TRUTH FUNCTIONAL LOGIC

Complete Theory Notes — All Important Questions Answered

Philosophy | Based on Previous Year Question Papers
Q1. What is a Proposition? How does it differ from a Sentence?

Definition of Proposition
A proposition is a statement or declarative sentence that asserts something is the case or is not the
case. Every proposition has one and only one truth value — it is either TRUE or FALSE, though its truth
or falsity may not always be known to us.

Key Definition (from Copi)

"A proposition asserts that something is the case or it asserts that something is not."
Every proposition either asserts what really is the case, or it asserts something that is not.
Therefore every proposition is either true or false.

Types of Sentences vs. Propositions

Not all sentences are propositions. Sentences can be:
• Declarative sentences — Can be propositions (e.g., 'The sky is blue.')
• Interrogative sentences — Questions, NOT propositions (e.g., 'Is it raining?')
• Imperative sentences — Commands, NOT propositions (e.g., 'Close the door.')
• Exclamatory sentences — Expressions of emotion, NOT propositions (e.g., 'What a beautiful
day!')

Key Differences: Proposition vs. Sentence

Basis Proposition Sentence
Truth Value Always T or F May not have a truth value
Type Only declarative Declarative, interrogative,
imperative, exclamatory
Example 'It is raining' = proposition 'Is it raining?' = not a proposition
Logical Use Building block of arguments Broader linguistic unit
Content Has a definite meaning that can May be vague, metaphorical, or
be true/false ambiguous

Examples
'Paris is the capital of France' → PROPOSITION (True)
'2 + 2 = 5' → PROPOSITION (False)
'Please sit down.' → NOT a proposition (imperative)
'Are you coming?' → NOT a proposition (interrogative)
'What a disaster!' → NOT a proposition (exclamatory)
Note: Proposition vs. Statement
In logic, 'proposition' and 'statement' are often used interchangeably. A proposition is the meaning or
content of a declarative sentence; a statement is the sentence used to express that content. The same
proposition can be expressed by different sentences in different languages.
Q2. What is an Argument? How to Distinguish Premises from
Conclusion?

Definition of Argument
An argument is a cluster or group of propositions of which one is the conclusion and the others are
premises offered in support of that conclusion. Arguments are the central concern of logicians.

Key Components of an Argument

PREMISES: The propositions offered as reasons or evidence (the 'because' part).
CONCLUSION: The proposition that the premises are intended to support or establish (the
'therefore' part).
Every argument has at least one premise and exactly one conclusion.

How to Identify Premises and Conclusion

Premise Indicators (words that introduce premises):

since, because, for, as, given that, in as much as, as indicated by, the reason is that, for the reason
that, it follows from the fact that

Conclusion Indicators (words that introduce conclusions):

therefore, thus, hence, so, consequently, it follows that, we may conclude that, as a result, which shows
that, this proves that, accordingly

Example 1 — Simple Argument

All humans are mortal. (PREMISE 1)
Socrates is human. (PREMISE 2)
Therefore, Socrates is mortal. (CONCLUSION)

Tip: 'Therefore' signals the conclusion. The two facts given before it are premises.

Example 2 — Using 'because'

'Because it is raining (PREMISE), the ground is wet (CONCLUSION).'
Tip: 'Because' signals a premise. The part before 'because' is often the conclusion.

Example 3 — No indicator word

 'Smoking causes lung cancer. You should not smoke.'
Here we must understand context: the first sentence is the PREMISE (reason),
and the second is the CONCLUSION (what follows from it).

Important Distinctions
• The premises may be true or false — an argument can be valid even with false premises.
• The conclusion does not have to be true — it just needs to follow from the premises.
• Not all passages containing propositions are arguments — some are explanations, descriptions,
or reports.
• In explanations, the 'why' is already accepted as true; in arguments, the conclusion is what we
are trying to establish.
Q3. Illustrate the Function of Conjunction and Implication

A. CONJUNCTION (The Dot Operator: ·)

A conjunction is a compound truth-functional statement formed by connecting two statements with the
logical connective 'and', represented by the dot symbol (·). The two component statements are called
conjuncts.

