WEEK 1: Civil Engineering Construction 1 - Building Components notes:

1.1 What is a Building Component?

Building Component = Any structural element, part, or material that is assembled using
approved construction methods to form a complete building.
Key idea: A building only “works” because all its components work together. Missing key
parts like foundation, walls, or roof makes it incomplete and uninhabitable.
Examples: Foundation, floor, wall, ceiling, roof, doors, windows, etc.
Note: The type of components used depends on the building’s purpose - residential, factory,
recreation, high-rise, etc.

1.2 Main Building Components Listed

Foundation, Floor, Wall, Ceiling, Roof, Fenestration, Doors, Windows, Stairs, Chimney,
Columns, Slabs

1.3 Functional Requirements of Main Components

Component
Main Functions / Requirements
Foundation
1. Support + stability for whole structure
2. Transfer dead, imposed & wind loads to ground without settlement
3. Deep enough to avoid swelling/shrinkage/freezing of soil
4. Resist sulphates + harmful subsoil chemicals
Floor
1. Flat, level surface for people/ equipment
2. Strength + stiffness to carry loads without deflection
3. Damp proofing - stop moisture from ground
4. Thermal insulation - reduce heat loss/gain
5. Sound insulation - block airborne & impact sound
6. Fire resistance - 1 to 6 hrs for escape |
Wall
External:
Strength/stability, carry loads, resist wind/rain, sound insulation, durability, fire + thermal
insulation.
Internal:
Divide space into rooms. Performance depends on material, thickness, bonding, cavity
construction
Roof
1. Keep out rain/wind/snow
2. Heat loss barrier 3. Strength/stability for maintenance + loads
4. Good appearance
5. Resist thermal + moisture movement
Door
1. Access in/out + between rooms
2. Security + privacy
3. Keep out wind/rain
4. Fire, sound + thermal barrier
Window
1. Admit daylight
2. Natural ventilation
3. Keep out wind/rain
4. Thermal + sound insulation
5. Fire resistance + escape route
6. Provide view/relaxation
Stairs
1. Access between floor levels
2. Fire escape route

Big takeaway:
Every component has 2 jobs - structural + functional.
Structure keeps the building standing. Function makes it safe, comfortable, and usable.

WEEK 2: SITE PREPARATION for Civil Engineering Construction 1:

Why Site Preparation?
Before building starts, do preliminary activities so the team knows the site, avoids problems,
and works efficiently.
8 Main Preliminary Activities
Activity/ Key Points / Purpose
1. Site Investigation + Organization
Survey site during design stage to spot problems. Helps engineer design for the site +
contractor plan work. Done with a Site Layout Plan showing position of offices, materials,
equipment, roads, services.
Layout considerations: access to site, material/equipment availability, space for offices,
vibration effects on neighbours, water/power supply, soil type + water table, local planning
restrictions, weather, info from locals.
2. Subsoil Exploration / Trial Boreholes
Dig trial pits or boreholes to test soil bearing capacity, moisture content, chemical
composition. Deep for high-rise buildings. Samples taken as disturbed/undisturbed → lab
analysis. Info guides foundation design.
3. Site Welfare Facilities
Provide for workers: canteen/mess room, washing facilities, toilets, first-aid room with
couch, stretchers, bandages + trained first aider on site during work hours.
4. Storage + Protection of Materials
Protect materials from weather/theft: Cement in shed - gets hard if wet. Timber - avoid
water to prevent rot/deformation. Bricks/blocks - keep dry for handling. Fittings like
electrical/plumbing kept locked.

