Table of Contents

Part One ( Md Aslam)

1. Agrarian Foundation of the Economy) 2
2. Revenue & Taxation Structure 3
3. Iqta System: Economic-Administrative Mechanism 4
4. Urbanization & Market Economy 5
5. Internal Trade 6
6. External Trade & Maritime Commerce 7
7. Monetary System & Commercialization 8
8. Industries & Crafts 8
9. Socio-Economic Hierarchy 9
References 10
Part Two ( Asif Fardous Zidnee)
1. The Foundation of the Mudra System 11
2. The 172.8 Grain Standard 12
3. Types of Coins 13
4. Essential Features of Sultanate Coins 14
5. The Absence of Human and Animal Images 15
6. Coinage as a source for Medieval Society 15
7. Conclusion 16
Part Three ( Shoriful Islam Tiash )

1. Introduction to the Monetary System……………………………………………………..17

2. Royal Authority Over Coinage……………………………………………………………..18
3. Administrative Structure of the MintTypes of Coins Issued…………………………….19
4. The Minting Process………………………………………………………………………19
5. Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s Token Currency Experiment………………………………19
6. Importance of Mint Administration………………………………………………………..20
7. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………20

1
Part 1 ( MD Aslam)
Trade & Economic Structure of the Sultanate Period (1206–1526 CE)

The economic system of the Delhi Sultanate, established by Qutb al-Din Aibak and ending
with Ibrahim Lodi, was a highly organized and revenue-oriented structure. Though
fundamentally agrarian, it gradually developed into a monetized and trade-supported
economy. The system blended Islamic fiscal principles with older Indian agrarian traditions.

1. Agrarian Foundation of the Economy)

1.1 Agriculture as the Backbone

Agriculture formed the economic base of the Sultanate. Nearly 80–90% of the population
lived in villages and depended directly on cultivation. The prosperity of the state depended on
agricultural surplus.

• Villages functioned as self-sufficient economic units.

• Surplus production supported:
o Urban centers
o Military establishment
o Royal court

Satish Chandra emphasizes that agrarian revenue was the “financial pillar” of the Sultanate
state (Chandra, 2004).

2
1.2 Crop Pattern & Commercialization

Two main crop seasons:

• Rabi crops – Wheat, barley.

• Kharif crops – Rice, millet.

Gradually, cash crops such as cotton, sugarcane, and indigo increased, showing early
commercialization of agriculture.

This indicates that the Sultanate economy was not purely subsistence-based but had growing
market orientation.

2. Revenue & Taxation

Structure

2.1 Nature of Land Revenue

The state demanded a significant share of produce (often 1/3 to 1/2). Revenue collection was
systematic and centrally supervised.

Under Alauddin Khalji:

• Land measurement was introduced.

• Revenue was assessed scientifically.
• Intermediaries were reduced to increase state control.

This reform strengthened central authority and reduced local exploitation.

3
2.2 Religious & Commercial Taxes

• Jizya – Symbol of political dominance over non-Muslims.

• Zakat – Religious obligation for Muslims.
• Custom duties – Levied at trade centers and ports.

Irfan Habib argues that taxation aimed at “maximum extraction of surplus for sustaining
military power” (Habib, 1963).

3. Iqta System: Economic-Administrative Mechanism

3.1 Functional Importance

The Iqta system assigned land revenue rights to officials (Muqtis).

Descriptively:

• It was not land ownership.

• It was temporary assignment.
• Revenue funded:
o Army maintenance
o Provincial administration

3.2 Political-Economic Impact

• Prevented hereditary feudalism (initially).

4
 • Ensured loyalty of nobles.
• Linked economy with military organization.

This system created a military-fiscal state structure.

4. Urbanization & Market Economy

4.1 Growth of Cities

Major cities such as:

• Delhi
• Lahore
• Multan

developed as:

• Administrative capitals.
• Trade hubs.
• Craft production centers.

Urbanization shows economic diversification beyond agriculture.

4.2 Market Regulation under Alauddin Khalji

The market reforms of Alauddin Khalji were highly organized:

• Fixed prices of grains and goods.

• Strict anti-hoarding measures.
• Appointment of Shahna-i-Mandi (market supervisor).
• Regular inspection of merchants.

In Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, Ziauddin Barani describes these policies as necessary for

maintaining a large standing army.

5
This was one of the earliest examples of state-controlled market economy in medieval India.

5. Internal Trade

5.1 Trade Networks

Trade routes connected:

• North India with Bengal.

• Delhi with the Deccan.
• Gujarat with inland cities.

River systems like the Ganga and Yamuna played a crucial role.

5.2 Merchant Groups

• Multanis – Long-distance traders.

• Banjaras – Grain carriers.
• Gujarati merchants – Maritime trade specialists.

6
Trade encouraged regional economic integration and specialization.

6. External Trade & Maritime Commerce

6.1 International Trade Links

The Sultanate maintained relations with:

• Central Asia.
• Persia.
• Arabia.
• China.

6.2 Major Ports

• Cambay
• Calicut
• Sonargaon

6.3 Export & Import Structure

Exports:

• Fine textiles (especially Bengal).

• Spices.
• Indigo.
• Rice.

Imports:

7
 • Arabian horses (essential for cavalry).
• Luxury goods.
• Precious metals.

K.M. Ashraf (1959) states that foreign trade strengthened monetary circulation and urban
prosperity.

7. Monetary System & Commercialization

7.1 Coinage

• Silver Tanka.
• Copper Jital.

Standardization increased trust in currency.

7.2 Monetized Economy

• Taxes increasingly collected in cash.

• Expansion of commercial transactions.
• Growth of moneylenders and banking practices.

This shows transition from a purely agrarian economy to a partially monetized commercial
system.

8. Industries & Crafts

8.1 Textile Production

Bengal became famous for fine cotton textiles.

Gujarat for export-quality cloth.

8.2 Royal Workshops (Karkhanas)

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State-controlled production centers manufactured:

• Weapons.
• Luxury goods.
• Garments for court.

These workshops reflect centralized industrial supervision.

8.3 Technological Developments

• Introduction of paper-making.
• Improved metalwork.
• Architectural stone carving.

9. Socio-Economic Hierarchy

1. Sultan & Nobility – Controlled revenue.

2. Military class – Dependent on state payment.
3. Merchants – Wealth accumulation through trade.
4. Artisans – Urban skilled class.
5. Peasants – Primary producers but heavily taxed.

The peasantry bore the main burden of revenue demands.

The trade and economic structure of the Sultanate period was a centralized, revenue-driven,
and militarily oriented system. Agriculture provided the foundation, while trade,
monetization, and market regulation strengthened the structure.

Through the Iqta system, controlled markets, expanding maritime trade, and standardized
coinage, the Sultanate developed a complex economic framework. This model later
influenced Mughal administrative and fiscal systems.

9
Thus, the Sultanate economy was not static; it was dynamic, commercializing, and
structurally integrated with political authority.

References

Chandra, S. (2004). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals. New Delhi: Har-Anand
Publications.

Habib, I. (1963). The Agrarian System of Mughal India. Bombay: Asia Publishing House.

Ashraf, K. M. (1959). Life and Conditions of the People of Hindustan. Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal.

Barani, Z. (c. 1357). Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi. (Translated editions).

10
 Part 2 ( Asif Fardous Zidnee)
The Mudra System of Sultanate Bengal
The history of medieval Bengal is deeply tied to its Mudra System, or money system, which began in
1204 AD when the Sultanate was established. Before this time, people mostly used simple sea shells
for trade, but the Sultans introduced a sophisticated system of gold, silver, and copper coins. These
coins weren't just for buying things; they were powerful tools that showed the world Bengal was an
independent and stable kingdom. Famous historians like Dr. A.K.M. Shahnawaz and Professor Abdul
Karim have studied these ancient coins to understand how people lived hundreds of years ago. By
looking at the writing and the metal on these coins, they have reconstructed the story of Bengal’s rich
culture and politics. This shift from shells to official coins marked the beginning of a new era, turning
Bengal into a major economic power that lasted until the Mughal conquest in the late 1500s. (ড. এ কে
এম শাহনাওয়াজ, 1999)

