Cambridge A Level Biology 9700

Topic 17: Selection and Evolution

Prepared for Kevin | May/June Series

The Big Picture

Evolution is the change in allele frequencies in a population over time, driven by natural
selection and other mechanisms. Darwin and Wallace proposed natural selection in 1858 as
the mechanism of evolution — the idea that individuals best adapted to their environment
are most likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on their alleles. Over generations, beneficial
alleles become more common and the population adapts.
This topic connects directly to genetics (Topic 16) — evolution works by changing the
frequency of alleles in the gene pool. Understanding the Hardy-Weinberg principle allows
you to detect whether evolution is occurring in a population.

1. Variation
Before natural selection can act, there must be variation in the population. Individuals must
differ from each other. Variation has two types:

1.1 Discontinuous Variation

Discontinuous variation: Variation in which individuals fall into distinct, separate
categories with no intermediates. Controlled by one or a few genes with a small number
of alleles.

• Examples: ABO blood groups, tongue rolling ability, sex, presence/absence of a

specific trait
• Shown on a bar chart — clear distinct categories
• Little or no environmental influence
• Genetic basis: usually one gene, few alleles
1.2 Continuous Variation
Continuous variation: Variation in which individuals show a range of values between
two extremes, with no distinct categories. Controlled by many genes (polygenic) and
influenced by the environment.

• Examples: height, mass, skin colour, intelligence, crop yield

• Shown on a histogram — normal distribution (bell curve)
• Strong environmental influence
• Genetic basis: polygenic — many genes each with a small additive effect

Feature Discontinuous variation Continuous variation

Number of phenotypes Distinct categories — no Range of values — intermediates
intermediates common
Number of genes Usually one (or few) Many genes (polygenic)
Environmental influence Little or none Significant
Graph type Bar chart Histogram — normal distribution
Examples Blood group, sex Height, mass, skin colour

⭐ Cambridge Exam Tip — Genetic basis of each type

Model answer: "Discontinuous variation is controlled by one or a few genes, each with a
small number of alleles. The environment has little effect, so distinct phenotypic classes
exist. Continuous variation is polygenic — controlled by many genes, each contributing a
small additive effect. Combined with environmental influences, this produces a
continuous range of phenotypes that follow a normal distribution."

2. Natural Selection
Natural selection is the mechanism by which evolution occurs. It acts on phenotypic variation
in a population, favouring individuals whose phenotype is best suited to the current
environment.

2.1 The Mechanism of Natural Selection

The logic of natural selection follows five key steps — learn these in order:
1. OVERPRODUCTION — populations have the capacity to produce far more offspring
than can survive. Resources (food, space, mates) are limited.
 2. VARIATION — individuals within a population vary in their phenotypes due to genetic
variation (mutations, meiosis). Some individuals are better adapted to the
environment than others.
3. STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE — because more individuals are produced than can
survive, there is competition for resources. Not all offspring survive to reproduce.
4. SURVIVAL OF THE FITTEST — individuals with phenotypes better suited to the
environment are more likely to survive and reproduce. 'Fittest' means best adapted to
the current environment — not necessarily the strongest or largest.
5. INHERITANCE — the alleles that produce the advantageous phenotype are passed
on to offspring. Over many generations, the frequency of advantageous alleles
increases in the population. The population becomes better adapted.

⭐ Cambridge Exam Tip — Natural selection model answer

'Explain how natural selection leads to evolution.' — classic 5-mark question:
Model answer: "Within a population there is genetic variation, produced by mutation and
meiosis. Some individuals possess alleles that give them a selective advantage — they
are better adapted to their environment. These individuals are more likely to survive to
reproductive age and produce offspring. They pass the advantageous alleles to their
offspring. Over many generations, the frequency of advantageous alleles increases in
the population's gene pool. The population becomes better adapted to its environment
— this is evolution."

