IGCSE Double Award Extended Coordinated Science
Biology 8.3 - Sexual Reproduction in Humans
Sexual Reproduction in Humans
You need to know the structure of the male and female reproductive system
Male Reproductive Organ
Penis : Contains a spongy material that hardens by filling with blood during an erection
Testes : Sperm is produced here. The male reproductive hormone, testosterone, is also made here.
Scrotum : Holds the testes. Can contract and relax to move the testes closer/further away from the body heat.
- This is important as the temperature must be exact for sperm cells.
Sperm Duct : Carries the produced sperm away from the scrotum
Prostate Gland and Seminal Vesicle : Produces fluids that are added to the sperm to make semen.
Urethra : The tube semen and urine leave the penis through
Female Reproductive Organ
Ovary : ova (egg cells) are stored in and released by the ovaries. Female hormone oestrogen is made here.
Oviduct : a.k.a. Fallopian tube - The tube which the ova travel through to reach the uterus.
- The oviduct is lined with cilliated cells which move the ova across.
Uterus : Commonly called the womb, is where the baby develops until birth
Uterus Lining : The soft inner wall of the uterus which hold the ova, and break down during menstruation.
Uterus Wall : The muscular wall of the womb which contract to push the baby out during birth.
Cervix : Separation between the vagina and the uterus. The cervix dilates when a baby is due to be delivered.
Vagina : Passage leading to the cervix which the penis can enter during sexual intercourse
Gametes and Fertilisation
You need to know what the human gametes are, and be able to compare them.
A gamete is a sex cell.
- They are haploid cells - meaning they have half the number of chromosomes in the DNA (more in Unit B9)
- Normal functioning cells in the body are diploid, meaning they have full DNA.
- They are haploid, so that they contain only half the DNA information from each of the parent.
- They two gametes fuse, each half DNA fuses, creating a new, genetically different offspring
- This is the case for sexual reproduction (Unit B8.1)
Male gametes are called sperm cells.
Female gametes are called ova - or ovum for singular (egg cells)
Sperm Ova
size Very small (smallest human cell) Very large (largest human cell)
shape
A pointy head contains the nucleus, A large circular cell with the nucleus in the middle
and a long tail for movement with a jelly-like outer coating
mobility Uses the tail to propel itself Cannot move on its own - only by the oviduct’s cilia
numbers A lot - 15 - 300 million sperm cells per ml of semen Very few - one or two released per month
production Can be produced until a certain age in the testes Finite numbers - egg cells cannot be created
All women are born with a fixed number of ova
You need to know what fertilisation is, and how it works in humans
- same with plant reproduction, fertilisation is the fusion of the two haploid nuclei of two gametes.
Every month, during the menstrual cycle, the female ovulates.
- This is when an ovum is released from an ovary.
- Usually only one egg is released, but sometimes it can be two.
- This is what leads to non-identical twins.
- The ovum reaches the uterus, and sticks to the inner lining.
- If a sperm reaches the ovum in time,
- The sperm head penetrates the ovum and the two nuclei fuse.
- The new fused cell now is diploid (contains full DNA) and is called the zygote
The Menstrual Cycle
You need to know the menstrual cycle.
The menstrual cycle is a monthly cycle that starts during puberty of females.
- Monthly changes in the uterus and the ovaries.
- During the ovulation period, the egg will be released from the ovary
- The egg embeds itself into the lining.
- The uterus lining begin to thicken in anticipation for the growth of a baby
- If the egg is not fertilised, the lining will break apart
- This is passed away along with blood during the menstruation period.
- Two days before and after the ovulation period (11th to 17th on the diagram)
- Is called the fertile window.
- This is where there is highest chance of fertilisation
- Since an ovum only lives about 36 hours after ovulation,
- And the sperm up to 3 days in the uterus.
- Fertilisation is rarer outside this period.
- When an egg is fertilised and the zygote starts to grow, the menstrual cycle stops.
Pregnancy
You need to know what stages during pregnancy.
- usually lasts 40 weeks, and is divided into three trimesters.
- After fertilisation, when the two cells nuclei fuse, and the egg cell becomes a zygote
- The single egg cell divides to form a ball of cells with identical DNA.
- The zygote then implants itself on the uterus wall and starts to grow into an embryo.
