The loss of energy by reflection, scattering, evaporation and radiation.
 Albedo: The albedo of the sea (depending on the angle of sun rays).
 The physical characteristics of the sea surface: Boiling point of the sea water is
increased in the case of higher salinity and vice versa [Salinity increased ==
Boiling point increased == Evaporation decreased].
 The presence of submarine ridges and sills [Marginal Seas]: Temperature is
affected due to lesser mixing of waters on the opposite sides of the ridges or sills.
 The shape of the ocean: The latitudinally extensive seas in low latitude regions
have warmer surface water than longitudinally extensive sea [Mediterranean Sea
records higher temperature than the longitudinally extensive Gulf of California].
  The enclosed seas (Marginal Seas – Gulf, Bay etc.) in the low latitudes record
relatively higher temperature than the open seas; whereas the enclosed seas in
the high latitudes have lower temperature than the open seas.
 Local weather conditions such as cyclones.
 Unequal distribution of land and water: The oceans in the northern
hemisphere receive more heat due to their contact with larger extent of land than
the oceans in the southern hemisphere.
 Prevalent winds generate horizontal and sometimes vertical ocean currents: The
winds blowing from the land towards the oceans (off-shore winds-moving away
from the shore) drive warm surface water away from the coast resulting in the
upwelling of cold water from below (This happens near Peruvian Coast in normal
years. El-Nino).
 Contrary to this, the onshore winds (winds flowing from oceans into continents)
pile up warm water near the coast and this raises the temperature (This happens
near the Peruvian coast during El Nino event)(In normal years, North-eastern
Australia and Western Indonesian islands see this kind of warm ocean waters due
to Walker Cell or Walker Circulation).
 Ocean currents: Warm ocean currents raise the temperature in cold areas while
the cold currents decrease the temperature in warm ocean areas. Gulf stream
(warm current) raises the temperature near the eastern coast of North America
and the West Coast of Europe while the Labrador current (cold current) lowers
the temperature near the north-east coast of North America (Near
Newfoundland). All these factors influence the temperature of the ocean currents
locally.

Vertical Temperature Distribution of

Oceans
 Photic or euphotic zone extends from the upper surface to ~200 m. The photic
zone receives adequate solar insolation.
 Aphotic zone extends from 200 m to the ocean bottom; this zone does not
receive adequate sunrays.

Thermocline
 The profile shows a boundary region between the surface waters of the ocean
and the deeper layers.
 The boundary usually begins around 100 – 400 m below the sea surface and
extends several hundred of meters downward.
  This boundary region, from where there is a rapid decrease of temperature, is
called the thermocline. About 90 per cent of the total volume of water is found
below the thermocline in the deep ocean. In this zone, temperatures approach 0°
C.

Horizontal Temperature Distribution of

Oceans
  The average temperature of surface water of the oceans is about 27°C and it
gradually decreases from the equator towards the poles.
 The rate of decrease of temperature with increasing latitude is generally 0.5°C per
latitude.
 The horizontal temperature distribution is shown by isothermal lines, i.e., lines
joining places of equal temperature.
 Isotherms are closely spaced when the temperature difference is high and vice
versa.

Ocean Salinity
 Salinity is the term used to define the total content of dissolved salts in sea water.
 It is calculated as the amount of salt (in gm) dissolved in 1,000 gm (1 kg) of
seawater.
 It is usually expressed as parts per thousand or ppt.
 Salinity of 24.7 (24.7 o/oo) has been considered as the upper limit to demarcate
‘brackish water’.

Role of Ocean Salinity

 Salinity determines compressibility, thermal expansion, temperature, density,
absorption of insolation, evaporation and humidity.
 It also influences the composition and movement of the sea: water and the
distribution of fish and other marine resources.
Share of different salts is as shown below—

 sodium chloride — 77.7%

 magnesium chloride—10.9%
 magnesium sulphate —.4.7%
 calcium sulphate — 3.6%
 potassium sulphate — 2.5%

Factors Affecting Ocean Salinity

 The salinity of water in the surface layer of oceans depend mainly
on evaporation and precipitation.
 Surface salinity is greatly influenced in coastal regions by the fresh water
flow from rivers, and in polar regions by the processes of freezing and thawing of
ice.
 Wind, also influences salinity of an area by transferring water to other areas.
 The ocean currents contribute to the salinity variations.
 Salinity, temperature and density of water are interrelated. Hence, any change in
the temperature or density influences the salinity of an area.
Horizontal distribution of salinity
High salinity regions
 In the land locked Red Sea (don’t confuse this to Dead Sea which has much
greater salinity), it is as high as 41.
 In hot and dry regions, where evaporation is high, the salinity sometimes reaches
to 70.

