■ Basic EEE Interview Questions

Electrical & Electronics Engineering

A comprehensive guide covering fundamental concepts asked in campus placements, core company
interviews, and government exams for EEE graduates.

# Topic Questions

1 Basic Electrical Fundamentals 15

2 AC Circuits & Power Systems 12

3 Transformers 10

4 DC Machines 10

5 AC Machines (Induction & Synchronous) 10

6 Power Electronics 8

7 Control Systems 8

8 Electrical Measurements 7

9 Power Systems 8

10 Electronics & Semiconductors 10

1. Basic Electrical Fundamentals

Q: What is Ohm's Law?

Ans: Ohm's Law states that the current (I) flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
voltage (V) across it and inversely proportional to its resistance (R): V = IR. It holds true for linear,
passive elements at constant temperature.

Q: What is the difference between EMF and terminal voltage?

Ans: EMF (Electromotive Force) is the total voltage generated by a source (battery/generator) under
no-load conditions. Terminal voltage is the actual voltage available at the terminals under load, which is
less than EMF due to the internal resistance drop: V = EMF - I×r.

Q: State Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL) and Current Law (KCL).

Ans: KVL: The algebraic sum of all voltages around any closed loop in a circuit is zero. KCL: The
algebraic sum of all currents entering a node (junction) is zero — i.e., current entering a node equals
current leaving it.

Q: What is the difference between AC and DC?

Ans: DC (Direct Current) flows in one direction only with constant magnitude (e.g., batteries). AC
(Alternating Current) periodically reverses direction and varies sinusoidally with time (e.g., household
supply at 50 Hz in India). AC is preferred for power transmission due to easy voltage transformation.

Q: Define resistance, inductance, and capacitance.

Ans: Resistance (R, ohms Ω): Opposition to current flow, dissipates energy as heat. Inductance (L,
henries H): Property of a coil to oppose change in current by storing energy in a magnetic field.
Capacitance (C, farads F): Ability to store electrical energy in an electric field between two conductors.

Q: What is electric power? What are its units?

Ans: Electric power is the rate of doing electrical work or the rate of energy transfer: P = V × I = I²R =
V²/R. The unit is Watt (W). In AC circuits, we distinguish between active power (W), reactive power
(VAR), and apparent power (VA).

Q: What is the difference between energy and power?

Ans: Power is the rate of energy consumption or generation (P = Energy/Time). Energy = Power ×
Time. The unit of energy is Joule (J) or kilowatt-hour (kWh) for electrical billing purposes. 1 kWh = 3.6
MJ.

Q: What is a conductor, insulator, and semiconductor?

Ans: Conductor: Material with very low resistivity that allows free flow of electrons (e.g., copper,
aluminium). Insulator: Material with very high resistivity that blocks current (e.g., rubber, PVC).
Semiconductor: Material with resistivity between conductors and insulators, whose conductivity can be
controlled (e.g., silicon, germanium).

Q: What is Faraday's Law of Electromagnetic Induction?

Ans: Faraday's First Law: Whenever the magnetic flux linking a conductor changes, an EMF is induced
in the conductor. Faraday's Second Law: The magnitude of the induced EMF is proportional to the rate
of change of flux linkage: e = -N × (dΦ/dt).

Q: What is Lenz's Law?

 Ans: Lenz's Law states that the direction of an induced EMF (or current) is always such as to oppose
the cause that produces it. It is a consequence of the law of conservation of energy and provides the
negative sign in Faraday's equation.

Q: Define power factor. Why is it important?

Ans: Power factor (PF) is the cosine of the phase angle between voltage and current in an AC circuit:
PF = cos φ = Active Power (W) / Apparent Power (VA). It ranges from 0 to 1. A low power factor means
more current is drawn for the same real power, increasing transmission losses and requiring larger
equipment.

Q: What is the skin effect?

Ans: At high frequencies, AC current tends to flow near the surface (skin) of a conductor rather than
through the entire cross-section. This effectively reduces the conductor's cross-section, increasing its
resistance. The depth at which current density falls to 1/e of surface value is called skin depth.

Q: What is the difference between series and parallel circuits?

Ans: In a series circuit, components are connected end-to-end — same current flows through all,
voltages add up, total resistance = R1+R2+... In a parallel circuit, components share the same voltage
— currents add up, total resistance = 1/(1/R1 + 1/R2 + ...).

Q: What are active and passive elements?

Ans: Active elements can supply energy to the circuit (e.g., voltage sources, current sources,
transistors, op-amps). Passive elements only consume or store energy (e.g., resistors, capacitors,
inductors) and cannot amplify signals.

Q: State the Superposition Theorem.

Ans: In a linear circuit with multiple independent sources, the response (voltage or current) in any
branch is the algebraic sum of responses caused by each independent source acting alone, with all
other independent sources replaced by their internal resistances.
2. AC Circuits & Power Systems

Q: What is RMS value? Why is it used?

