1.
Introduction to Hydroelectric Power Plant:
A hydroelectric power plant is a generating station where the energy of flowing or falling water is used to
rotate a turbine, which in turn drives a generator to produce electricity.
In hydroelectric power generation, rainfall is the primary source of water supply for rivers and reservoirs.
Rainfall falling on the earth’s surface collects in rivers, lakes and reservoirs. Water stored at a higher level
possesses potential energy. When this water flows downward through a certain height, its potential
energy is converted into mechanical energy by a turbine. The turbine then drives a generator to produce
electrical energy.
Since water is continuously renewed through the natural water cycle, hydroelectric power is considered
a renewable source of energy.
❖ Hydraulic Power of Water
The power available from flowing water is called hydraulic power.
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝑄𝐻
Where:
P = Hydraulic power (Watts)
ρ (rho) = Density of water (1000 kg/m³)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s²)
Q = Discharge or flow rate of water (m³/s)
H = Head or height of falling water (m)
This equation shows that the power generated depends on the flow of water and the height from which
it falls.
❖ Electrical Energy Produced
The electrical energy produced by a hydroelectric power plant can be expressed as:
𝑊 = 9.81 × 𝑄 × 𝐻 × 𝜂 × 𝑡
Where:
W = Electrical energy produced (kWh)
Q = Discharge of water (m³/s)
H = Head of water (m)
η (eta) = Efficiency of turbine-generator system (usually between 0.5 and 0.9)
t = Operating time in hours
Thus, the amount of electricity produced depends mainly on:
• Quantity of water available
• Height of water fall (head)
• Efficiency of the plant
❖ Importance of Hydroelectric Power
Hydropower is an important source of electricity in many countries. About 20% of the world's
electricity is generated by hydroelectric power plants.
Some countries such as Norway and Switzerland depend heavily on hydropower for electricity
generation.
❖ Hydroelectric Power in India
Hydroelectric power generation in India started in 1897 with a small run-of-river plant near
Darjeeling.
The first major hydroelectric power plant was the Shivanasamudra Scheme in Mysore, commissioned
in 1902 with a capacity of 4.5 MW.
Later, the Khopoli Hydroelectric Project (50 MW) in Maharashtra was commissioned in 1914 to
supply power to Mumbai.
After independence, many large hydroelectric projects were developed in India, such as:
• Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC)
• Hirakud Dam
• Nagarjuna Sagar
• Koyna Hydroelectric Project
• Bhakra Nangal Project
These projects contributed significantly to the growth of hydroelectric power in India.
2. State the Advantages of Hydroelectric Power (Water Power) / plant
Hydroelectric power plants have many advantages which make them an important source of
electricity generation.
1. Renewable Source of Energy
Water is continuously renewed through the natural water cycle (rainfall and rivers). Therefore,
hydropower is a renewable source of energy and no fuel is required. It is often called “white coal.”
2. Low Operating Cost
The running and maintenance costs of hydroelectric plants are much lower compared to thermal
or nuclear power plants because no fuel is required.
3. Environment Friendly
Hydropower plants do not produce smoke, ash, or harmful gases. Therefore, they do not cause:
• Air pollution
• Greenhouse effect
• Acid rain
This makes hydroelectric power a clean source of energy.
4. Quick Start and Stop
Hydraulic turbines can be started or stopped very quickly. Therefore, hydro plants can easily
respond to sudden changes in power demand.
5. Simple and Reliable Operation
Hydroelectric plants have a simple design and reliable operation compared to many other power
plants.
6. Long Life of Equipment
Hydroelectric equipment generally has a long service life, often 50 years or more, which is longer
than most thermal or nuclear plants.
7. Useful for Peak Load
Hydropower plants can quickly take up load and release load, making them ideal for peak load
operation and spinning reserve in power systems.
8. High Efficiency
Modern hydroelectric generators and turbines operate with high efficiency over a wide range of
loads, which improves the overall efficiency of the power system.
9. Additional Benefits
Hydroelectric projects also provide several additional benefits, such as:
• Irrigation for agriculture
• Flood control
• Water supply
• Navigation
• Fish culture (aquaculture)
• Afforestation
10. Less Manpower Required
Hydroelectric plants are simple to operate and require fewer skilled workers compared to other
power plants.