Comparatively Low salinity regions

 In the estuaries (enclosed mouth of a river where fresh and saline water get
mixed) and the Arctic, the salinity fluctuates from 0 – 35, seasonally (fresh water
coming from ice caps).

Pacific
 The salinity variation in the Pacific Ocean is mainly due to its shape and larger
areal extent.

Atlantic
 The average salinity of the Atlantic Ocean is around 36-37.
 The equatorial region of the Atlantic Ocean has a salinity of about 35.
 Near the equator, there is heavy rainfall, high relative humidity, cloudiness and
calm air of the doldrums.
 The polar areas experience very little evaporation and receive large amounts of
fresh water from the melting of ice. This leads to low levels of salinity, ranging
between 20 and 32.
 Maximum salinity (37) is observed between 20° N and 30° N and 20° W – 60°
W. It gradually decreases towards the north.

Vertical Distribution of Salinity

 Salinity changes with depth, but the way it changes depends upon the location of
the sea.
 Salinity at the surface increases by the loss of water to ice or evaporation, or
decreased by the input of fresh waters, such as from the rivers.
  Salinity at depth is very much fixed, because there is no way that water is ‘lost’, or
the salt is ‘added.’ There is a marked difference in the salinity between the surface
zones and the deep zones of the oceans.
 The lower salinity water rests above the higher salinity dense water.
 Salinity, generally, increases with depth and there is a distinct zone called
the halocline (compare this with thermocline), where salinity increases sharply.
 Other factors being constant, increasing salinity of seawater causes its density to
increase. High salinity seawater, generally, sinks below the lower salinity water.
This leads to stratification by salinity.

Types of Tides
 Tides vary in their frequency, direction and movement from place to place and
also from time to time.
  Tides may be grouped into various types based on their frequency of occurrence
in one day or 24 hours or based on their height.

Tides based on Frequency

Semi-diurnal tide

 The most common tidal pattern, featuring two high tides and two low tides
each day [Actually it varies between 3 tides to 4 tides –– 3 tides in rare cases
but 4 is normal]. The successive high or low tides are approximately of the same
height.
Although tides occur twice a day, their interval is not exactly 12 hours. Instead,
they occur at regular intervals of 12 hours and 25 minutes.

 This is because the moon revolves around the earth from west to east, and each
day it moves a bit to the east if observed from the same place on earth at the
same time on two consecutive days.
 This time lag explains the tide interval of 12 hours and- 25 minutes, as tides occur
twice a day.

Diurnal tide

 There is only one high tide and one low tide during each day. The successive high
and low tides are approximately of the same height.

Mixed tide

 Tides having variations in height are known as mixed tides. These tides generally
occur along the west coast of North America and on many islands of the Pacific
Ocean.

Tides based on the Sun, Moon and the Earth Positions

 The height of rising water (high tide) varies appreciably depending upon the
position of sun and moon with respect to the earth. Spring tides and neap
tides come under this category.

Spring tides

 The position of both the sun and the moon in relation to the earth has direct
bearing on tide height.
  When the sun, the moon and the earth are in a straight line, the height of the tide
will be higher.
 These are called spring tides and they occur twice a month, one on full moon
period and another during new moon period.

Neap tides

 Normally, there is a seven day interval between the spring tides and neap tides.
 At this time the sun and moon are at right angles to each other and the forces of
the sun and moon tend to counteract one another.
 The Moon’s attraction, though more than twice as strong as the sun’s, is
diminished by the counteracting force of the sun’s gravitational pull.
 Like spring tides, these tides also occur twice a month.
  AMOC is characterized by a northward flow of warm, salty water in the upper
layers of the Atlantic, and a southward flow of colder, deep waters that are part of
the thermohaline circulation.

Thermohaline Circulation
 Winds drive ocean currents in the upper 100 meters of the ocean’s surface.
 However, ocean currents also flow thousands of meters below the surface.
 These deep-ocean currents are driven by differences in the water’s density,
which is controlled by temperature (thermo) and salinity (haline).
 This process is known as thermohaline circulation.
 The thermohaline circulation is sometimes called the ocean conveyor belt,
the great ocean conveyor, or the global conveyor belt.
 Ocean bottom relief greatly influences thermohaline circulation.