The Foundation of the Mudra System

The shift from the old Sena kings to the new Sultanate changed how power was shown in Bengal. In
this new Islamic tradition, a ruler proved they were truly in charge through two main acts: having their
name mentioned in the Friday prayers and minting their own coins, known as the Sikka. Because of
this, whenever a new leader took the throne or declared independence, their very first and most
important job was to release a new coin to let everyone know a new era had begun. The money
system was built to support Bengal’s massive farming success. The region produced huge amounts
of rice, silk, and cotton, far more than the local people could use, so they needed a high-quality,
trusted currency to sell these goods to other countries. The silver Tanka became the "economic
backbone" of this trade. (Abdul Karim, 1995) It was a high-purity coin that connected Bengal’s fertile
fields to the big markets of Central Asia and the busy shipping routes of the Bay of Bengal, making
the region a global trade leader.

Historical Phase Period Monetary Political Relation to Delhi

Characteristic

Reflection of Delhi Sultanate

Early Governors 1204–1338 AD Limited minting
rule

Full sovereign independence

Independent Sultanate 1338–1538 AD Massive expansion of
mints

Transition to early modern

Later Sultanate/Suris 1538–1576 AD Introduction of the
systems
Rupee

The Role of Coins as Primary Historical Documents

For researchers such as Dr. A K M Shahnawaz, coins are viewed as "political documents" that provide a

11
 more reliable chronology than the often biased or incomplete written chronicles of the [Link]
the content of Sultanate coins was largely predetermined and standardized, they offer an
unadulterated record of a Sultan's name, his titles, his lineage, and the exact date and location of his
authority. Through the deep research of Shahnawaz and Abdul Karim, the succession of Sultans and
the territorial extent of their power have been meticulously reconstructed using the Hijri years and
mint names found on these metallic artifacts. (Sarkar, 2015)

The 172.8 Grain Standard

The technical excellence of the Bengal Sultanate's Mudra system is evidenced by its commitment to a
rigorous weight standard. The silver Tanka was not merely a piece of metal but a precisely measured
unit of value that commanded trust across international borders.

The Mathematics of the Tanka

The weight standard for the silver Tanka was rooted in the indigenous "Tola" system, which was
standardized during the reign of Sultan Iltutmish (1211–1236 AD). This standard was based on the
"Rati," a seed of the Abrus precatorius plant, which served as a natural unit of measurement for
jewelers and moneyers.

A standard Tanka was designed to contain 96 ratis of high-purity silver. Modern numismatic calculations
convert this to approximately 172.8 grains, or [Link] -grain standard
remained remarkably stable throughout the Sultanate period, though some minor variations
occurred due to localized minting practices or periods of intense warfare. (ড. এ কে এম
শাহনাওয়াজ, 1999)

This stability was essential for Bengal’s participation in the "silver-for-goods" trade. As the delta
lacked significant indigenous silver mines, the silver for the Mudra system had to be imported from
Upper Burma, Arakan, and Southwest China. The high purity and consistent weight of the Bengal
Tanka ensured that it was a favored currency for merchants across the Indian Ocean.

Fractional Units and the Billon Alloy

While the silver Tanka was the primary unit for tax collection and high-level trade, the Mudra system
also required smaller denominations. These were often minted in "Billon" which is an alloy of silver
and copper.1 These coins, sometimes called "Jitals" or "Dehliwal" issues in the early period, allowed
for fractional payments and facilitated daily market transactions for the common people.6 In the early
transitional phase under Muizuddin Muhammad bin Sam, these Billon coins were minted to
correspond with the weights of older indigenous currencies to ensure economic continuity and
minimize public distrust. (ড. এ কে এম শাহনাওয়াজ, 1999)

Coin Type Metal Composition Standard Weight (Ideal) Economic Function

Revenue, bulk trade, sovereignty

Silver Tanka High Purity Silver 172.8 Grains

Prestige, royal gifts, commemorative

Gold Tanka High Purity Gold 172.8 Grains

Daily transactions, market exchange

Billon Jital Silver-Copper Alloy ~56 Grains

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 Petty trade, fractional value
Copper Fals Pure Copper Variable

Types of Coins
The Mudra System was built on a hierarchical metallic structure. Each metal served a specific
purpose within the administrative and social framework of the Sultanate, ranging from the declaration
of royal legitimacy to the simple purchase of food in a local market. I will show you the different types
of coins found in the bengali sultanate period and their features bellow:

The Silver Tanka

The silver Tanka was the most famous and important coin in ancient Bengal. For over 300 years, it
was the main money everyone used, from wealthy merchants to local soldiers. Because it was wide
and flat, rulers used the surface of the coin to engrave their names and religious messages,
essentially using money to show off their power. Historians have found so many of these silver coins
that it’s clear they were the true backbone of the economy, used for everything from paying taxes to
buying goods in the market. The quality of these coins actually told a story about how well the
kingdom was doing. When Bengal was peaceful and wealthy under strong leaders, the silver in the
coins was incredibly pure and featured beautiful, artistic handwriting. These coins were so trusted and
valuable that they traveled far beyond Bengal’s borders, reaching places like Central Asia. Today, the
Tanka remains a symbol of a time when Bengal was a global leader in trade and a major power in
South Asia. (Sarkar, 2015)

Gold Coins
In the Bengal Sultanate, gold coins were much rarer than silver ones and weren't used for everyday
shopping. Instead, they were special "commemorative" pieces, much like a limited-edition medal
today. Rulers minted them in small numbers to celebrate big moments, like a major victory in battle or
an important anniversary of their reign. Because they were so rare, these coins were mainly used as
prestigious gifts for high-ranking generals, scholars, or even foreign leaders to show off the Sultan's
immense wealth and power. Interestingly, these gold coins followed the exact same weight as the
silver Tanka, making it easier for the government to track their value. In the very beginning, some
Muslim rulers even kept local Hindu symbols, like the Goddess Lakshmi, on the coins to help people
feel more comfortable with the new currency. However, as time went on, the coins shifted toward
featuring beautiful Arabic titles. Today, finding one of these gold coins is very rare for historians,
proving they were always meant for royal prestige rather than the pockets of ordinary people. (ড. এ কে
এম শাহনাওয়াজ, 1999)

Copper and the Domestic Economy

While gold and silver were for the wealthy, copper coins and cowrie shells were the money of the
streets. Copper coins, often called "Adl" or "Fals," were created so that ordinary people could buy
daily necessities like fish, vegetables, or cloth. Some of these small coins even had the word "Justice"
stamped on them to show the public that the money was official and fair. These coins were designed
to be familiar and easy to use, helping the local population adjust to the new rulers without any major
economic shock. Interestingly, Bengal was unique because it used millions of tiny sea shells, called
cowries, for the smallest purchases. These shells were brought in from the Maldives and served as
"micro-money" for things that weren't even worth a full copper coin. By using a mix of copper and
shells, the Sultans made sure their money system worked for everyone—from a high-ranking general
to a simple street vendor.
This layered system kept the economy moving smoothly for people in every social class. (Abdul Karim,

13
1995)

Essential Features of Sultanate Coins

The features of a Sultanate coin were strictly defined by religious law and political tradition. Every
coin was required to carry specific pieces of information: the Kalima, the Sultan's name and titles, the
mint name, and the Hijri year.

1. The Kalima

The most sacred part of every coin in the Bengal Sultanate was the Kalima, which is the Islamic
statement of faith. By putting these holy words on their money, the Sultans were telling everyone that
they didn't just rule by their own power, but under the authority of God. In the early days of the
kingdom, this prayer was placed right in the center of the coin so it was the first thing people would
see. It made the money feel official, blessed, and deeply respected by the public. As politics changed,
some Sultans began replacing the prayer with the name of the Caliph, the supreme leader of the
Muslim world at the time. Even after the central government in Baghdad fell, the rulers in Bengal kept
using these titles on their coins to show they were still connected to a global community of believers.
(Abdul Karim, 1995)By calling themselves the "Commander of the Faithful," the Sultans proved they
were legitimate and powerful leaders. This tradition of using coins to show spiritual loyalty lasted for
over a hundred years, making the currency a mix of both money and faith. (ড. এ কে এম শাহনাওয়াজ,
1999)

2. The Sultan’s Name and Grandiose Titles

The obverse and reverse of the silver Tanka were used to broadcast the Sultan's power. The
inscriptions were carefully chosen titles that asserted the ruler’s status relative to other regional
powers and the Delhi Sultanate. Common titles included:

➔ Al-Sultan al-Azam: The Most Exalted Sultan.