Definition
A conjunction (p · q) is TRUE if and only if BOTH its conjuncts are true.
If either conjunct is false, the entire conjunction is false.
Symbol: · (dot) Natural language: 'and', 'but', 'yet', 'also', 'although', 'however', 'moreover'

Truth Table for Conjunction:

p q p · q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Function of Conjunction:
• Joins two facts into a single compound statement
• Used when BOTH conditions must hold simultaneously
• Example: 'It is cold AND it is raining' means both are true at the same time
• Words like 'but', 'yet', 'although', 'however' can all be symbolized by the dot

Examples of Conjunction
'India is a democracy and India is a republic.' → D · R (True · True = True)
'India is a monarchy and India is a republic.' → M · R (False · True = False)
'She is intelligent but lazy.' → I · L ('but' = conjunction)
'He came and he conquered.' → C · K

B. IMPLICATION — Material Implication (The Horseshoe: ⊃)

A conditional statement (material implication) is a compound statement of the form 'If p, then q.' It is
represented by the horseshoe symbol (⊃). The first part (p) is called the antecedent; the second part
(q) is called the consequent.
 Definition
p ⊃ q is FALSE only when the antecedent (p) is TRUE and the consequent (q) is FALSE.
In all other cases, p ⊃ q is TRUE — including when the antecedent is false.
Symbol: ⊃ (horseshoe) Natural language: 'if...then', 'implies', 'only if', 'provided that'

Truth Table for Material Implication:

p q p ⊃ q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

Function of Implication:
• Expresses a conditional relationship between two statements
• p is the 'sufficient condition' for q; q is the 'necessary condition' for p
• The only way to make p⊃q false is if p is TRUE and q is FALSE (promise broken)
• If p is false, the conditional is always true (a false premise can imply anything)

Examples of Implication
'If it rains, the ground gets wet.' → R ⊃ W
If it rains (T) and ground is wet (T): T ⊃ T = TRUE
If it rains (T) and ground is NOT wet (F): T ⊃ F = FALSE (promise broken!)
If it does not rain (F): F ⊃ anything = TRUE (promise not violated)

Alternative phrasings of p ⊃ q:
'If p then q' | 'p only if q' | 'q if p' | 'p is sufficient for q' | 'q is necessary for p'
Q4. Differentiate between Conjunction and Disjunction

Both conjunction and disjunction are compound truth-functional statements, but they differ
fundamentally in their logical form, truth conditions, and the logical connectives they use.

Aspect CONJUNCTION (p · q) DISJUNCTION (p v q)

Symbol · (dot) v (wedge/vel)
Natural Language 'and', 'but', 'yet', 'however' 'or', 'unless', 'either...or'
When TRUE ONLY when BOTH conjuncts are When AT LEAST ONE disjunct is
true true
When FALSE When EITHER conjunct is false ONLY when BOTH disjuncts are
false
Parts Called Conjuncts Disjuncts
Restrictiveness More restrictive (both must hold) Less restrictive (one is enough)
Types Only one type Two types: inclusive and exclusive
Example 'It is hot AND humid' (both required) 'It is hot OR humid' (one enough)

Truth Tables Side by Side:

p q p · q p q p v q
T T T T T T
T F F T F T
F T F F T T
F F F F F F

Memory Trick
CONJUNCTION = 'AND' = Like multiplication: 1×1=1 (T·T=T), anything×0=0 (anything with F =
F)
DISJUNCTION = 'OR' = Like addition: 0+0=0 (FvF=F), anything+1=1 (anything with T = T)
Q5. What is the Significance of Symbolic Logic?

Symbolic logic (also called modern logic or mathematical logic) replaces ordinary language with precise
symbols to analyze arguments rigorously. Its significance is enormous both theoretically and practically.

1. Removes Ambiguity of Natural Language

Natural languages like English are vague, equivocal, metaphorical, and emotionally charged. Symbolic
logic uses a precise, artificial language where every symbol has exactly one meaning. Example: 'or' in
English is ambiguous (inclusive/exclusive), but the wedge (v) always means inclusive disjunction.

2. Enables Mechanical Testing of Validity

With symbols, we can use truth tables and formal proof methods to test validity almost mechanically,
without relying on intuition or understanding the content of an argument. This makes logical analysis
objective and reliable.

3. More Powerful than Aristotelian Logic

Modern symbolic logic can handle arguments that Aristotelian syllogistic logic cannot. It deals with
propositional logic (whole statements) AND predicate logic (internal structure of statements), making it
more comprehensive.

4. Reveals Inner Structure of Arguments

Symbolic notation strips away irrelevant content and shows the logical skeleton of an argument.
Arguments with completely different topics but the same logical form are immediately seen to be
equivalent.