- The embryo start to grow, showing human features like limbs and face.
- As the embryo grows, eventually into a fetus, structures come into place that aid the growth of the baby.
- You need to know these structures and their functions
- Fetus : the baby - grown from the embryo
- usually called fetus from the 8th week after fertilisation.
- Uterus : the womb keeping the fetus
- Amniotic Fluid : Liquid that suspends the baby and prevents damage
- Amniotic Sac : The sac that contains the amniotic fluid.
- The sac bursts shortly before the birth of the baby.
- Umbilical Cord : The cord that connects the fetus to the placenta
- Placenta : The organ that facilitates the exchange of nutrients between
the fetus and the mother.
The Placenta
The placenta is a very important organ
It allows movement of nutrients from the mother to the fetus, and vice versa.
- this is done without their bloods physically mixing.
The umbilical cord joins the fetus to the placenta.
In the placenta, the fetus’s blood vessels and the mother’s vessels are placed
close enough so that nutrients can diffuse across.
You need to know which characteristics of placenta allow this function:
- Very thin permeable membrane
- Large surface area
- Very good blood supply
- Short distance between the vessels
You need to know which nutrients can be passed from and to the fetus.
Useful chemicals Harmful chemicals Waste chemicals
mother -> fetus mother -> fetus fetus -> mother
Glucose Viruses Urea
Amino acids Alcohol Carbon dioxide
Water Carbon monoxide Water
Minerals Nicotine
Oxygen Prescription Drugs
Breast Feeding
You need to know advantages and disadvantages of breastfeeding and formula milk.
Breast Feeding Formula Milk
Advantages - Contains antibodies from the mother - Less painful
- Correct proportions of nutrients - Anyone can feed the baby
- Correct temperature (body temp.) - May contain supplementary nutrients
- No risk of allergic reaction to the baby
- No additional chemicals
- No cost
- Builds mother-child bond
Disadvantages - Can be painful - More likely to develop illnesses
- Mother needs to be present - Expensive
- Damage beauty
HIV and AIDS
You need to know what HIV and AIDS is.
HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus, and this virus causes AIDS. ( -> )
AIDS stands for Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome.
HIV virus attacks the immune system (the defense system), disabling lymphocytes (white blood cells).
- This prevents them from making antibodies
- Which means the body is now prone to attack by many diseases.
- This is how AIDS kills. Not by attacking the body, but by extremely weakening the body to attacks.
Transmission of HIV
HIV travels in the body through body fluids (including blood and sexual fluids)
Methods of transmission includes:
- unprotected sexual intercourse with infected person
- drug use involving sharing unsterilised needle used by infected person
- transfusion of infected blood
- infected mother to fetus (virus can travel through the placenta)
- feeding a baby with milk from an infected mother
- unsterilised surgical instruments
Prevention of HIV and its transmission
- Protected (using condom) during sexual intercourse
- refuse sexual intercourse (abstinence)
- screen blood (for transfusion)
- use sterilised needles
- feed baby with bottled powdered milk (if mom has HIV)
- use sterilised surgical instruments.
The syllabus says you should be able to, (SO check if you can):
- Identify on diagrams of the male reproductive system: the testes, scrotum, sperm ducts, prostate gland, urethra and
- penis, and state the functions of these parts.
- Identify on diagrams of the female reproductive system: the ovaries, oviducts, uterus, cervix and vagina, and state the
- functions of these parts.
- Compare male and female gametes in terms of size, numbers and mobility.
- Describe fertilisation in terms of the joining of the nuclei of male gamete (sperm) and the female gamete (egg).
- Describe the menstrual cycle in terms of changes in the uterus and ovaries.
- Outline early development of the zygote simply in terms of the formation of a ball of cells that becomes implanted in the
wall of the uterus.
- Indicate the functions of the amniotic sac and amniotic fluid.
- Describe the function of the placenta and umbilical cord in relation to exchange of dissolved nutrients, gases and
excretory products (no structural details are required).
- Describe the advantages and disadvantages of breast-feeding compared with bottle-feeding using formula milk.
- Describe the methods of transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and the ways in which HIV/AIDS can be
prevented from spreading.
- Outline how HIV affects the immune system in a person with HIV/AIDS.