➔ Shams al-Duniya wa’l Din: The Sun of the World and the Faith.
➔ Abul Muzaffar: The Father of Victory.
➔ Sultan-us-Sultan: The Sultan of Sultans.

The front and back of the silver Tanka were used like a royal billboard to broadcast the Sultan’s
power. Instead of just a name, the coins featured grand titles that told everyone exactly how
important the ruler was compared to other kings. For example, some called themselves the "Sun of
the World and the Faith," while others used the title "Father of Victory." (ড. এ কে এম শাহনাওয়াজ,
1999)

These weren't just nicknames; they were bold statements designed to show that the Sultan was the
supreme leader of the region. One ruler, Sultan Ruknuddin Kaikaus, even used the title "Sultan, son
of a Sultan." This was a clever way to remind people that he didn't just take the throne by force, he
inherited it rightfully from his father. To make these titles look as grand as possible, artists used
beautiful styles of handwriting called "Naskh" or "Tughra." These elegant, flowing scripts turned every
coin into a tiny piece of art, making the Sultan’s message look both holy and sophisticated to anyone
who held it. (Sarkar, 2015)

The Takshal (Mint) and the Geography of Power

A critical feature of the Bengal Mudra system was the "Mint Name." Coins were required to specify
where they were minted, a practice that allows modern historians like Harun or Rashid Sarkar to map
the

14
territorial expansion of the Sultanate. The Sultanate of Bengal operated a decentralized network of
at least 22 mint towns. Each mint town (Takshal) served as an administrative and economic hub for
its respective region. Lakhnauti was the first and most important mint, established immediately after
the Turko-Afghan conquest of the Gaur [Link] the Sultans extended their control into the
"Vanga" (East) and "Rarh" (West) regions, new mint towns like Sonargaon and Satgaon were
established to handle the local agrarian revenue and integrate these regions into the "Mudra
System". (ড. এ কে এম শাহনাওয়াজ, 1999)

The Hijri Year

The inclusion of the "Hijri year" (construction date) is perhaps the most useful feature for modern
archaeology. These dates were usually engraved in words or digits along the margin of the coin. (ড. এ
কে এম শাহনাওয়াজ, 1999) For scholars like Dr. A K M Shahnawaz, the Hijri dates on coins serve to
correct established chronological errors in the succession of rulers. Because a Sultan would typically
issue coins immediately upon his accession, the coins provide an exact "start date" for his reign. (ড. এ
কে এম শাহনাওয়াজ, 1999)

The Absence of Human and Animal Images

One of the most distinctive aspects of the Sultanate Bengal Mudra system is its "aniconic" nature in
which the total absence of human or animal representations in the later stages of its development.1
This stands in stark contrast to the pre-Islamic coinage of the Palas and Senas, which often featured
religious figures or royal portraits.(ড. এ কে এম শাহনাওয়াজ, 1999)

Theological and Administrative Motivations

The shift to coins with only beautiful handwriting was driven by Islamic religious beliefs, which
discouraged showing images of people or animals. In the very early days, some coins still featured a
"Horseman" or a "Rajput Bull," but these symbols were quickly removed as the Sultanate’s identity
became more established. By the year 1338, the rulers stopped using pictures entirely and replaced
them with calligraphic art, using the elegance of the Arabic script to represent their power. Instead of
portraits, the Sultans used complex geometric patterns to arrange their names and religious prayers.
This style of art was a way to show authority and devotion to God without using forbidden images. By
choosing this "writing-only" design, Bengal's leaders sent a clear message: they were part of a global
Islamic civilization that was distinct from their neighbors. These coins became a powerful symbol of a
new era, where faith and art were woven together on every piece of silver. (Sarkar, 2015)

Naskh and Tughra

Since they didn't use pictures of people or animals, calligraphy became the main way to decorate
the coins. The Sultans of Bengal especially loved a style called "Tughra." This unique way of writing
featured very tall, straight vertical lines and flowing, wave-like horizontal letters. It was perfect for the
wide, flat surface of the silver Tanka because it filled the space with a sense of rhythm and beauty.
Through this elegant art, the coins of the Bengal Sultanate became famous for their high quality.
Historians often say these coins were some of the most beautiful and unique ever made in the entire
Indian subcontinent. By turning simple words into complex, flowing patterns, the Sultans created a
currency that wasn't just money .It was a masterpiece of design that represented the wealth and
culture of ancient Bengal. (Abdul Karim, 1995)