5. Site Fencing + Hoarding

Temporary/permanent barrier around site. Purpose: security for materials/equipment, keep
intruders out, hide ugly construction work, safety for public. Must be well erected. Removed
after project.
6. Site Clearance + Topsoil Removal
Clear bushes, trees, old roads from building area + storage areas. Remove vegetable topsoil
~150mm deep - contains organics that harm concrete. Don’t use it for backfilling. Bulldozer
used for clearing/leveling.
7. Ground Water Control
Water table = level of saturation underground, changes with season. Digging below it is hard
+ ruins concrete strength. Solution: use diesel pump to remove water temporarily during
excavation/concreting.
8. Setting Out + Leveling
After topsoil removal, mark exact building position from architect’s drawings using string
lines + pegs for trenches/walls. Building line = setback from road centreline per local
authority.
Big takeaway:
Site preparations = “know your site + set up for safety/efficiency” before any concrete is
poured. Bad prep = foundation problems, delays, wasted materials.

WEEK 3: METHOD OF SETTING OUT

Setting Out = Marking the exact position and dimensions of a building on the ground using
pegs + string lines, based on the architect’s drawings. Must be accurate before excavation
starts.
3 Main Methods
Method
How It Works | Accuracy / Use |
1. 3:4:5 Method
Based on Pythagoras: any triangle with sides 3:4:5 = right angle 90°.
Steps*: 1. Fix building line + corner peg P1.
2. Measure 3m along building line to P2.
3. From P1 measure 4m at right angles. 4. Stretch tape so 12m mark at P2 + 3m mark at
P1 → 5m mark gives P3. 5. Repeat for all corners.
Check: Measure both diagonals - they must be equal for a true rectangle/square. Simple,
cheap. Good for small buildings. Needs tape + pegs only.

2. Builder’s Square Method

Similar idea but uses a steel/timber builder’s square instead of tape math.
Steps: 1. Drive pegs P1, P2 on building line.
2. Hold string along P1-P2.
3. Place square’s corner at P2 nail.
4. Pull string around square’s other side → drive P3 where string meets nail.
5. Repeat for other corners.
Check: Diagonals equal. | Faster than 3:4:5 for right angles. Needs a large square. Still
manual.

3. Theodolite Method
Most accurate. Uses Theodolite= survey instrument with telescope + crosshair + degree
scale for horizontal/vertical angles.
 Steps: 1. Set theodolite at A, sight + peg E, B to get building line.
2. Set angle to 0°00', turn 90°00' right → sight + peg F, C.
3. Move to C, repeat to peg G, D.
4. Measure distances with tape to complete. | Highest accuracy. Best for large/complex
buildings. Needs skilled surveyor + instrument. |
Key Checks for All Methods
Squareness: Corners must be 90°. 3:4:5 and Builder’s Square guarantee this. Theodolite uses
angle readings.
Accuracy: Always measure diagonals of the rectangle. If diagonal (a) = diagonal (a), setting
out is correct.

Big takeaway:
Setting out puts the building “on the ground” before digging. Small error here = big problem
with walls/foundation later. 3:4:5 for small jobs, Theodolite for precision.

WEEK 4: EXCAVATION

Excavation = Digging out earth to the specified depth, width, and length for foundation,
floors, basements, etc. Technique depends on site sensitivity to vibration, work intensity,
plant available, and soil type.

Methods of Excavation
| Method | Details | Use Case |
Manual
Hand tools: spades, diggers, hand augers, picks. Cheap but slow, obsolete. Small jobs:
garages, house extensions, inaccessible sites, archaeological sites needing care, trimming
after mechanical work.
Mechanical
Uses plant/equipment. Saves man-hours. Standard on all sites.
Main method for:
1. Stripping/clearance + demolition
2. Topsoil removal
3. Trench excavation
4. Basement excavation |
Main Excavation Plant
Bulldozer - Stripping, leveling, pushing soil
Loader/Backhoe/Back actor - Front loader bucket for loading, backhoe bucket for digging
trenches/basements/ditches
Scraper - Large bowl with cutting edge for stripping soil. Used on big sites, airfields,
highways
Dragline/Grab Crane - Crane-mounted bucket swung forward to dig, dragged back.
Grab/clamshell best for deep excavation in granular soils

Earthwork Support / Trench Support = “Planking & Strutting”

Needed in water-saturated/loose soil to prevent trench walls collapsing. Protects workers +
avoids rework cost.