2.2 Types of Natural Selection

Type What it does to the Effect on Example
population distribution
Stabilising Selects AGAINST Narrows the Human birth weight —
selection extreme phenotypes. distribution — very large or very small
Favours the intermediate reduces variation. babies have higher
(average) phenotype. Mean stays the same. mortality. Average birth
weight is favoured.
Directional Selects FOR one Shifts the distribution Antibiotic resistance —
selection extreme phenotype. The in one direction — bacteria with resistance
other extreme is selected mean changes. alleles survive treatment.
against. Variation may Resistant phenotype
decrease. becomes more common
over time.
Disruptive Selects FOR both Distribution becomes Darwin's finches —
selection extreme phenotypes. bimodal (two peaks). beaks suited to large
The intermediate is Increases variation. seeds OR small seeds
selected against. are favoured. Medium-
beak birds are at a
disadvantage.

⭐ Cambridge Exam Tip — Interpreting selection graphs

Cambridge may show a bell curve and ask you to draw how it changes under each type
 of selection:
• Stabilising — same mean, narrower curve
• Directional — mean shifts left or right, similar width
• Disruptive — curve splits into two peaks
Model answer: "Stabilising selection acts against individuals at both extremes of the
distribution, favouring those with the average phenotype. Over generations, the
distribution becomes narrower — the mean remains the same but the range of variation
is reduced. This occurs when the current environment remains stable and the existing
average phenotype is well adapted."

3. Factors Affecting Allele Frequencies

3.1 Selection
Natural selection changes allele frequencies by favouring individuals with beneficial alleles
— these individuals survive and reproduce, passing on their alleles. Over generations,
beneficial allele frequencies increase and harmful allele frequencies decrease.

3.2 Genetic Drift

Genetic drift: Random changes in allele frequencies in a population due to chance
events — not due to natural selection. More significant in small populations where
chance has a greater effect on which individuals survive and reproduce.

In small populations, chance events (e.g. which individuals happen to survive a storm,
disease, or predation) can cause large random changes in allele frequencies. Alleles may be
lost or fixed by chance — not because they are advantageous or disadvantageous.

3.3 The Founder Effect

Founder effect: A form of genetic drift that occurs when a small group of individuals
from a larger population colonises a new area and establishes a new population. The
new population has reduced genetic variation and allele frequencies that differ from the
original population — because the founding group is a non-representative sample.
 • Example: Amish populations in Pennsylvania — founded by a small group of settlers.
High frequency of certain genetic diseases (e.g. Ellis-van Creveld syndrome) due to
chance allele frequencies in the founders.

3.4 The Bottleneck Effect

Bottleneck effect: A form of genetic drift that occurs when a population is drastically
reduced in size by a catastrophic event (e.g. disease, natural disaster, overhunting). The
surviving population has reduced genetic variation and allele frequencies that differ from
the original population — by chance, not selection.

• Example: Northern elephant seals were hunted to near extinction (~20 individuals).
Current population descended from these survivors — has very low genetic diversity.
• Example: Cheetahs show extreme genetic similarity — likely survived a bottleneck
~10,000 years ago.

⭐ Cambridge Exam Tip — Founder effect vs bottleneck effect

Both are forms of genetic drift in small populations. The key difference is the cause:
• Founder effect — new population formed by a small number of colonisers leaving
a larger population
• Bottleneck effect — existing population dramatically reduced in size by a
catastrophic event
Both result in reduced genetic variation and allele frequencies that differ from the original
large population — by chance, not natural selection.

4. The Hardy-Weinberg Principle

The Hardy-Weinberg principle states that in a large, randomly mating population where no
evolutionary forces are acting, allele frequencies and genotype frequencies remain constant
from generation to generation.