5. Foundation of Computer Science and AI

Symbolic logic is the foundation of digital circuit design, programming languages, artificial intelligence,
and database theory. Boolean algebra, which underlies all computers, is directly based on the algebra
of logic.

6. Economizes Reasoning
As Copi notes: 'With symbols we can perform, almost mechanically, with the eye, some logical
operations which might otherwise demand great effort.' Just as Indo-Arabic numerals simplified
arithmetic compared to Roman numerals, symbolic logic simplifies reasoning.
7. Connects Logic and Mathematics
Frege, Russell, and Whitehead showed that mathematics can be derived from logical principles. This
project (logicism) revealed a deep connection between the foundations of mathematics and logic.

Summary of Significance
1. Precision and clarity — removes linguistic ambiguity
2. Mechanical validity testing — truth tables and proof procedures
3. Greater power than traditional Aristotelian logic
4. Reveals logical form underlying different arguments
5. Foundation of computer science, AI, and digital circuits
6. Economizes intellectual effort in complex reasoning
7. Unifies logic and mathematics
Q6. Relevance of Symbols in Symbolic Logic

Symbols are not merely shorthand in symbolic logic — they are fundamental to the entire enterprise.
The use of symbols transforms logic from an art into a science.

Why Symbols Are Essential

1. Precision and Univocality

Each symbol has exactly one, fixed meaning. The dot (·) always means 'and' in a purely logical sense,
with no emotional overtones or ambiguity. This precision is impossible in natural language.

2. Abstraction and Generality

Symbols like p, q, r represent any proposition whatsoever. This abstraction allows us to study logical
FORM rather than logical content. An argument with the form p⊃q, p ∴ q is valid regardless of what p
and q mean.

3. Economy of Expression
Symbols compress lengthy statements into brief notations. A complex conditional statement requiring
several lines in English can be written in a few symbols. Example: '(P ⊃ Q) · (R ⊃ S), P v R ∴ Q v S' is
the entire Constructive Dilemma.

4. Manipulation and Computation

Symbols can be manipulated according to fixed rules, just like numbers in algebra. This allows us to
'calculate' logical conclusions, detect contradictions, and prove theorems with mathematical certainty.

5. The Five Logical Operators

Symbol Name What It Represents
~ Tilde (Negation) NOT — denial of a statement; reverses truth value
· Dot (Conjunction) AND — both components must be true
v Wedge (Disjunction) OR — at least one component must be true (inclusive)
⊃ Horseshoe (Conditional) IF...THEN — material implication
≡ Triple Bar (Biconditional) IF AND ONLY IF — material equivalence

6. Analogy with Mathematics

Just as Indo-Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3...) made arithmetic far easier than Roman numerals (I, II, III...),
logical symbols make reasoning more efficient. To multiply CXIII × IX is far harder than 113 × 9.
Similarly, logical symbols unlock what natural language locks up.
Q7. Discuss Additional Rules of Inference in Quantification Theory

Quantification theory (Predicate Logic) requires four additional rules of inference beyond the nine
elementary rules of propositional logic. These rules are needed because in quantification we deal with
general propositions using quantifiers.

Why Additional Rules Are Needed

Propositional logic handles compound statements (connected by ·, v, ⊃, ≡, ~).
But arguments like 'All humans are mortal; Socrates is human; therefore Socrates is mortal'
require us to move between UNIVERSAL statements and INDIVIDUAL instances.
Four additional rules make this possible.

Rule 1: Universal Instantiation (U.I.)

Principle: From the universal quantification of a propositional function, any substitution instance can be
validly inferred.
Form: (x)(Φx) ∴ Φν (where ν is any individual symbol)

Example of U.I.
Premise: (x)(Hx ⊃ Mx) [All humans are mortal]
By U.I.: Hs ⊃ Ms [Socrates (s) is human, therefore mortal]

Full proof: All humans are mortal / Socrates is human / ∴ Socrates is mortal
1. (x)(Hx ⊃ Mx) Premise
2. Hs Premise
3. Hs ⊃ Ms 1, U.I.
4. Ms 3, 2, M.P. ← CONCLUSION

Rule 2: Universal Generalization (U.G.)

Principle: From the substitution instance of a propositional function with respect to any arbitrarily
selected individual (y), the universal quantification of that function can be inferred.
Form: Φy ∴ (x)(Φx) (where y is 'any arbitrarily selected individual')
Think of it like a geometer who says: 'Let ABC be any triangle.' What is proven of ABC is proven of all
triangles, because NO special assumptions were made about ABC.