Factors affecting support: soil type/nature, depth, time trench stays open, weather/season.

Timber members used:

Poling boards - Vertical boards 1.0-1.5m long, 175x35mm to 225x50mm, against soil
Walling’s - Horizontal members along trench length, 175x50mm to 225x75mm, hold poling
boards
Struts - Squared timbers 100x100mm or 150x150mm, hold walling’s. Adjustable steel struts
also used
Sheeting - Horizontal boards 175x75mm, overlapping ∼150mm for continuous barrier in
loose soil. Steel interlocking sheeting used for deep/waterlogged soil

Arrangement:
Firm soil, shallow: Poling boards spaced ∼1.8m, strutted individually, no walling
Moderately firm: Poling boards + walling’s + struts at ∼60cm centres
Loose/saturated soil: Continuous sheeting or poling boards + walling’s + struts ∼1.8m. If
>1.5m deep, “step” timbering - lower stage inside upper.

Ground Water Control in Excavation

Digging below water table is hard + weakens concrete. Methods:
| Method | How It Works |
1. Pumping from Sump/Well
Most common, economical. Sump dug at corner = well point. Pump at ground level removes
water. Limitation: suction lift ~7.5-9m. Deeper = pump placed in excavation. Risk: soil
settlement + instability.
2. Dewatering/Wellpoint System
Lowers water table up to 16m. Good for running sand. Uses jetting pump, suction pump,
header pipe, riser pipes, wellpoints. **2 systems**: Ringing = encircle site for area
dewatering, 1 or 2 stages. Progressive = wellpoints along trench line before digging.
4. Others
Electro-osmosis, Grouting, Soil stabilization - mentioned but not detailed. |

Big takeaway:
Excavate to right size → support trench if soil is weak/wet → control groundwater so
foundation concrete isn’t ruined. Mechanical plant for speed, manual for precision/sensitive
sites.

- FOUNDATIONS
DEFINITION + PURPOSE
Foundation: Part of structure in direct contact with ground. Transfers dead load, live/imposed
load, and wind load safely to subsoil.
Main purpose: Spread building weight over enough area so subsoil doesn’t spread/fail →
prevent settlement.

3 Loads foundations carry:

Dead Load: Weight of frame, floors, roof, walls, equipment, foundation itself
Live/Imposed Load: People, furniture, fixtures, snow, rain on roof
Wind Load: Lateral, downward, and uplift forces

Settlement rule: All foundations settle a few mm. Uniform settlement = no damage.
Differential settlement = different parts settle different amounts due to varying soil →
cracked walls, jammed doors/windows, structural failure. Main goal of design = minimize
differential settlement.

SOILS + BEARING
| Soil Type | Behaviour under load | Foundation note |
Rock
No measurable settlement | Best bearing |
Coarse non-cohesive sand/gravel | Compresses fast as building goes up, then stops | Settles
rapidly during construction |
Fine cohesive
lay | Smooth, greasy, high plasticity. Water expelled slowly → settlement continues years
after build. Shrinks 1m below grass, 4m+ below trees | Don’t build near trees on clay.
Shrink/swell causes damage |
Organic peat | Very poor, compresses a lot | Must take foundation down to solid stratum |
Rule: Bearing capacity of soil/rock must not be exceeded or settlement becomes excessive.

4 PRINCIPAL FOUNDATION TYPES

STRIP FOUNDATION - Continuous concrete under load-bearing walls

Standard: Min 450mm wide x 150mm thick, 1:3:6 mix. 1:2:6 reinforced for poor soil/high
load.
Variations:
Wide strip: Reinforced concrete to reduce thickness when load is high vs soil capacity
Deep strip/Narrow trench fill: 900mm deep for clay to avoid shrinkage zone. Filled to near
ground level to save time
Reinforced deep strip: 900mm deep x 400mm wide with rebar. For soft clay - handles voids
from drying

PAD FOUNDATION - Isolated square/rect concrete pads under columns/ground beams

Use: Poor soil where deep strip trenches wasteful. Framed buildings with isolated columns.
Detail: Pad size depends on column load + soil bearing. Reinforcement + starter bars
interlock with column.