The two equations (provided in the exam):

• p + q = 1 (allele frequencies must add up to 1)
• p² + 2pq + q² = 1 (genotype frequencies must add up to 1)

Where:
• p = frequency of the dominant allele (e.g. A)
• q = frequency of the recessive allele (e.g. a)
• p² = frequency of homozygous dominant genotype (AA)
 • 2pq = frequency of heterozygous genotype (Aa)
• q² = frequency of homozygous recessive genotype (aa)

4.1 Conditions for Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

The Hardy-Weinberg principle only applies when ALL of the following conditions are met:
• Large population — reduces the effect of genetic drift
• Random mating — all individuals equally likely to mate with any other
• No natural selection — no allele confers a selective advantage
• No mutation — no new alleles introduced
• No migration — no individuals entering or leaving the population

⚠ If allele frequencies ARE changing — evolution is occurring

If you calculate allele frequencies in a population over time and they are changing, this
indicates that one or more Hardy-Weinberg conditions are being violated — likely natural
selection, genetic drift, mutation, or migration. This is evidence of evolution occurring in
the population.

4.2 Hardy-Weinberg Calculations — Step by Step

The most important skill: you are usually given the frequency of the RECESSIVE
PHENOTYPE (aa) and asked to find allele and genotype frequencies.

Strategy:
6. Frequency of homozygous recessive phenotype (aa) = q²
7. Find q: q = √q²
8. Find p: p = 1 - q
9. Find p²: p² = p × p (frequency of AA)
10. Find 2pq: 2pq = 2 × p × q (frequency of Aa — carriers)
11. Check: p² + 2pq + q² = 1

⭐ Cambridge Exam Tip — Hardy-Weinberg worked example

In a population of 10,000 people, 900 are albino (aa). Calculate the frequency of carriers.
q² = 900/10000 = 0.09
q = √0.09 = 0.3
p = 1 - 0.3 = 0.7
Frequency of carriers (Aa) = 2pq = 2 × 0.7 × 0.3 = 0.42
Number of carriers = 0.42 × 10000 = 4200
Model answer: "The frequency of the recessive phenotype (q²) = 900/10000 = 0.09.
Therefore q = √0.09 = 0.3. The frequency of the dominant allele p = 1 - 0.3 = 0.7. The
frequency of carriers (heterozygotes, Aa) = 2pq = 2 × 0.7 × 0.3 = 0.42. The number of
 carriers in the population = 0.42 × 10000 = 4200."

5. Antibiotic Resistance — Natural Selection in

Action
Antibiotic resistance in bacteria is one of the clearest examples of directional natural
selection operating in real time. You covered the mechanism in Topic 10 — here is the
evolutionary framing:

12. Within a bacterial population, random mutations occasionally produce individuals with
resistance to an antibiotic
13. When antibiotics are used, they act as a SELECTION PRESSURE — the
environment changes
14. Non-resistant bacteria are killed — they cannot survive and reproduce
15. Resistant bacteria have a SELECTIVE ADVANTAGE — they survive, reproduce, and
pass on the resistance allele
16. Over generations, the frequency of the resistance allele increases in the population
17. The population evolves — it is now dominated by resistant bacteria
18. The antibiotic is no longer effective — a new antibiotic must be used

⭐ Cambridge Exam Tip — Use evolutionary language

When explaining antibiotic resistance, use the language of natural selection — not
Lamarckian language. NEVER say bacteria 'develop' resistance or 'learn' to resist the
antibiotic. The resistance already exists as a random mutation — the antibiotic
SELECTS for it:
Model answer: "Random mutations in bacterial DNA occasionally produce individuals
with alleles conferring resistance to an antibiotic. When antibiotics are applied, they act
as a selection pressure. Non-resistant bacteria die, but resistant bacteria survive and
reproduce, passing on the resistance allele to daughter cells. Over generations, the
frequency of the resistance allele increases in the population through natural selection.
The antibiotic has selected for the resistant phenotype — the bacteria have not 'learned'
or 'adapted' in response."
6. Selective Breeding (Artificial Selection)
Selective breeding: The deliberate selection by humans of individuals with desirable
traits for breeding, with the aim of increasing the frequency of those traits in the
population over generations.

The principles are the same as natural selection — the difference is that HUMANS choose
which individuals reproduce, rather than the environment selecting them.

