Chapter 6

GAS EXCHANGE
CHAPTER AT A GLANCE

1 Why We Breathe Cells need O2 for aerobic respiration; CO2 must be

continuously removed.

2 Structure of the Gas Air travels nose/mouth trachea bronchi bronchioles

Exchange System alveoli; pleural membranes, cilia and mucus protect the
system.

3 Ventilation of the Lungs Intercostal muscles and the diaphragm change thorax
volume, creating pressure differences that drive inhalation
and exhalation.

4 Gas Exchange in the O2 diffuses from alveolar air into blood; CO2 diffuses from
Alveoli blood into alveoli, driven by concentration gradients.

WHY WE BREATHE

Energy and Respiration

Cells get their energy by oxidising foods such as glucose in the process called respiration.
If cells are to respire aerobically, they need a continuous supply of O2 from the blood. In
addition, CO2 from respiration needs to be removed from the body. In humans, these
gases are exchanged between the blood and the air in the lungs.

Definition — Breathing: The mechanism that moves air in and out of the lungs,
allowing gas exchange to take place.

THE STRUCTURE OF THE GAS EXCHANGE SYSTEM

Main Components

The lungs are located in the chest (thorax), protected by the ribcage and separated from
the abdomen by a muscular diaphragm. Joining each rib to the next are two sets of
muscles called intercostal muscles (‘costals’ are rib bones). Movement of the diaphragm
and intercostal muscles causes breathing.

Airway Pathway

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Air enters through the nose or mouth, travels down the trachea (the windpipe), which
splits into two bronchi (one per lung). These branch into bronchioles, ending in alveoli —
the sites of gas exchange. This highly branching network is sometimes called the
bronchial tree. The trachea and bronchi contain cartilage rings that keep airways open
during breathing.

1. Air enters nose or mouth.

2. Travels down the trachea.

3. Splits into two bronchi (one per lung).

4. Branches into bronchioles (smaller tubes).

5. Reaches alveoli (air sacs) — O2 into blood; CO2 out of blood.

6. CO2 moves back up the airways and is exhaled.

Protective and Supporting Structures

The inside of the thorax is separated from the lungs by two thin moist membranes called
the pleural membranes, with the pleural cavity between them filled with pleural fluid. This
prevents friction during breathing. Airway linings produce mucus to trap dirt and bacteria.
Tiny hair-like structures called cilia sweep mucus and particles out of the airways to keep
the lungs clean and prevent infection.

Supporting structures at a glance:

• Ribcage & intercostal muscles — aid breathing
• Diaphragm — assists inhalation and exhalation
• Cartilage rings — keep airways open
• Pleural membranes & fluid — reduce friction
• Mucus & cilia — clean airways and prevent infection

Key Definitions

Thorax: The chest area between the neck and belly; contains the heart and lungs
inside the ribcage.

Diaphragm: A dome-shaped muscle under the lungs that helps in breathing.

Intercostal muscles: Muscles between the ribs that help breathing.

Cartilage: A soft, flexible material found in joints, nose, ears, and airways.

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 Pleural membrane: A thin layer covering the lungs and lining the chest, helping the
lungs move smoothly.

VENTILATION OF THE LUNGS

How Ventilation Works

Ventilation means moving air in and out of the lungs. This requires a difference in air
pressure: air moves from a region of high pressure to a region of low pressure. When we
breathe, we change the volume of the thorax, which alters the pressure inside it, causing
air to move in or out. Two structures drive this: the ribs (moved by intercostal muscles)
and the diaphragm.

Inhalation — Breathing In

1. The outer (external) intercostal muscles contract, pulling the ribs up and out.

2. The diaphragm muscles contract, pulling the diaphragm down into a flattened
shape.

3. Both movements increase thorax volume; pressure inside falls below atmospheric
pressure.

4. Air flows into the lungs (inhalation).

Exhalation — Breathing Out

1. The external intercostal muscles relax; the internal intercostal muscles contract,
pulling the ribs down and in.

2. The diaphragm muscles relax; the diaphragm returns to its normal dome shape.

3. The volume of the thorax decreases; pressure inside rises above atmospheric
pressure.

4. Air is forced out of the lungs (exhalation). The elastic lungs assist by tending to
collapse and empty like a balloon.