3. State the disadvantages of Water Power (Hydroelectric Power) / plant
Although hydroelectric power has many advantages, it also has several disadvantages that limit its
use in some regions.
1. High Initial Cost
Hydroelectric power plants require very high capital investment for construction of dams,
reservoirs, tunnels, powerhouses and other structures.
2. Long Construction Time
The gestation period of hydroelectric projects is very long. It may take 10–15 years or more to
complete a large hydroelectric project.
3. Dependence on Rainfall
Hydropower generation depends on availability of water in rivers and reservoirs. During low
rainfall or drought, the power generation may decrease.
4. Large Land Requirement
Construction of dams and reservoirs requires large areas of land, which may lead to submergence
of forests, villages and agricultural land.
5. Environmental Impact
Large hydroelectric projects may cause environmental problems such as:
• Disturbance of ecosystems
• Loss of wildlife habitat
• Changes in river flow patterns
6. Displacement of People
Many people living near the river area may need to relocate due to reservoir construction, causing
social and economic problems.
7. Siltation Problem
Rivers carry silt and sediments which accumulate in reservoirs over time. This reduces the storage
capacity of the reservoir and decreases plant efficiency.
8. Limited Suitable Sites
Hydroelectric power plants can only be built in locations with suitable water flow and height
difference (head). Such sites are limited.
9. Risk of Dam Failure
If a dam fails due to natural disasters or structural problems, it can cause severe flooding and
damage to downstream areas.
10. Seasonal Power Generation
In some regions, water flow varies with seasons, leading to fluctuations in electricity generation.
4. What are the factors Responsible for Selection of Site for a Hydroelectric Plant:
The following factors are considered while selecting the site for a hydroelectric plant:
a. Availability of Water
The design and capacity of the hydro-plant greatly depend on the amount of water available at
the site. The run off data along with precipitation at the proposed site with maximum and
minimum quantity of water available in a year should be made available to
(a) decide the capacity of the plant,
(b) set up the peak load plant such as steam, diesel or gas turbine plant,
(c) provide adequate spillways or gate relief during flood period
b. Water Head Availability:
In order to generate the desired quantity of power it is necessary that a large quantity of water
at a sufficient head should be available. An increase in effective head, for a given output,
reduces the quantity of water required to be supplied to the turbines
c. Water Storage Capacity
Since there is a wide variation in rainfall all-round the year, it is always necessary to store the water for
continuous generation of power. The storage capacity can be estimated with the help of mass curve.
d. Geological and Foundation Conditions
The foundation at the site should be strong, stable and impermeable so that it can safely
support heavy structures like dams, reservoirs and powerhouse buildings. Weak or porous rock
formations may cause leakage, settlement or structural failure.
e. Distance from Load Centre
The plant should be located as close as possible to the load centre to reduce the cost of
transmission lines, transmission losses and voltage drop.
f. Accessibility of Site
The site should be easily accessible by roads, railways or waterways to facilitate transportation
of construction materials, heavy equipment, machinery and labour during construction and
maintenance.
g. Availability of Land
Sufficient land must be available for construction of the dam, reservoir, powerhouse, spillway,
switchyard, roads, offices and residential quarters.
h. Environmental and Social Impact
The selected site should minimize adverse environmental effects such as deforestation,
ecological imbalance, submergence of fertile land and displacement of local population.
5. Explain Hydrologic Cycle?
Hydrology is the science that deals with the
process governing depletion and
replenishment of water resources over and
within earth’s surface.
Water from rivers, lakes, oceans and land
surfaces evaporates due to heat from the
sun. This water vapour rises into the
atmosphere, cools and forms clouds. When
the clouds become heavy, water falls back to
the earth as precipitation such as rain, snow
or hail. The water then flows through rivers
and streams back to the oceans.
6. Rain falling upon the earth’s surface has which type of energy?
Rain falling upon the earth’s surface possesses potential energy due to its height above the ground.