Coinage as a source for Medieval Society

Although coins are standardized and often restricted in their content, Dr. A K M Shahnawaz argues that

15
they provide profound insights into the "socio-cultural fabric" of medieval Bengal.1

Bullion Flow and Global Integration

The massive number of silver Tankas produced in Bengal shows that the region was part of a very
successful and busy global trade network. To keep making so many coins, the "Mudra System"
needed a constant supply of fresh silver flowing into the kingdom. Bengal paid for all this silver by
exporting its famous high-quality textiles and large amounts of food grains to other countries. This
trade was so huge that it made medieval Bengal one of the most important players in the entire Indian
Ocean trade. This constant exchange of goods for silver proves that Bengal was far more connected
to the rest of the world than many people used to think. Instead of being an isolated corner of the
world, the Sultanate was a thriving economic hub where local farmers and weavers helped fuel an
international currency system.
The silver Tanka wasn't just local money; it was a symbol of Bengal’s power and its role as a global
leader in business and commerce. (Abdul Karim, 1995)

Communal Relations and Administrative Pragmatism

The early money system showed that the new rulers were very practical and smart. Instead of forcing
sudden changes, they used "bilingual coins" that featured both Sanskrit and Arabic writing. They
also kept using the local weighing units that people already knew, like the Rati and Tola. By keeping
these familiar features, the early Muslim rulers made sure that daily life and business could continue
smoothly without causing confusion or a financial crisis. Professor Shahnawaz points out that this
approach helped maintain peace and harmony between different groups of people. The Sultanate
had a very open and "liberal" culture, which allowed foreign Islamic traditions to blend naturally with
local Bengali customs.
This mix of cultures didn't just happen in the arts; it was built right into the coins people held in their
hands every day. This early period of Bengal's history was defined by a clever balance of new
leadership and respected local traditions. (ড. এ কে এম শাহনাওয়াজ, 1999)

Urbanization and the Takshal Network

The spread of these 22 mint towns shows how much urbanization was happening in Bengal during
this time. A mint town was much more than just a factory where coins were made; it was a bustling
center for Islamic education, grand architecture, and government offices. When a town was given its
own mint, it was a sign that the area had become wealthy and stable enough to act as a mini-capital
for all the nearby farming villages. These towns helped organize the country by bringing the
government closer to the people living in the countryside. Instead of everything being controlled from
one far-away city, these 22 hubs managed the local economy and culture independently. Because of
this system, the Sultanate wasn't just a collection of farms ,it was a network of growing, sophisticated
cities that turned Bengal into a powerhouse of trade and learning. (ড. এ কে এম শাহনাওয়াজ, 1999)

Conclusion
The "Mudra System" of Sultanate Bengal represents one of the most successful and enduring
monetary architectures in pre-modern South Asia. By introducing and maintaining a standardized,
high-purity silver coinage—the 172.8-grain Tanka—the Sultans of Bengal provided the fiscal stability
necessary for the region to flourish as a global trade hub.

16
 References
ড. এ কে এম শাহনাওয়াজ. (1999). মুদ্রায় ও শিলালিপিতে মধ্যযুগের বাংলার সমাজ- সংস্কৃতি.

Dhaka : Bangla Academy, 1999.

Abdul Karim. (1995). Corpus of the Arabic and Persian Inscriptions of Bengal (Vol. Vol. 58, No. 1). Cambridge

University Press. [Link]

Mohammad Abdur Rahim, & Md. Shariful Islam. (2020). The Sultānate Period COINS OF BENGAL Focus on the

Epigraphic Study, Calligraphy and History. black N Orange.

Sarkar, H. R. (2015). সুলতানী বাংলার মুদ্রা ও টাকশাল (2nd ed.). Annesha Prokashon.