Cambridge requires you to know three examples:

Example Desired trait Method Outcome

Disease resistance Resistance to Cross disease-resistant wild High-yielding,
in wheat and rice fungal diseases varieties with high-yielding disease-resistant crop
(e.g. wheat rust) cultivated varieties. Select varieties
offspring with both
resistance and high yield.
Repeat over many
generations.
Inbreeding and Vigorous, uniform Inbreed separate lines for Vigorous, uniform F1
hybridisation in plants (hybrid many generations to hybrid maize
maize vigour) produce homozygous lines.
Cross two inbred lines — the
hybrid offspring show hybrid
vigour (heterosis): higher
yield, greater uniformity.
Improving milk yield High milk Select cows with highest Dairy cattle producing
in dairy cattle production milk yield for breeding. Use much more milk than
artificial insemination with their ancestors
bulls from high-yielding
families. Measure milk yield
of daughters to assess bull's
genetic contribution.

7. Evolution and Speciation

Evolution: The change in allele frequencies in a population's gene pool over successive
generations, leading to the formation of new species from pre-existing species over time.

Species: A group of organisms that share common characteristics and can interbreed to
produce fertile offspring. (Biological species concept — but note there are also
 morphological and ecological species concepts.)

Speciation: The formation of new species from a pre-existing species, as a result of

populations becoming reproductively isolated and accumulating different mutations
through natural selection and genetic drift.

7.1 How Speciation Occurs — The Key Requirement

For speciation to occur, populations must become REPRODUCTIVELY ISOLATED — they
must stop interbreeding. Once isolated, the two populations accumulate different mutations
and allele frequencies independently. Over time, they become so different that they can no
longer interbreed even if they come back into contact — they have become separate
species.

7.2 Allopatric Speciation — Geographic Separation

Allopatric speciation: Speciation that occurs when populations are separated by a
GEOGRAPHICAL BARRIER (e.g. a mountain range, a river, an ocean, a desert). The
barrier prevents gene flow between populations.

19. A population is split into two by a geographical barrier

20. The two populations are isolated — no interbreeding (no gene flow between them)
21. Each population is subject to different selection pressures in their different
environments
22. Different mutations arise in each population — different alleles are selected for or
against
23. Over time, the allele frequencies in the two populations diverge
24. Genetic differences accumulate until the populations can no longer interbreed
successfully — reproductive isolation is complete
25. Two separate species now exist

• Example: Darwin's finches on the Galapagos Islands — populations on different

islands became isolated and adapted to different food sources. Different beak
shapes evolved. Eventually became separate species.

7.3 Sympatric Speciation — Ecological and Behavioural Separation

Sympatric speciation: Speciation that occurs within the SAME geographical area,
without a physical barrier. Reproductive isolation arises due to ecological or behavioural
differences.
 • Ecological isolation — two populations exploit different resources or habitats within
the same area (e.g. different food sources, different microhabitats). They rarely meet
and interbreed.
• Behavioural isolation — populations develop different mating behaviours, rituals, or
preferences. Even in the same area, they do not recognise each other as potential
mates.
• Temporal isolation — populations breed at different times of year (e.g. different
flowering seasons in plants).
• Example: Apple maggot flies in North America — originally bred on hawthorn. Some
switched to apples (introduced by settlers). The two groups now breed on different
host plants at different times — ecological and temporal isolation has developed.

7.4 DNA Evidence for Evolution

DNA sequence data can be used to determine evolutionary relationships between species.
The more similar the DNA sequences of two species, the more recently they shared a
common ancestor.
• Closely related species have more similar DNA sequences — fewer mutations have
accumulated since they diverged
• Distantly related species have more different DNA sequences — more time for
mutations to accumulate
• Molecular phylogenetics — constructing evolutionary trees (phylogenies) based on
DNA sequence comparisons
• Mitochondrial DNA and ribosomal RNA genes are often used — they are highly
conserved and present in all organisms

⭐ Cambridge Exam Tip — DNA evidence question

Model answer: "DNA sequence data can be used to determine evolutionary relationships
because mutations accumulate over time at an approximately constant rate. Species
that diverged more recently share more similar DNA sequences, as less time has
passed for mutations to accumulate. By comparing the percentage similarity in DNA
sequences between species, scientists can estimate when they last shared a common
ancestor and construct evolutionary trees (phylogenies). Greater DNA sequence
similarity indicates a more recent common ancestor and a closer evolutionary
relationship."