RAFT FOUNDATION - Reinforced concrete slab under whole building

Use: Soft clay or peat were differential settlement likely. Spreads load over entire footprint,
so all parts settle equally.
Types:
Flat raft/Solid slab: Uniform slab, reinforced top bottom. For small houses on loose soil with
reasonable bearing
Beam + slab/Wide toe raft: Slab with down stand “toe” beams. Beams collect wall/column
loads → slab spreads it. For poor compressible ground

PILE FOUNDATION - Columns of concrete/steel/timber to stable stratum below weak

soil/water
Use: Poor bearing soil, high water table, >2m excavation uneconomical. Bridges, jetties, oil
platforms.
Types:
Short bored piles: ∼4m deep, hand/machine auger. For small buildings on shrinkage clay near
trees. Support ground beams
Precast driven piles: Round/polygonal/square. Driven by drop hammer to “set” - distance per
hammer blow. 300mm rebar exposed at top to tie into ground beam. Disadvantage:
Noise/vibration, not used in built-up areas

SLOPING SITES
One level: For slight slopes. Floor raised above highest ground
Stepped foundation: For steeper slopes. Economizes excavation + walling. Cut higher
ground, fill lower ground. Cut extends beyond wall for drainage

CONSTRUCTION METHOD
General for strip/pad/raft: Excavate to spec → hardcore base if needed → blinding weak
concrete → reinforcement on mortar/concrete “biscuits” for cover → set level with
pegs/instrument → pour concrete → vibrate to remove voids → cure 7 days with water.
Bored piles: Auger hole → steel lining tube → place rebar cage → pour concrete in stages →
withdraw tube
Precast piles: Factory made → driven by hammer to calculated “set”

FOUNDATION QUICK TABLE

Factor Choose this
foundation
| Good soil, light load, walls | Strip foundation - cheapest |
| Poor soil, isolated columns | Pad foundation - saves excavation |
| Very soft clay/peat, whole building | Raft foundation - avoids differential settlement |
| Soil >2m deep to solid stratum | Pile foundation - goes past weak layer |
| Clay + trees nearby | Piles or deep strip 900mm+ to avoid shrinkage zone |

3 Golden Exam Points for Foundations:

Foundation = spread load + prevent differential settlement
Clay shrinks near trees → crack risk. Organic soil = take to solid stratum
DPC must be above ground + DPM must link, or damp bridges foundation
WEEK 6: DAMP PROOFING + BASEMENT + SUBSTRUCTURE

Rising Damp & Seepage

- The Problem
Cause:
Water rises through wall/floor pores by capillary action when constant water supply exists at
base. Happens on high water table sites or sloping sites.
Signs:
Dark staining above skirting on interior walls
White salty deposits = efflorescence - salts drawn from ground with water
Causes:
No DPC/DPM, or construction faults like: earth stacked against wall, paving above DPC,
rendering over DPC, mortar bridging across cavity.

Why it matters: Damp buildings are unhealthy + unsightly. Damages finishes - timber/PVC
floors rot, paint peels, renders blister. Concrete absorbs moisture → cold floors, heat loss.
Damp proofing maintains quality, strength, durability, room temp + protects finishes.

Damp Proofing Process

2 parts that must connect:
DPC - Damp Proof Course: Horizontal layer in walls, ∼150mm above finished ground level.
Must be continuous for full length + thickness of wall. Prevents moisture rising up wall.
DPM - Damp Proof Membrane: Sheet under/through oversite concrete slab, covers whole
floor area. Prevents ground moisture rising through floor.