Ans: RMS (Root Mean Square) is the effective value of an AC quantity — it produces the same heating
effect as a DC value of the same magnitude. For a sinusoidal wave: V_rms = V_peak / √2. It is used in
power calculations because P = V_rms × I_rms.

Q: What is the difference between real power, reactive power, and apparent power?
Ans: Real (Active) Power (P, Watts): Actual power consumed doing useful work. Reactive Power (Q,
VAR): Power stored and returned by inductors/capacitors — does no useful work. Apparent Power (S,
VA): Total power supplied = √(P² + Q²). Relation: S = P + jQ.

Q: What is resonance in an RLC circuit?

Ans: Resonance occurs when the inductive reactance equals the capacitive reactance (XL = XC),
causing them to cancel out. The circuit behaves purely resistively, current is maximum (series
resonance), and impedance is minimum. Resonant frequency: f■ = 1/(2π√LC).

Q: What is the difference between star (Y) and delta (∆) connections?
Ans: Star connection: Three phases connected to a common neutral point. Line voltage = √3 × Phase
voltage; Line current = Phase current. Delta connection: Phases connected in a closed loop with no
neutral. Line voltage = Phase voltage; Line current = √3 × Phase current.

Q: What is meant by lagging and leading power factor?

Ans: Lagging PF: Current lags behind voltage — occurs in inductive loads (motors, transformers).
Leading PF: Current leads voltage — occurs in capacitive loads. Unity PF means current and voltage
are in phase, which is the most efficient condition.

Q: How is power factor improved?

Ans: Power factor is improved (corrected) by adding capacitor banks in parallel with inductive loads.
Capacitors supply reactive power locally, reducing the reactive component drawn from the supply.
Synchronous condensers and static VAR compensators (SVC) are also used.

Q: What is impedance? How is it calculated?

Ans: Impedance (Z) is the total opposition to AC current flow, combining resistance and reactance: Z =
R + jX, where X = XL - XC. Magnitude |Z| = √(R² + X²), phase angle φ = arctan(X/R). Unit is ohms (Ω).

Q: What is the significance of frequency in power systems?

Ans: Standard frequency in India is 50 Hz (60 Hz in USA). Frequency must be maintained strictly for
synchronous operation of generators, correct speed of AC motors, and proper functioning of
frequency-sensitive equipment. Frequency deviation indicates load-generation imbalance.

Q: Explain the concept of voltage regulation.

Ans: Voltage regulation (VR) is the percentage change in terminal voltage from no-load to full-load: VR
= (V_no-load - V_full-load) / V_full-load × 100%. Lower VR is desirable as it indicates stable voltage
supply.

Q: What is a phasor? Why are phasors used?

Ans: A phasor is a rotating vector that represents a sinusoidal quantity by its magnitude and phase
angle at a given frequency. Phasors simplify AC circuit analysis by converting differential equations into
algebraic equations using complex numbers.
Q: What is the difference between single-phase and three-phase systems?
Ans: Single-phase: Uses one AC voltage and is common for residential loads. Three-phase: Uses three
AC voltages 120° apart — more efficient for power transmission, provides smoother power delivery, and
is standard for industrial motors. Three-phase systems save ~25% conductor material vs single-phase
for same power.

Q: Define form factor and peak factor of a waveform.

Ans: Form Factor = RMS value / Average value (= 1.11 for a sine wave). Peak Factor (Crest Factor) =
Peak value / RMS value (= 1.414 = √2 for a sine wave). These factors help compare different waveform
shapes.
3. Transformers

Q: What is a transformer and on what principle does it work?

Ans: A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers electrical energy between circuits through
electromagnetic induction, while changing voltage and current levels. It works on Faraday's principle of
mutual induction — changing flux in primary induces EMF in secondary.

Q: What is the EMF equation of a transformer?

Ans: E = 4.44 × f × N × Φ_max, where E = induced EMF (V), f = frequency (Hz), N = number of turns,
Φ_max = maximum flux (Wb). For a 1:1 transformer, primary and secondary EMFs are equal.

Q: What are the losses in a transformer?

Ans: Core (Iron) losses: Hysteresis loss (due to magnetic domain reversal) and Eddy current loss (due
to circulating currents in core). These are constant regardless of load. Copper (I²R) losses: Occur in
primary and secondary windings due to current flow — vary with the square of load current.

Q: What is the condition for maximum efficiency of a transformer?

Ans: Transformer efficiency is maximum when copper losses equal iron (core) losses: I²R = P_core.
This typically occurs at 50–75% of full load for power transformers, as they are designed to operate at
maximum efficiency near average load.

Q: What is the difference between core-type and shell-type transformers?

Ans: Core-type: Windings surround the core — two limbs, better cooling, easier insulation, used for
high-voltage applications. Shell-type: Core surrounds the windings — three limbs, better mechanical
support, better for high-current low-voltage applications.

