Grade 10 Life Science
Support Systems in Animals.
Outline:
The human skeleton (axial and appendicular skeleton) including facial bones,
cranium, foramen magnum
Functions of the skeleton
Extra resources (anatomy website) [Link]
Types of skeletons
Fluid filled body cavity
Hydrostatic skeleton
Allows flexibility but no protection.
Hard structures found outside the body
Exoskeleton
Provides protection from predators but
growth is restricted.
Hard structures (bones) found inside the body.
Endoskeleton
Provides protection and structural support but
delicate skin is exposed to the environment.
Functions of the human skeleton (endoskeleton)
Movement
Support Protection of
(strength and delicate
shape) organs
Functions
Enables
Bones store
hearing
minerals
(Osccile bones
(calcium)
in the ears)
Bone marrow
produces
blood cells
Structure of the skeleton
Total number of bones: 206
The skeleton is divided into 2 sections.
Axial skeleton
Axial skeleton
The skull
Made up of cranium and facial bones
o Cranium encloses and protects the brain
o Facial bones make up the forehead, cheeks, nose and jaws.
Jaws contain sockets for teeth (adults have 32)
o Incisors, canines, premolars, molars
A hole at the base of the skull (foramen magnum) allows the spinal cord to
access the brain.
Vertebral column
Made up of 33 small bones (vertebrae)
Vertebrae are arranged in a S-shaped column.
Each vertebra is separated by cartilage disks.
o Cartilage prevents friction between vertebrae and acts as a shock absorber.
o First vertebrae (atlas) and second vertebrae (axis) allows nodding motion and side-
ways rotation of the head.
Functions of the vertebral column:
Protects the spinal cord
Supports the skull
Allows flexibility
Site of attachment for back muscles
Rib cage
Ribs and sternum form the rib cage
o Ribs long curved bones (humans have 12 pairs)
o Sternum vertical bone in the centre of the chest.
Cartilage attaches the ribs to the sternum.
Intercostal muscles located between the ribs.
Functions of the rib cage:
Protects vital organs (heart and lungs)
Assists with breathing (moves upward
and outward during inhalation and
exhalation)
[Link]
Appendicular skeleton
Pectoral girdle and upper limbs
Pectoral girdle
[Link]
Consists of two scapulae (shoulder blades) and two clavicles (collar bones)
Upper limbs
The two upper limbs consist of:
o Humerus (upper limbs)
o Radius and ulna (forearms) *radius is on the same side as the thumb.
o Carpals (wrist)
o Metacarpals (palm)
o Phalanges (fingers and thumb)
Pelvic girdle and lower limbs
Pelvic girdle
Consists of two hip bones (the ilium, ischium, and pubis are fused to form the hip
bones)
The two hip bones are joined to the vertebral column and the pubis symphysis joint
(a semi-moveable joint)
Lower limbs
Two lower limbs each have:
o Femur (thigh bone) largest bone in the body.
o Patella (knee cap)
o Tibia (shin bone)
o Fibula (calf bone)
o Calcaneum (heel bone)
o 7 tarsals (ankle bones)
o 5 metatarsals (foot bones)
o 14 phalanges (toes)
Structure of a long bone
Examples: humerus, radius and femur
Structure:
Has a long cylindrical shaft (diaphysis) with a head on either end (epiphysis).
Heads of the bone are covered with cartilage.
Long bones are made up of compact and spongy bone tissue.
o Compact bone tissue forms the shaft of the bone.
o Spongy bone tissue a softer tissue that forms the head of the bone and contains red
bone marrow (red bone marrow produces red and white blood cells)
Shaft contains a hollow marrow cavity.
o Marrow cavity is lined with a thin membrane (endosteum)
o Yellow marrow is found in the marrow cavity (produces fat cells and white blood cells)
Periosteum a membrane that covers the outside of the bone shaft and has blood vessels
and nerves.
Joints
An area where two or more bones meet.
Functions: holds the skeleton together and allows movement.
Types of joints
Immovable Does not allow any movement.
(fixed joints)
E.g. Joints called Sutures
join the bones of the skull.
Semi-movable joints Allows slight movement.
E.g. Slight movement between
the vertebrae of the lower back.
Freely movable (synovial) joints Allows free movement. E.g. Free movement at the elbow
and knee joints.
Synovial joint structure:
Joint capsule: a sac that encloses the entire joint.
Synovial membrane: lines the joint capsule and
produces synovial fluid.
Synovial fluid: A fluid produced in the synovial
cavity. Lubricates the joint and prevents friction
between the bones.
Ligament: joins the bones together.
Hyaline cartilage: prevents friction between the
bones.
Examples of synovial joints:
Ball and socket joint Hinge joint
Head of the bone fits into a rounded cavity Allows movement in only one plane (back
(socket). Allows movement in any direction and forth)
Shoulder joint Hip joint
Pivot joint Gliding joint
`
Allows a bone to rotate around another bone. Allows the surfaces of two flat bones to
glide over each other.
Rotation of the atlas around the axis
allows the head to move sideways. Gliding joints allows movement in the
ankles and wrists.
[Link]
system-atlas-axis-and-the-atlanto-axial-
relationship
Skeletal muscles
Voluntary muscles/striated muscles are attached to the bones by tendons.
These muscles are controlled by the conscious mind and allow voluntary movement.
Structure of skeletal muscles
In the muscle tissue, muscle fibres are found as bundles. Each bundle is enclosed
by a tissue called perimysium.
Each muscle fibre has a cytoplasm, many oval nuclei, and mitochondria. A membrane
(sarcolemma) encloses each fibre.
Each muscle fibre contains many small column-shaped myofibrils. Myofibrils have
myosin and actin protein filaments.
ALL the muscle fibre bundles are enclosed by a tissue called Epimysium.
Myofibril structure
Myosin filaments (dark bands) and actin
filaments (light bands) overlap each other
gives the muscle tissue a striated
appearance.
Z lines are structures that separates the
myosin into units (sarcomeres)
How does movement occur?
Muscles work in pairs (antagonistic muscles) one muscle relaxes the other contracts to
bring about movement
[Link]
The actin filaments slide over the myosin filaments causing them to overlap this action
shortens the sarcomeres, which in turn shortens the myofibrils, and eventually the whole
muscle tissue causing it to contract.
[Link]