Rule: DPC in walls must link with DPM in floor. Either lay them at same level, or connect
with vertical DPC. DPM laid on 50mm bed of sand/ash to avoid punctures on rough
hardcore.

Damp Proofing Materials

Type Examples
DPM Materials | Hot pitch/bitumen, bitumen sheets/solutions,
mastic asphalt, polythene sheet |

DPC – Flexible Lead, copper, bitumen, polythene sheet

DPC - Semi-rigid Slates, engineering bricks |

Hardcore + Blinding
Hardcore: 100-300mm layer of broken bricks, stone, gravel, clinker under floor slab.
Provides firm working base + prevents concrete contamination on wet sites. Must be hard,
durable, well compacted.
Blinding: 50mm layer of dry concrete, clinker or ash over hardcore before pouring slab. Seals
gaps so wet concrete doesn’t run down + waste material and reduces water seepage paths.

Anti-Termite Treatment
Termites enter through wall/floor junction in tropics. Precautions:
Dig out + treat nests with insecticide
Treat exposed soil during excavation + hardcore laying
Raise ground floor concrete above ground + project beyond wall face

Basement Construction
Sequence:
Excavate from ground level with timbering support
Continue to require depth
Cast foundation + start walls → remove timber progressively + backfill
Walls to ground level
Remove soil inside walls if needed

Deep basement excavation: Use ramp ∼1:20 slope for trucks if space allows. If not, use
buckets + crane to hoist soil. Plant used: bulldozer, shovel, back actor, dragline, loader, truck.

Basement Tanking Principle

Tanking = Continuous waterproof lining, usually mastic asphalt, around basement walls +
floor to act like a tank and exclude water.
Application: 3 coats hot mastic asphalt - 20mm thick vertical, 30mm horizontal. Joints
staggered 75mm vertical, 150mm horizontal. Fillet at angles.
External tanking: Applied to outside of walls/floor - structure resists water pressure. Preferred
for new builds.
Internal tanking: Used on site boundaries with no working space, or for existing buildings.
Needs extra wall/floor to resist water pressure.

Big takeaway:
Substructure must be kept dry. DPC stops walls getting damp from ground, DPM stops floors
getting damp. Both must join. Basements need tanking. Hardcore + blinding gives solid dry
base.

Floor section you just sent - covers Suspended Ground Floors + Upper Floors:

Suspended Timber Ground Floor - Key Details from Diagram

For ventilated suspended timber floors over ground:
Floor joists: 400-600mm apart, span supported by sleeper walls
Sleeper walls: ½ brick honeycomb wall, 1.8-2.0m apart. Honeycomb = gaps for air flow
Ventilation: Air bricks in external wall, min 75mm above ground, 125mm min below DPC.
Allows air circulation under floor to prevent rot/decay
DPC: In wall above ground level + under sleeper walls to stop rising damp
Hardcore + concrete: Below sleeper walls as base
Flooring: T&G floorboards nailed across joists

Purpose: Air gap + ventilation keeps timber dry, prevents dampness from ground.

Upper Floors - 2 Main Types

| Type | Pros | Cons |
Timber Upper Floor ~½ cost of concrete. Lighter. | Less fire resistance, worse sound
insulation, lower load capacity. Similar to suspended ground floor but no sleeper walls →
needs deeper joists. |
Reinforced Concrete Upper Floor Better fire resistance, better sound insulation, higher load
capacity. | More expensive, heavier, needs formwork/cantering. |
Timber Upper Floor Construction

i. Strutting between joists

Joists >3m span need strutting at mid-span or 1.5m centres to stop buckling + prevent ceiling
cracks.
Types:
Herringbone - 38/50mm square softwood in X-pattern. Most effective but harder to fit
Solid strutting - short timber same size as joist, nailed between joists in line/staggered.
Quicker but needs accurate cutting
Wedges used between end joists + wall to tighten strutting.