As the rainwater flows downward, this potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.
7. Define precipitation.
Precipitation is the process by which moisture from the atmosphere falls on the earth’s surface in the
form of rain, snow, sleet, hail or drizzle.
8. Define Evaporation.
Transfer of water from liquid to vapour state is called evaporation.
9. What are the factors that affect Rainfall?
• Rainfall intensity (rate of rainfall)
• Rainfall duration
• Area distribution of rainfall
These factors affect the amount of water that finally becomes runoff.
10. What is Runoff?
Runoff is the total water that flows in a river or stream after rainfall.
It includes:
• Water flowing over the ground surface
• Water that infiltrates into the soil and later reaches the stream
11. What is surface runoff?
Surface runoff is the part of rainfall that flows directly over the ground surface into rivers or streams
without entering the soil.
It occurs when:
• Rainfall is heavy
• Soil cannot absorb more water
• Land surface is steep or impermeable
12. Write the Factors affecting Runoff.
The amount of runoff depends on several factors:
a) Rainfall pattern: Includes rainfall intensity, duration and distribution.
b) Catchment characteristics: Nature and condition of the drainage basin.
c) Topography: Steeper land slopes produce higher runoff.
d) Shape and size of catchment area: Larger areas generally produce more runoff.
e) Vegetation: Plants absorb water and reduce runoff.
f) Geology of the area: Permeable soil allows more infiltration, reducing runoff.
g) Weather conditions: Temperature and evaporation influence runoff.
13. Measurement of Runoff
Runoff can be measured for different periods such as:
• Daily
• Monthly
• Seasonal
• Yearly
14. Explain the methods to measure runoff.
Runoff is the portion of rainfall that flows over the land surface into rivers and streams. The following methods
are used to measure runoff:
1. Rainfall Record Method
In this method, runoff is estimated from long-term rainfall data using:
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑓𝑓 = 𝑅𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 × 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
The runoff coefficient depends on catchment characteristics.
2. Empirical Formula Method
Empirical equations are used to estimate runoff from rainfall data.
Examples
(a) Khosla’s Formula
𝑅 = 𝑃 − 4.811𝑇
Where
R = Annual runoff (mm)
P = Annual rainfall (mm)
T = Mean temperature (°C)
(b) Inglis Formula
For Ghat region:
𝑅 = 0.88𝑃 − 304.8
Where
P = Annual rainfall (mm)
3. Runoff Curves and Tables
Graphs and tables relating rainfall and runoff are used to estimate runoff for a particular region
4. Discharge Observation Method
In this method, actual stream discharge at the outlet of a drainage basin is measured to determine runoff.
15. How distribution of precipitation is classified?
It may b classified as i) direct evaporation ii) absorption and transpiration by vegetation iii) seepage and storage
iv) direct surface runoff.
16. Write down the Water Equation for the disposal of rainfall over a certain area. / How precipitation,
evaporation and run-off are interrelated?
Runoff + Seepage + Evaporation + Transpiration = Precipitation (+ or -) Change in storage
17. Write short notes on i) hydrograph ii) Hyetograph iii) flow duration curve
Hydrograph:
A hydrograph is a graphical representation showing the variation of runoff or discharge of a river with
respect to time at a particular location. In this graph, time is plotted on the horizontal axis and
discharge is plotted on the vertical axis. A hydrograph is used to study the response of a drainage basin
to rainfall and helps in analysing flood discharge, runoff characteristics and reservoir design. It generally
consists of rising limb, peak discharge, recession limb and base flow.
Hyetograph:
A hyetograph is a graph that represents the variation of rainfall intensity with respect to time during a
rainfall event or storm. In this graph, time is taken on the horizontal axis and rainfall intensity on the
vertical axis. It is usually shown in the form of vertical bars. A hyetograph is useful for studying rainfall
patterns, estimating runoff and predicting floods in a drainage basin.
Flow Duration Curve
A flow duration curve is a graphical representation showing the percentage of time during which a
certain discharge of a river is equalled or exceeded over a given period. It is plotted with percentage of
time on the horizontal axis and discharge on the vertical axis. This curve is used in hydroelectric power
plant planning to determine the availability of water, estimate firm power and secondary power, and
select suitable turbine capacity.