8. Worked Exam Questions

Q1 — Natural selection (classic question)
'Explain how natural selection may lead to a change in the phenotype of a population over
time.' [5 marks]

⭐ Model Answer
26. Within a population there is phenotypic variation — individuals differ in their
characteristics due to genetic variation arising from mutation and meiosis. (1)
27. The environment acts as a selection pressure. Individuals with phenotypes better
suited to the environment have a selective advantage — they are more likely to
survive to reproductive age. (1)
28. These individuals reproduce and pass on their alleles to offspring. Individuals
with less well-adapted phenotypes are less likely to survive and reproduce —
they pass on fewer alleles. (1)
29. Over many generations, the frequency of alleles that produce the advantageous
phenotype increases in the population. (1)
30. The population becomes better adapted to its environment — the mean
phenotype shifts towards the advantageous phenotype. This is evolution by
natural selection. (1)

Q2 — Hardy-Weinberg (common calculation question)

'In a population, 16% of individuals show the recessive phenotype for a trait. Calculate the
frequency of heterozygotes in this population. State any assumptions you make.' [4 marks]

⭐ Model Answer
31. Assumption: the population is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium — large population,
random mating, no selection, no mutation, no migration. (1)
32. q² = 0.16, so q = √0.16 = 0.4. (1)
33. p = 1 - q = 1 - 0.4 = 0.6. (1)
34. Frequency of heterozygotes (2pq) = 2 × 0.6 × 0.4 = 0.48 (48%). (1)

Q3 — Speciation (applied question)

'Explain how allopatric speciation could lead to the formation of two species from one
ancestral species.' [5 marks]

⭐ Model Answer
35. A geographical barrier (e.g. a mountain range or ocean) divides a population into
two isolated groups. Gene flow between the groups is prevented. (1)
36. The two populations are now subject to different environmental conditions and
therefore different selection pressures. (1)
37. Different mutations arise randomly in each population. Natural selection favours
 different alleles in each population, causing allele frequencies to diverge. Genetic
drift may also contribute to divergence. (1)
38. Over many generations, the genetic differences between the two populations
accumulate. They develop differences in morphology, physiology and behaviour.
(1)
39. Eventually the two populations become so genetically different that even if the
barrier is removed, they can no longer interbreed to produce fertile offspring —
reproductive isolation is complete. Two separate species now exist. (1)

9. Revision Checklist
Topic Tick when
confident
Define discontinuous and continuous variation with examples; state the
genetic basis of each
Compare discontinuous and continuous variation in a table

Describe the five-step mechanism of natural selection in order

Distinguish stabilising, directional and disruptive selection — describe effect

on distribution curve
Define genetic drift and explain why it is more significant in small
populations
Distinguish founder effect and bottleneck effect with examples

State the Hardy-Weinberg equations and what each symbol represents

State the five conditions required for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium

Calculate allele and genotype frequencies using Hardy-Weinberg — from q²

to 2pq
Explain what it means if allele frequencies are changing — evolution is
occurring
Explain antibiotic resistance as directional natural selection — using
evolutionary language
Define selective breeding and describe three examples: wheat/rice disease
resistance, maize hybridisation, dairy cattle
Define evolution and speciation

Explain the key requirement for speciation — reproductive isolation

Describe allopatric speciation — geographical barrier, gene flow prevented,

divergence, reproductive isolation
Describe sympatric speciation — ecological, behavioural, temporal isolation
Explain how DNA sequence data can be used to show evolutionary
relationships

Evolution is the thread that connects all of biology. Variation → selection →

inheritance → change. Master that sequence and every question in this topic
becomes answerable.