Example of U.G.
If we prove Gy ⊃ My (for any arbitrarily chosen y),
we can generalize to (x)(Gx ⊃ Mx) [All Greeks are mortal]
 CAUTION: y must be truly arbitrary — not a specific named individual.

Rule 3: Existential Instantiation (E.I.)

Principle: From an existentially quantified statement, we can infer a substitution instance, but we must
use a NEW individual constant not previously used in the proof.
Form: (∃x)(Φx) ∴ Φu (where u is a NEW constant not used before)
The reason we must use a new constant: The existential quantifier says 'at least one thing has property
Φ' — we name that unknown thing with a fresh letter to avoid confusion with already-named individuals.

Example of E.I.
Premise: (∃x)(Hx) [Something is human]
By E.I.: Hu [Let u be the (unknown) human thing]

CAUTION: u cannot be used as a specific known individual — it's a placeholder.

Rule 4: Existential Generalization (E.G.)

Principle: From any substitution instance of a propositional function, the existential quantification of
that function can be validly inferred.
Form: Φν ∴ (∃x)(Φx) (where ν is any individual symbol)

Example of E.G.
Premise: Hs [Socrates is human]
By E.G.: (∃x)(Hx) [Something is human]

Logic: If Socrates is human, then AT LEAST ONE thing is human.

Summary of the Four Additional Rules

U.I. (x)(Φx) ∴ Φν From 'all', derive specific instance
U.G. Φy ∴ (x)(Φx) From arbitrary instance, derive 'all'
E.I. (∃x)(Φx) ∴ Φu From 'some', derive named instance (NEW name!)
E.G. Φν ∴ (∃x)(Φx) From specific instance, derive 'some'
Q8. Explain Individual Constant, Variable, and Propositional Function
with Examples

1. Individual Constant
Definition: An individual constant is a symbol (by convention, a lowercase letter from a through w)
used in logical notation to denote a specific, particular individual.
• Each individual constant designates one specific individual throughout the entire context in
which it occurs.
• It is the logical equivalent of a proper name.
• Convention: letters a through w are individual constants (x, y, z are reserved for variables).

Examples of Individual Constants

s = Socrates
a = Aristotle
b = Brazil
c = Chicago

So 'Hs' means 'Socrates is human' (H = human predicate, s = Socrates)

'Ma' means 'Aristotle is mortal'

2. Individual Variable
Definition: An individual variable is a symbol (by convention, x or y) that serves as a placeholder — it
does not name any specific individual but marks the place where an individual constant may be
inserted.
• x is the standard individual variable; y is used for the 'arbitrarily selected' individual in U.G.
• A variable by itself does not make a proposition — it is merely a placeholder.
• When a constant replaces a variable, a proposition results.

Examples of Individual Variables

In 'Hx' (x is human), x is a variable — it refers to no one in particular.
Replace x with s (Socrates): 'Hs' = 'Socrates is human' → now a proposition.
Replace x with c (Chicago): 'Hc' = 'Chicago is human' → also a proposition (but false).

3. Propositional Function
Definition: A propositional function is an expression that (1) contains a predicate symbol and an
individual variable, and (2) yields a proposition when an individual constant is substituted for its
individual variable.
A propositional function is NOT itself a proposition — it has no truth value. But it YIELDS a proposition
(which does have a truth value) once a constant is substituted.

Key Properties of Propositional Functions

1. Contains a predicate symbol (capital letter A-Z) and an individual variable (x or y).
2. Has no truth value by itself — it is neither true nor false.
3. Yields a proposition when a constant is substituted for the variable.
4. Normally has BOTH true and false substitution instances.
5. Can be quantified using (x) or (∃x) to form general propositions.

Examples of Propositional Functions

Hx = 'x is human' → Not a proposition (no truth value)
Substitute s: Hs = 'Socrates is human' → TRUE proposition
Substitute b: Hb = 'Brazil is human' → FALSE proposition

Mx = 'x is mortal'
Substitute a: Ma = 'Aristotle is mortal' → TRUE

Hx ⊃ Mx = 'If x is human then x is mortal' → propositional function

Substitute s: Hs ⊃ Ms = 'If Socrates is human then Socrates is mortal' → TRUE

Types: Simple predicates (Hx, Mx), Complex propositional functions (Hx ⊃ Mx, ~Hx v Mx)

Connection between the Three Concepts

Individual Constant (e.g., s) → Names a specific individual
Individual Variable (x) → Placeholder for any individual
Propositional Function (Hx) → Template that becomes a proposition when x is replaced by a
constant

Hx [function] → substitute s → Hs [proposition about Socrates]

Q9. Distinguish between Deductive and Inductive Arguments

This is one of the most fundamental distinctions in logic. Both are forms of argumentation, but they
differ in what they claim and how certain their conclusions are.