ii. End support for joists - Max economical span 3.6-4.0m. Joist ends treated with
preservative. 4 methods:
Built into brick wall - Built into wall. Risk: joist into cavity = moisture bridge. Better: bear on
timber/metal wall plate to spread load, then build wall above.
Galvanized steel hangers - Built into brick/block wall. Best for external walls - avoids timber
in wall = no damp risk.
Wall plate on steel corbels - Corbels built into wall support wall plate. Disadvantage:
projection below ceiling.
Brick corbel wall plate - 2 courses of brick corbelled out to support wall plate.

iii. Floorboards: 19 or 21mm thick T&G boards, cramped tight + nailed across joists. Head
joints staggered.

Reinforced Concrete Upper Floors

a. Monolithic/Solid slab
Unbroken concrete slab 100-300mm thick, cast in-situ, steel reinforced.
Construction: Cantering/formwork + props → mould oil on platform → “biscuits”/spacer
blocks 15-25mm to give cover to steel mesh → place bars: main bars with bent-up ends +
distribution bars → pour concrete → vibrate/level → cure 7 days → remove formwork.

b. Precast Self-cantering system

Precast concrete beams made off-site, lifted in, ends built into walls. No cantering needed =
faster for emergency jobs.
Types: Hollow rectangular beams, inverted channel sections, solid precast T-beams with
lightweight infill blocks.
Big takeaway:
Ground suspended floors need air + DPC to stay dry. Upper floors: choose timber for cost,
concrete for fire/sound/strength. Joist support + strutting are critical to stop deflection +
ceiling cracks.

WEEK 8: WALLS + BRICKS

What is a Wall?
Vertical, continuous solid structure made from clay, stone, concrete, timber, metal, etc.

Classification:
By function: Internal vs External walls
By load: Load bearing = carries roof/floor loads + self weight. Non-load bearing/partition =
just divides space
By construction: Solid wall/Masonry = bricks, blocks, stone, concrete laid in mortar with
overlapping bonds, or monolithic concrete. Framed wall = timber/concrete/metal frame with
thin panels fixed between for enclosure/dividing.

6 Main Functions of a Wall

Enclose + protect building
Divide space into rooms
Protection against wind + rain
Support floors + roofs
Conserve heat - thermal insulation
Fire resistance + sound insulation - solid block walls best for sound. Framed walls lighter,
used for partitions where sound isn’t critical. Note: No single material does all functions at
100%.
Bricks
Definition: Small burnt clay blocks handled with one hand. Length = 2 x width + 1 mortar
joint. Concrete/sand-lime blocks in brick size are also called bricks.

Standard size: 215 x 102.5 x 65mm

With 10mm mortar joint: 225 x 112.5 x 75mm = “brick format size”
Types:
Commons, facings, engineering, semi-engineering, stocks, flint-lime, calcium silicate,
hollow/perforated, specials. Classified by material, mixing, curing, firing.

Special bricks/shapes - cut from whole brick or purpose-made in moulds:

Closers: Queen closer, king closer - used at ends of walls to keep bond
Bats: ½ bat/snap header, ¾ bat - part bricks
Angles: Dogleg, squint angle, cant, double cant - for corners/angles
Nose/Coping: Single bullnose, double bullnose, bullnose mitre, saddleback coping, half
round coping - for edges, copings, sills
Plinth: Plinth header, plinth stretcher - for base of wall

Big takeaway:
Walls do structure + enclosure + comfort. Solid masonry for strength/sound/fire, framed for
light partitions. Bricks are modular - standard size + specials keep bonds and details neat.

WEEK 1: BUILDING COMPONENTS

Definition: Structural elements/materials assembled by approved methods to form a building.
Missing key parts = incomplete/uninhabitable.
Main Components: Foundation, Floor, Wall, Ceiling, Roof, Doors, Windows, Stairs,
Columns, Slabs, Chimney, Fenestration.
Functional Requirements: Every component must provide structure + function: support,
weather protection, fire/sound/thermal insulation, durability, safety.