18. Illustrate the uses of Flow duration curve.
• It can be used for preliminary studies of a hydro-project.
• It can be used for comparison of streams.
• It allows the evaluation of low-level flows.
• It helps in the determination of firm or primary power (with no water storage) and also the
secondary power (with water storage).
• If a sediment rating curve is available for a given stream, the flow duration curve can be converted
into cumulative sediment transport curve, the area under which represents the total amount of
sediment transported.
• It determines the power duration curve as well.
• It is used in the design of drainage systems and in flood control studies.
• When plotted on log-log paper, the slopes of the curves indicate the variability of discharge.
19. Define storage and pondage
Storage
Storage is the large quantity of water stored in a reservoir behind a dam for long-term use in a
hydroelectric power plant. It is mainly used for seasonal regulation of river flow so that water collected
during rainy seasons can be utilized during dry periods for continuous power generation.
Pondage
Pondage is the small amount of water stored behind a dam or weir for short-term regulation of water
flow in a hydroelectric power plant. It is generally used to meet daily or weekly fluctuations in load
demand and to regulate short-term variations in river discharge.
20. State some differences Between Storage and Pondage.
Storage Pondage
Large quantity of water is stored Small quantity of water is stored
Used for long-term or seasonal regulation Used for short-term or daily/weekly regulation
Water may be stored for months Water is stored for hours or days
Helps in supplying water during dry seasons Helps in meeting peak load demand
Used in storage type hydro plants Used in run-of-river plants with pondage
Requires large reservoir Requires small pond or basin
21. Discuss the essential elements of a hydroelectric power plant.
A hydroelectric power plant consists of several essential components that work together to convert the
energy of stored water into electrical energy. The main elements are explained below:
a) Catchment Area:
The catchment area is the total geographical area from which rainwater is collected and drained
into the reservoir. A larger catchment area provides greater water availability for the hydroelectric
plant.
b) Reservoir
The reservoir is a large storage basin where water is stored behind the dam. It stores excess water
during rainy seasons and supplies water during dry periods to ensure continuous power generation.
c) Dam
A dam is a structure built across a river to obstruct the natural flow of water and create a reservoir.
It increases the water level and provides the necessary hydraulic head required for power
generation. Dams also help in flood control and irrigation.
d) Spillway
A spillway is a safety structure provided in the dam to discharge excess water from the reservoir
during floods or heavy rainfall. It prevents overtopping of the dam and protects the dam from
structural damage.
e) Surge Tank
A surge tank is a cylindrical tank installed on the penstock near the powerhouse. It protects the
penstock against sudden pressure changes caused by rapid changes in turbine load and reduces the
effect of water hammer.
f) Draft Tube
The draft tube is a gradually expanding tube connected to the outlet of the turbine. It helps in
recovering the kinetic energy of the discharged water and improves turbine efficiency by reducing
exit losses.
g) Powerhouse
The powerhouse is the building where turbines, generators, control equipment, transformers and
auxiliary systems are installed. It serves as the operational centre of the hydroelectric plant.
h) Penstock
A penstock is a large-diameter pipe or conduit used to convey water from the reservoir or surge
tank to the turbine under high pressure. It is designed to withstand high internal pressure and
deliver water efficiently to the turbine.
22. Explain the working of hydroelectric power plant with a neat diagram.
• Storage of Water
Water is stored at a height
in a reservoir behind the
dam. The stored water
possesses potential
energy.
• Flow Through Penstock
When the intake gate is
opened, water flows
through the penstock
toward the turbine.
• Rotation of Turbine:
The kinetic energy of flowing water rotates the turbine runner
• Power Generation:
The turbine shaft is coupled to a generator. When the turbine rotates, the generator produces electricity.
• Discharge of Water
After passing through the turbine, water is discharged into the tail race through the draft tube.