Aspect DEDUCTIVE Argument INDUCTIVE Argument

Nature of Claim Claims conclusion follows with Claims conclusion follows with
ABSOLUTE NECESSITY from PROBABILITY, not certainty
premises
Standard VALID or INVALID — no middle STRONGER or WEAKER — a
ground matter of degree
Truth of Premises If premises are true AND argument Even if premises are true,
valid → conclusion MUST be true conclusion may be false
Additional Evidence New premises CANNOT weaken a New evidence CAN weaken or even
valid deductive argument overturn an inductive conclusion
Movement From GENERAL principles to From SPECIFIC observations to
SPECIFIC instances (mostly) GENERAL conclusions (mostly)
Certainty of Absolute certainty (if valid and Only probability — never absolute
Conclusion sound) certainty
Central Task of Logic Develop tools to distinguish valid Ascertain facts; establish probability
from invalid of conclusions
Example All humans are mortal. Socrates is Every observed raven has been
human. ∴ Socrates is mortal. black. ∴ All ravens are probably
black.

Deductive Argument — In Detail

A deductive argument makes the claim that its conclusion is supported by its premises
CONCLUSIVELY — if the premises are all true, the conclusion MUST be true. It cannot have all true
premises and a false conclusion (if valid).
• Validity is absolute: valid or invalid, no degrees
• Additional premises cannot make a valid argument invalid
• Sound argument = valid + all premises actually true

Deductive Example
P1: If it is raining, the ground is wet. (P ⊃ W)
P2: It is raining. (P)
C: Therefore, the ground is wet. (W)

This is VALID — if both premises are true, the conclusion CANNOT be false.
Inductive Argument — In Detail
An inductive argument claims only that the premises make the conclusion PROBABLE. Even the
strongest inductive argument can have true premises and a false conclusion.
• Conclusions are NEVER certain — only more or less probable
• New evidence CAN weaken or overturn the conclusion
• Used widely in science, medicine, and everyday reasoning

Inductive Example
P1: Every swan ever observed has been white.
C: Therefore, all swans are (probably) white.

This seemed very strong — until black swans were discovered in Australia!
Additional evidence WEAKENED the conclusion. This can never happen in valid deduction.
Q10. Exclusive and Inclusive Senses of Disjunction

The English word 'or' is ambiguous — it has two distinct logical senses. Understanding this distinction is
important in logic.

1. Inclusive Disjunction (Weak 'or')

Symbol: v (wedge) Latin: vel
An inclusive disjunction asserts that AT LEAST ONE of the disjuncts is true. This includes the
possibility that BOTH are true.

Inclusive Disjunction Truth Table

p = T, q = T: p v q = TRUE (both true — still TRUE!)
p = T, q = F: p v q = TRUE
p = F, q = T: p v q = TRUE
p = F, q = F: p v q = FALSE (only false when BOTH false)

Examples of Inclusive 'or'

'Premiums will be waived in the event of sickness or unemployment.'
→ Premiums waived if sick, if unemployed, OR if BOTH sick AND unemployed.
→ This is INCLUSIVE — both conditions can hold.

In legal contracts: 'and/or' makes the inclusive sense explicit.

2. Exclusive Disjunction (Strong 'or')

An exclusive disjunction asserts that at least one disjunct is true BUT NOT BOTH. Exactly one must be
true.

Exclusive Disjunction Truth Table

p = T, q = T: p ⊻ q = FALSE (both true — NOT allowed in exclusive!)
p = T, q = F: p ⊻ q = TRUE
p = F, q = T: p ⊻ q = TRUE
p = F, q = F: p ⊻ q = FALSE

Examples of Exclusive 'or'

'You may have salad or dessert.' (restaurant menu)
→ You may have ONE but NOT BOTH — clearly exclusive.
 'She will win first prize or second prize.'
→ She cannot win both — exclusive.

The exclusive sense is made explicit by adding 'but not both'.