WEEK 2: SITE PREPARATION

Do this before construction so team knows site + avoids problems.
Site Investigation + Layout: Survey for problems. Produce site layout plan for offices,
materials, equipment, access, services. Check: access, materials, space, vibration effects,
water/power, soil/water table, planning restrictions, weather.
Subsoil Exploration: Trial pits/boreholes to test bearing capacity, moisture, chemicals. Guides
foundation design.
Welfare Facilities: Canteen, toilets, washing, first-aid room + trained first-aider.
Material Storage: Cement dry, timber off ground, bricks/blocks dry, fittings locked.
Fencing/Hoarding: Security + safety + hide site until complete.
Site Clearance: Remove bushes, trees, roads. Strip topsoil ∼150mm - organics harm concrete.
Groundwater Control: Water table makes excavation hard + weakens concrete. Plan for
pumps.
Setting Out + Leveling: Mark building position from drawings with pegs + string. Building
line = setback from road.

WEEK 3: METHOD OF SETTING OUT

Mark exact building position on ground before excavation. Check squareness with equal
diagonals.
3:4:5 Method: Pythagoras triangle. 3m along line, 4m at right angle, 5m diagonal. Cheap, for
small jobs.
Builder’s Square: Steel/timber square to get 90°. Faster than 3:4:5.
Theodolite Method: Most accurate. Uses angle readings. For large/complex buildings.

WEEK 4: EXCAVATION + FOUNDATIONS

Excavation = Dig to specified depth/width/length for foundation, floor, basement.
Methods: Manual = spades, for small jobs. Mechanical = bulldozer, loader/backhoe, scraper,
dragline - standard for speed.

Trench Support/“Planking & Strutting”: Prevent collapse in loose/wet soil. Members: Poling
boards vertical, Wallings horizontal, Struts to hold them, Sheeting for continuous barrier.
“Step” timbering if >1.5m deep.

Groundwater Control: 1. Sump pumping - most common, suction limit ∼9m. 2.

Dewatering/wellpoints - lower water table up to 16m. Ringing or progressive system.

Settlement + Soil Types:

Rock = no settlement. Soil = compresses under load. Must not exceed bearing capacity.
Coarse soil sand/gravel: Settles fast during build, then stops.
Clay: Settles slowly for years. Shrinks 1m below grass, 4m+ near trees. Keep buildings away
from trees on clay.
Organic peat: Poor - take foundation to solid stratum.

4 Types of Foundations:
Strip: Continuous concrete under walls. Min 450mm x 150mm. 1:3:6 mix, 1:2:6 reinforced
for poor soil. Width depends on soil strength. Variations: Wide strip = reinforced, Deep
strip/trench fill = to 900mm for clay, Reinforced deep strip = 900x400mm for clay shrinkage.
Pad: Isolated square/rect concrete under columns/ground beams. For poor soil where deep
trenches wasteful. Area depends on load + soil.
Raft: Concrete slab under whole building. For soft clay/peat. Types: Flat raft = uniform slab
for houses, Beam & slab raft = slab + downstand beams for poor ground.
Pile: Concrete/steel columns to stable stratum below weak soil/water. Use if >2m excavation
uneconomical. Types: Short bored piles ∼4m for clay near trees, Precast driven piles - not in
built-up areas due to vibration/noise.

Sloping Sites: One level for slight slopes, or Stepped foundation for steep slopes. Use “cut
and fill”.

Construction: Excavate → blinding/hardcore → reinforcement on “biscuits” → pour concrete

→ vibrate → cure 7 days. Piles: Bored = auger + cast in-situ, Precast = hammer driven to
“set”.