23. Classification of Hydroelectric power plant.
(a) Classification Based on Head of Water
(ii) High head power plant
(iii) Medium head power plant
(iv) Low head power plant
(b) According to nature of load
(i) Base load plants
(ii) Peak load plants
(c) According to the quantity of water available
(i) Run-of-river plant without pondage
(ii) Run-of-river plant with pondage
(iii) Hydroelectric plants with storage reservoirs
(iv) Pump storage plants
(v) Mini and micro hydel plants
• High head power plant
A high head power plant operates under a
water head greater than 100 m. In this type of
plant, water is stored at a high elevation and
conveyed through long penstocks to the
turbine. Pelton turbines are commonly used in
high head plants.
• Medium Head Power Plant
A medium head power plant operates under a
water head between 30 m and 100 m. These
plants generally use Franci’s turbines and are
suitable for moderate elevation differences.
• Low Head Power Plant
A low head power plant operates under a water head less than 30 m. These plants require a large quantity of
water for power generation and generally use Kaplan or propeller turbines
• Base Load Plants
Base load plants are hydroelectric plants designed to supply continuous load throughout the day. They operate
for long durations and provide the minimum constant demand of the power system.
• Peak Load Plants
Peak load plants are used to supply electricity during periods of maximum demand only. These plants can start
quickly and are usually operated during peak hours.
• Run-of-River Plant
Without Pondage
In this type of plant, water from the river is used directly for power generation without any storage facility.
Power generation depends entirely on the natural river flow.
with Pondage
In this type, a small amount of water is stored behind a dam or weir to regulate daily or weekly fluctuations in
water flow and load demand.
• Hydroelectric Plants with Storage Reservoirs
These plants have a large reservoir for storing water during rainy seasons and using it during dry periods. They
provide reliable and continuous power generation throughout the year.
• Pump Storage Plants
Pump storage plants have upper and lower reservoirs. During low load periods, water is pumped from the
lower reservoir or tail water pond to the upper reservoir or head water pond, and during peak load periods, the
stored water is used for power generation.
• Mini and Micro Hydel Plants
Mini and micro hydel plants are small hydroelectric plants used for generating power in remote or rural areas.
They have low generating capacity and are suitable for local power supply
24. Explain the working of Run-off River plant.
• A weir or barrage is constructed
across the river to raise the
water level and divert water
toward the intake.
• Water enters through the intake
structure, where gates regulate
the flow and screens prevent
debris from entering.
• The water flows through the
conduit or canal toward the
penstock.
• Water enters the penstock,
where it flows under pressure
toward the turbine.
• The high-pressure water strikes
the turbine runner, causing it to
rotate.
• The turbine converts the hydraulic energy of water into mechanical energy.
• The turbine shaft drives the generator, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
• The used water leaves the turbine through the draft tube.
• Finally, water is discharged through the tailrace back into the river.
25. Explain the working of storage river plant.
• A dam is constructed across a
river to create a large reservoir
for storing water.
• Water is stored in the reservoir
during rainy seasons for use
throughout the year.
• When power is required, water is
allowed to enter through the
intake structure.
• The intake is fitted with trash
racks/screens to prevent debris
from entering.
• Water flows through the
penstock under high pressure
toward the turbine.
• A surge tank absorbs sudden pressure variations in the penstock due to load changes.
• The high-pressure water strikes the turbine runner, causing it to rotate.
• The turbine converts the hydraulic energy of water into mechanical energy.
• The turbine shaft drives the generator, which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
• The used water is discharged through the draft tube into the tailrace and returned to the river.
26. Explain the working of pumped storage plant with neat sketch.
• The upper head reservoir stores water at a
higher elevation. During peak load periods,
water flows from the upper reservoir through
the penstock to the pump-turbine unit.
• The pump-turbine unit acts as a turbine during
power generation. The flowing water rotates the
turbine, which drives the generator to produce
electricity.
• After passing through the turbine, water is
discharged into the lower tail water reservoir
through the tailrace.
• During low load periods, excess electrical energy
from the grid is used to run the generator as a motor.
• The pump-turbine unit now acts as a pump and lifts water from the lower reservoir back to the upper head
reservoir through the penstock.
• Thus, surplus electrical energy is stored in the form of potential energy of water and used again during peak
demand.