Feature INCLUSIVE (v) EXCLUSIVE (⊻)

Latin Term vel aut
Meaning 'At least one, possibly both' 'One and only one'
Both True? TRUE FALSE
Both False? FALSE FALSE
Symbol Used v (wedge) (p v q) · ~(p · q)
Common Signal 'either...or', 'or' 'either...or...but not both'

In symbolic logic, we standardly use the INCLUSIVE sense (v) because most valid arguments using
disjunction remain valid under either interpretation. The exclusive sense, when explicitly intended, is
symbolized as (p v q) · ~(p · q).
Q11. Define All Logical Connectives (Operators)

Logical connectives (also called logical operators) are symbols used in propositional logic to form
compound truth-functional statements from simpler ones. There are five logical operators in
propositional logic.

1. Negation (~) — The Tilde

• Type: Unary operator (operates on ONE statement)
• Meaning: NOT; 'It is not the case that'; denial or contradictory
• Symbol: ~ (tilde or curl)
Form: ~p
The negation of p is true when p is false, and false when p is true. It simply reverses the truth value.

Negation Examples
p = 'It is raining' → ~p = 'It is NOT raining' / 'It is not the case that it is raining'
p = T → ~p = F
p = F → ~p = T

2. Conjunction (·) — The Dot

• Type: Binary operator (connects TWO statements)
• Meaning: AND; both conditions must be true
• Symbol: · (dot); also & or ∧ in some texts
Form: p · q
True ONLY when both p and q are true; false in all other cases.

Conjunction Examples
'It is cold AND it is raining.' → C · R
English equivalents: 'but', 'yet', 'however', 'although', 'moreover', comma, semicolon

3. Disjunction (v) — The Wedge

• Type: Binary operator (connects TWO statements)
• Meaning: OR (inclusive); at least one must be true
• Symbol: v (wedge/vel)
Form: p v q
False ONLY when both p and q are false; true in all other cases (including when both are true).

Disjunction Examples
'You will pass or you will fail.' → P v F
 English equivalents: 'or', 'unless', 'either...or'

4. Conditional / Material Implication (⊃) — The Horseshoe

• Type: Binary operator
• Meaning: IF...THEN; material implication
• Symbol: ⊃ (horseshoe)
Form: p ⊃ q (p = antecedent, q = consequent)
False ONLY when antecedent (p) is true and consequent (q) is false. True in all other cases.

Conditional Examples
'If it rains, the ground is wet.' → R ⊃ W
English equivalents: 'if...then', 'only if', 'provided that', 'given that',
'implies', 'is sufficient for', 'is necessary for' (reversed)

5. Biconditional / Material Equivalence (≡) — The Triple Bar

• Type: Binary operator
• Meaning: IF AND ONLY IF; both directions of implication hold
• Symbol: ≡ (triple bar)
Form: p ≡ q
True when p and q have the SAME truth value (both T or both F); false when they have different truth
values.

Biconditional Examples
'You pass if and only if you score above 50.' → P ≡ S
p ≡ q is equivalent to (p ⊃ q) · (q ⊃ p)
English equivalents: 'if and only if', 'iff', 'is equivalent to', 'is necessary and sufficient for'

Combined Truth Table — All Five Operators

p q ~p p · q p v q p ⊃ q p ≡ q
T T F T T T T
T F F F T F F
F T T F T T F
F F T F F T T

Q12. BONUS: What is a Simple Statement vs. Compound Statement?

This is an important concept that may appear as a sub-question in your exam.

Simple Statement
A simple statement is a statement that is NOT a truth function of another statement. It does not contain
any logical connectives (·, v, ⊃, ≡, ~). It is a basic, unanalyzed unit.

Examples
'Charlie is neat.' → Simple
'Paris is the capital of France.' → Simple
'It is raining.' → Simple

Compound Statement
A compound statement is a truth function of at least one other statement. Its truth value is exclusively
determined by the truth values of its component statements. It contains at least one logical connective.

Examples
'Charlie is neat AND Charlie is sweet.' → Compound (conjunction)
'It is NOT raining.' → Compound (negation)
'If it rains, the ground is wet.' → Compound (conditional)
'Either it is hot OR it is cold.' → Compound (disjunction)

Key Distinction
Simple statements: no logical words, basic truth-functional unit
Compound statements: contain at least one logical operator (not, and, or, if-then, iff)
All compound statements can be analyzed using truth tables.

END OF NOTES — Best of Luck with Your Exam!