WEEK 6: DAMP PROOFING + BASEMENTS

Problem: Rising damp = water rises by capillary action. Signs: dark staining above skirting,
white efflorescence salts. Causes: no DPC/DPM or bridging faults like earth/paving above
DPC.

Why: Damp ruins finishes, causes rot, cold, heat loss, health issues.

Solution:
DPC = Horizontal layer in walls, ∼150mm above ground, continuous + impenetrable.
DPM = Membrane under/through floor slab, covers whole area. Must link to DPC with
vertical DPC if levels differ. Lay DPM on 50mm sand/ash bed to avoid punctures.

Materials: DPM = bitumen, polythene, mastic asphalt. DPC flexible = lead, copper, bitumen,
polythene. DPC semi-rigid = slate, engineering brick.

Hardcore + Blinding: Hardcore 100-300mm broken stone under slab for solid base. Blinding
50mm dry concrete/ash over hardcore to seal gaps before slab.

Anti-termite: Treat nests + soil with insecticide, raise floor above ground.
Basement: Excavate with timbering → cast foundation + walls → remove timber + backfill
→ remove internal soil. Deep = use ramp for trucks or crane + buckets.

Tanking: 3 coats hot mastic asphalt 20mm vertical/30mm horizontal around basement walls +
floor. External tanking preferred - structure resists water pressure. Internal used on
boundaries/existing buildings.

FLOORS - Suspended + Upper

Suspended Timber Ground Floor: Joists 400-600mm apart on ½ brick honeycomb sleeper
walls 1.8-2m apart. Air bricks 75mm min above ground, 125mm below DPC for ventilation.
DPC in wall + under sleepers. T&G boards on joists. Air gap prevents rot.

Upper Floors - 2 Types:

Timber: ~½ cost of concrete. Joists >3m need strutting at mid-span: Herringbone = X-
bracing, most effective. Solid strutting = short timber pieces, quicker. End support: built into
wall, steel hangers - best for external, wall plate on corbels, brick corbels. Max span 3.6-4m.
19/21mm T&G boards.
Reinforced Concrete: Better fire/sound/load. Monolithic = 100-300mm solid slab cast in-situ
on centering/formwork + props. Use biscuits 15-25mm for cover, cure 7 days. Precast self-
centering = beams made off-site, no formwork needed. Types: hollow beams, channel
sections, T-beams + infill.

WEEK 8: WALLS + BRICKS

Walls: Vertical structures. Classified: Internal/External, Load-bearing/Non-load-bearing,
Solid masonry/Monolithic concrete, Framed = frame + panels.

6 Functions: Enclose/protect, divide space, keep out wind/rain, support floors/roofs, conserve
heat, fire + sound resistance. Solid block best for sound/fire. Framed lighter for partitions.

Bricks: Burnt clay blocks, hand size. Standard: 215x102.5x65mm, or 225x112.5x75mm with
10mm mortar.
Types: Commons, facings, engineering, stocks, calcium silicate, hollow/perforated, specials.
Specials: Closers = queen/king for bond, Bats = ½, ¾, Angles = dogleg/squint/cant, Nose =
bullnose/coping, Plinth = base bricks.

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FULL CONSTRUCTION SEQUENCE FLOW
Site Prep → Investigate soil + services → Clear + level → Set out building line
Excavation → Dig trenches/pits → Support trench + control groundwater
Foundations → Choose type based on soil/load: Strip → Pad → Raft → Pile
Substructure/Damp Proofing → Hardcore + blinding → DPM + DPC linked → Tank
basement if needed
Superstructure → Walls - load bearing + partitions → Floors - timber or concrete with proper
support/strutting

Golden Rules to Remember:

Soil test first - foundation depends on bearing capacity + settlement.
Diagonals equal when setting out = square building.
DPC + DPM must connect or damp will bridge.
Air bricks + sleeper walls keep timber floors dry.
Strut joists >3m or ceiling will crack.

Want me to turn this into a printable 2-page PDF revision sheet with a diagram of the
construction sequence?