GAS EXCHANGE IN THE ALVEOLI

Composition of Inhaled vs Exhaled Air

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Comparing atmospheric air with exhaled air reveals what happens during gas exchange:

TABLE 4.1 — APPROXIMATE % VOLUME OF GASES IN ATMOSPHERIC AND EXHALED AIR

Nitrogen 78 79

Oxygen 21 16

Carbon dioxide 0.04 4

Other gases (mainly argon) 1 1

Atmospheric Air / % | Exhaled Air / % (columns left to right above)

Characteristics of exhaled air:

• Warmer than atmospheric air
• Saturated with water vapour
• Contains a higher percentage of CO2 than atmospheric air
• Contains a lower percentage of O2 than atmospheric air

Alveolar Structure

O2 and CO2 are exchanged in the alveoli. They have a large surface area and are close to
blood capillaries, making exchange highly efficient. The lungs contain approximately 700
million alveoli, giving a surface area of 60 m² — bigger than a classroom floor. Under a
microscope, alveoli look like grape bunches and are covered with capillaries.

Alveolus wall: Made of cells — not cell walls (a plant cell feature). A thin fluid layer
from blood plasma lines the inside; O2 dissolves in this moisture before diffusing into
the blood.

Mechanism of Gas Exchange

Deoxygenated blood is pumped from the heart to the lungs, where it flows through
capillaries surrounding the alveoli. This blood has come from body tissues, having lost O2
and gained CO2. In the lungs, blood is separated from the air inside each alveolus by just
two thin cell layers — less than a thousandth of a millimetre thick.

Because alveolar air has more O2 than the blood, O2 diffuses into the blood. At the same
time, CO2 — at higher concentration in the blood — diffuses out into the alveoli. Blood
leaving the lungs is therefore oxygenated and returns to the heart to be pumped around
the body.

Key fact: The blood–air barrier in the alveoli is less than a thousandth of a millimetre
thick, allowing rapid diffusion of gases.

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GLOSSARY

Term Simple Definition

Alveoli Tiny air sacs at the end of bronchioles where gas exchange
between air and blood occurs.

Bronchi The two large tubes that branch from the trachea, one leading
to each lung.

Bronchioles Smaller tubes branching from the bronchi, leading to the

alveoli.

Cartilage Soft, flexible material that keeps the trachea and bronchi open
during breathing.

Cilia Tiny hair-like structures lining the airways that sweep mucus
and particles out of the lungs.

Diaphragm A dome-shaped muscle beneath the lungs that contracts and

relaxes to drive breathing.

Diffusion Movement of molecules from a region of higher concentration

to a region of lower concentration.

Exhalation The process of breathing out; air is expelled from the lungs.

Gas exchange Transfer of O2 from air into blood and CO2 from blood into air,
occurring in the alveoli.

Inhalation The process of breathing in; air is drawn into the lungs.

Intercostal muscles Muscles between the ribs (external and internal) that move the
ribcage during breathing.

Mucus A sticky substance produced by airway linings to trap dirt and

bacteria.

Pleural cavity The space between the two pleural membranes, filled with
pleural fluid.

Pleural fluid Liquid filling the pleural cavity; prevents friction between lungs
and chest wall during breathing.

Pleural membranes Two thin moist membranes separating the inside of the thorax
from the lungs.

Respiration The process by which cells oxidise glucose to release energy;

requires O2 and produces CO2.

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Term Simple Definition

Thorax The chest region containing the lungs and heart, enclosed by
the ribcage and separated from the abdomen by the
diaphragm.