Thermohaline Circulation (Wikipedia)

How Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation
(AMOC) works?
 As warm water flows northwards in the Atlantic, it cools, while evaporation
increases its salt content.
 Low temperature and a high salt content raise the density of the water, causing it
to sink deep into the ocean.
 The cold, dense water deep below slowly spreads southward.
 Eventually, it gets pulled back to the surface and warms again, and the circulation
is complete.

Image Credits: Wikipedia

Importance of Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)

 AMOC aids in distributing heat and energy around the earth (heat budget).
 Western Europe’s climate is less harsh even in winters because of AMOC (Gulf
Stream, North Atlantic Drift).
  It acts as a carbon sink by absorbing and storing atmospheric carbon.
 AMOC’s carbon sequestration has significant implications for evolution of
anthropogenic global warming.

Cause of concern

 AMOC has undergone exceptional weakening in the last 150 years compared to
the previous 1500 years.
 Climate models suggest that the AMOC will weaken over the 21st Century as
greenhouse gases increase.
 This is because as the atmosphere warms, the surface ocean beneath it retains
more of its heat.
 Meanwhile increases in rainfall and ice melt mean it gets fresher too.
 All these changes make the ocean water lighter and reduce the sinking in the
conveyor belt (weaker AMOC).
 A weaker AMOC will bring less warm water northwards, and this will partly offset
the warming effect of the greenhouse gases over western Europe.

Effects of AMOC Slowdown

 IPCC report indicates that AMOC has already weakened.

 Any substantial weakening of the AMOC would cause
o further decrease in marine productivity in the North Atlantic (less sinking
will lead to less mixing of water),
o more storms in Northern Europe,
o less Sahelian summer rainfall and South Asian summer rainfall,
o a reduced number of tropical cyclones in the Atlantic and
o an increase in regional sea level along the northeast coast of North
America.

Rising temperatures in Indian Ocean can boost Atlantic’s ocean currents

temporarily

 For thousands of years, AMOC has remained stable, but since the past 15 years, it
has been weakening.
 However, rising temperatures in the Indian Ocean can help boost the AMOC and
delay the slow down.

Indian Ocean’s role

 The Indian Ocean is one of the fingerprints of global warming.

 As the Indian Ocean warms faster and faster, it generates additional precipitation.
 This draws more air from other parts of the world to the Indian Ocean, including
the Atlantic.
 With so much precipitation in the Indian Ocean, there will be less precipitation in
the Atlantic Ocean.
 Less precipitation will lead to higher salinity in the waters of the tropical portion
of the Atlantic.
 This saltier water, as it comes north via AMOC, will get cold much quicker than
usual and sink faster.
 This would act as a jump start for AMOC, intensifying the circulation.
 However, scientists don’t know for how long this enhanced warming in Indian
Ocean will continue.
 If other tropical oceans’ warming, especially the Pacific’s, catches up with the
Indian Ocean, the advantage for AMOC will stop.
Coral Reef Relief Features
 Fringing reef, barrier reef and atoll (coral islands are formed on atolls) are
the most important relief features.
The ideal environmental conditions for corals to grow:
Coral reefs have certain conditions that must be met for them to grow in full
bloom.

1. Shallow water

Coral reefs need to grow in shallow parts of the water. The surface of the reef
shouldn’t be more than 80m from the water surface. The Zooxanthellae need
adequate sunlight for their photosynthesis processes.

2. Semi-hard or hard surface

The semi-hard or hard surface is a precondition for compaction, cementation

and solidification of the coral polyps skeletons.

3. Clear water

The beautiful coral polyps perish in areas filled with sediment-filled waters.
Moreover, they cease to exist in opaque waters. This is because the presence
of sediments and opaque water limits the passage of sunlight to the algae that
sustains their life.

4. Warm water

Coral reefs are directly connected with the warm oceanic waters. The
temperature of the water must be around 20 degrees. Hence, coral reefs
generally prevail on the eastern coasts of continents. However, this is not true
in the case of India as the eastern waters are filled with high amounts of
sediment matter.

5. Saline-filled waters

The slight salt in ocean waters is extremely important for the development of
coral polyps. The polyps extract calcium from the waters to protect their
skeletons. Hence, mild salinity is a necessity for coral reefs to flourish.

6. Rich supply of nutrients

Coral reefs flourish in sea waters because ocean waves support the constant
supply of rich nutrients. Coral polyps multiply faster when supplied with
nutrients.