17
 PART 3 ( Shariful Islam Tiash)
The Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE) developed a well-organized
monetary system as part of its administrative structure. The mint, known
as Takshal, was the official institution responsible for the production of
coins under strict state supervision. Coinage during the Sultanate period
was not only an economic instrument but also a powerful symbol of
political authority and sovereignty.
In Islamic political tradition, sovereignty was expressed through two
main symbols:
Khutba – Reading the ruler’s name during Friday prayers.
Sikka – Issuing coins in the ruler’s name.
Thus, control over minting was directly linked to the legitimacy and
authority of the Sultan.
2. Royal Authority Over Coinage
The Sultan had the exclusive right to issue coins. No individual, noble,
or provincial authority could legally mint coins without royal
permission. The issuance of coins in the Sultan’s name symbolized:
Political independence
Legitimacy of rule
Control over economic life
Coins generally carried:
The name of the Sultan
Islamic religious inscriptions (Kalima)
Sometimes the name of the Abbasid Caliph
Date and place of minting
Whenever a new Sultan ascended the throne, issuing coins in his name
was one of his first acts to assert authority.
3. Administrative Structure of the Mint
The mint functioned under the financial administration of the state. It was
supervised by the Diwan-i-Wizarat (Department of Finance), headed by
the Wazir.
Important Officials
Daroga-i-Takshal – Superintendent of the mint, responsible for overall
functioning.

18
Wazir – Head of financial administration.
Mushrif – Accountant who maintained records of production and
expenditure.
Zarrab – Assayer who tested the purity of metals.
Diwan-i-Wizarat – Controlled revenue and financial matters, including
mint operations.
These officials ensured that coins were minted according to prescribed
standards of weight and purity.
4. Types of Coins Issued
The Delhi Sultanate introduced a structured coinage system consisting
mainly of gold, silver, and copper coins.
(a) Gold
Dinar High-
value coin
Used for large commercial transactions
Issued mainly during economically stable reigns
(b) Silver Tanka
Introduced by
Iltutmish
Standard weight: approximately 175 grains
Became the principal currency of the
Sultanate Widely accepted in trade
(c) Copper Jital
Used for small and everyday
transactions Common among ordinary
people Circulated widely in markets
The silver tanka became the backbone of the Sultanate’s monetary
system and influenced later Mughal coinage.
5. Minting Process
The minting of coins involved several systematic steps:
Collection of Metal – Obtained through taxes, trade, war booty, or
melting old coins.
Refining and Purification – Removal of impurities to achieve required
standards.
Standard Weighing – Accurate measurement according to fixed
standards. Engraving Dies – Preparation of metal dies bearing
inscriptions.
Striking the Coin – Coins were manually struck using hammer techniques.
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Quality Inspection – Final verification by assayers before circulation.
Strict procedures helped maintain uniformity across different mints.
6. Control and Regulatory Measures
The Delhi Sultanate maintained strict control over mint administration
through:
Fixed standards of weight and
purity Severe punishment for
counterfeiting Regular inspection
of mints Standardized inscriptions
Centralized supervision over provincial mints
Major mint centers included Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Lakhnauti, and
Daulatabad. Though located in different regions, all mints followed
uniform standards imposed by the central authority.
7. Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s Token Currency Experiment
One of the most notable monetary experiments was introduced by
Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325–1351 CE).
He introduced copper token currency with the same value as silver
coins. The objective was to overcome the shortage of silver.
However, due to weak administrative control, people began forging
coins. Counterfeiting became widespread.
The experiment failed and caused financial instability.
Eventually, the Sultan withdrew the token currency and compensated
holders.
This episode demonstrates the importance of strict administrative control in
maintaining a stable currency system.
8. Importance of Mint Administration
The effective management of the Takshal contributed to:
Strengthening central authority
Promoting internal and external
trade Ensuring economic stability
Preventing inflation and forgery
Demonstrating Islamic legitimacy of the Sultan
The Sultanate’s standardized currency system laid the foundation for
later monetary reforms under the Mughal Empire.
9. Conclusion

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The Mint (Takshal) Management under the Delhi Sultanate was a
centrally controlled and well-structured administrative system. Coinage
was closely linked with sovereignty, financial stability, and political
legitimacy. Despite certain experimental failures like the token currency
of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, the overall mint administration remained
organized and influential. The system not only strengthened the
authority of the Sultan but also facilitated economic growth and trade
across the empire.

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