Trachea The windpipe; carries air from mouth/nose to the bronchi. Kept
open by cartilage rings.

Ventilation The mechanism of moving air in and out of the lungs by

changing thorax volume and pressure.

CHAPTER SUMMARY

Concept Key Detail Plain-English Meaning

Why we breathe Cells need O2 for aerobic Without a constant O2 supply

respiration; CO2 must be and CO2 removal, cells cannot
removed. produce energy.

Breathing definition Mechanism that moves air in Breathing enables gas

and out of the lungs. exchange between air and
blood.

Thorax Chest region enclosed by The ribcage protects the lungs;

ribcage; contains lungs and the diaphragm forms the floor.
heart.

Trachea Windpipe kept open by cartilage Cartilage rings prevent the

rings. airway from collapsing during
breathing.

Bronchi Two tubes branching from First branching point of the

trachea, one per lung. airway inside the chest.

Bronchioles Smaller branches leading to Form the bronchial tree beyond

alveoli. the bronchi.

Alveoli ≈700 million; surface area ≈60 Vast surface area maximises
m²; covered with capillaries. the rate of gas exchange.

Pleural membranes Two membranes with pleural Fluid prevents friction as the
fluid between them. lungs move during breathing.

Cilia and mucus Cilia sweep mucus and trapped Keeps airways clean and
particles upward out of airways. prevents infection.

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Concept Key Detail Plain-English Meaning

Ventilation Changing thorax volume Air moves from high to low

changes pressure, moving air. pressure into or out of the lungs.

Inhalation External intercostals contract Volume increases; pressure

(ribs up); diaphragm contracts drops; air enters lungs.
(flattens).

Exhalation Internal intercostals contract Volume decreases; pressure

(ribs in); diaphragm relaxes rises; air exits. Elastic lungs
(dome shape). assist.

O2 percentage Inhaled: 21%; Exhaled: 16%. O2 is absorbed from air into the
blood.

CO2 percentage Inhaled: 0.04%; Exhaled: 4%. CO2 from respiration is released
into the alveoli.

Exhaled air Warmer, saturated with water Body adds heat and moisture;
characteristics vapour, higher CO2%, lower O2%. O2 is taken up; CO2 is added.

Gas exchange O2: alveolar air blood; CO2: Each gas moves down its own
mechanism blood alveoli. concentration gradient.

Membrane Less than 1/1000 mm; two cell Ultra-thin barrier maximises the
thickness layers. speed of diffusion.

Alveolar fluid lining From blood plasma; O2 O2 must dissolve before it can
dissolves in it before entering diffuse across the alveolar wall.
blood.

Alveolus wall Wall made of cells — no cell Thin living membrane; not a
walls (plant feature). rigid plant-type structure.

MUST MEMORIZE

Topic What to Know

The mechanism that moves air in and out of the lungs,

Breathing definition
allowing gas exchange to take place.

External intercostals contract (ribs up); diaphragm

Inhalation sequence
contracts (flattens); volume ; pressure ; air enters.

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 Internal intercostals contract (ribs in); diaphragm relaxes
Exhalation sequence
(dome); volume ; pressure ; air exits.

≈700 million alveoli; ≈60 m² surface area; capillary-covered;

Alveoli facts
wall <1/1000 mm.

Gas percentages Inhaled: O2 21%, CO2 0.04%. Exhaled: O2 16%, CO2 4%.

O2: alveolar air blood. CO2: blood alveoli. Both move

Diffusion direction
from high to low concentration.

Dome-shaped muscle. Contracts flattens (inhalation).

Diaphragm
Relaxes dome (exhalation).

External: pull ribs up (inhalation). Internal: pull ribs down

Intercostal muscles
(exhalation).

Cartilage rings Keep trachea and bronchi open during breathing.

Pleural fluid Fills pleural cavity; prevents friction during breathing.

Sweep mucus and particles out of airways to prevent

Cilia
infection.