Q: What is an auto-transformer? What are its advantages and disadvantages?

Ans: An auto-transformer has a single winding with a tap — part of winding is shared by both primary
and secondary. Advantages: Smaller, lighter, more efficient, lower cost. Disadvantage: No electrical
isolation between primary and secondary, making it unsafe for some applications.

Q: What is meant by voltage ratio and turns ratio?

Ans: Turns ratio (a) = N1/N2 = V1/V2 = I2/I1. A step-up transformer has N2 > N1 (voltage increases,
current decreases). A step-down transformer has N2 < N1 (voltage decreases, current increases).
Power is conserved (minus losses).

Q: Why is transformer core made of silicon steel laminations?

Ans: Silicon steel has high magnetic permeability and low hysteresis loss. Laminating the core (thin
sheets insulated from each other) reduces eddy current losses by restricting the path of circulating
currents, thereby improving efficiency.

Q: What is the open-circuit and short-circuit test in transformers?

Ans: Open-Circuit (OC) test: Secondary open, rated voltage applied to primary — measures core losses
and magnetizing branch parameters. Short-Circuit (SC) test: Secondary short-circuited, reduced voltage
applied — measures copper losses and series impedance parameters.

Q: What is an ideal transformer?

Ans: An ideal transformer has: (1) no winding resistance, (2) no leakage flux, (3) no core losses, (4)
infinite permeability core. All flux links both windings and efficiency = 100%. Real transformers are
designed to approach ideal behavior as closely as possible.
4. DC Machines

Q: What is the principle of operation of a DC motor?

Ans: A DC motor works on the principle that a current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field
experiences a mechanical force (Lorentz force): F = BIL. The interaction between the armature current
and the field flux produces torque, causing the armature to rotate.

Q: What is back EMF in a DC motor? What is its significance?

Ans: When the armature rotates, it acts like a generator and produces an EMF opposing the supply
voltage — this is back EMF (Eb = ΦNZP/60A). It is significant because: (1) it limits armature current, (2)
it is proportional to speed, (3) it acts as an automatic speed regulator — as load increases, speed
drops, back EMF decreases, allowing more current and torque.

Q: What are the types of DC motors? How do they differ?

Ans: Series motor: Field winding in series — high starting torque, speed varies widely with load, never
run on no-load. Shunt motor: Field winding in parallel — nearly constant speed, moderate starting
torque, most common. Compound motor: Combination of both — combines high starting torque with
better speed regulation.

Q: What is the speed control method for DC motors?

Ans: Three methods: (1) Armature resistance control — insert resistance in armature circuit, reduces
speed below base, wasteful. (2) Field flux control — vary field current to control flux, gives speed above
base speed. (3) Armature voltage control — vary supply voltage, most efficient, used in modern drives.

Q: What is the principle of a DC generator?

Ans: A DC generator works on Faraday's Law — when a conductor moves through a magnetic field, an
EMF is induced. The commutator and brushes convert the alternating EMF generated in the rotating
armature into a unidirectional (DC) output at the terminals.

Q: What is armature reaction in DC machines?

Ans: Armature reaction is the effect of armature magnetic flux on the main field flux. It distorts and
weakens the main field, shifts the magnetic neutral axis, and can cause commutation problems. It is
minimized using interpoles (commutating poles) and compensating windings.

Q: What is the function of a commutator in a DC machine?

Ans: The commutator is a mechanical rectifier — it converts the AC generated in the armature
conductors to DC at the output terminals of a generator, or converts applied DC to AC in the armature of
a motor to maintain continuous torque in one direction.

Q: What is the difference between lap winding and wave winding?

Ans: Lap winding: Number of parallel paths (A) = number of poles (P) — used for high current, low
voltage applications. Wave winding: A = 2 always, regardless of poles — used for high voltage, low
current applications.

Q: What is meant by critical resistance in a DC shunt generator?

Ans: Critical field resistance is the maximum field circuit resistance at which a DC shunt generator can
just excite (build up voltage) at a given speed. If field resistance exceeds this value, the generator fails
to build up voltage.

Q: What are the losses in a DC machine?

Ans: Copper losses: I²R in armature, field, and brush contact resistances. Core losses: Hysteresis and
eddy current losses in armature core. Mechanical losses: Friction (bearing, brush) and windage (air
resistance) losses. Stray load losses: Miscellaneous losses not accounted above.
5. AC Machines (Induction & Synchronous)

Q: What is the principle of an induction motor?

Ans: A 3-phase induction motor works on the principle of electromagnetic induction. The 3-phase stator
winding creates a rotating magnetic field (RMF) at synchronous speed. This RMF cuts the rotor
conductors, inducing EMF and current in them. The resulting force on current-carrying rotor conductors
in the magnetic field creates torque.

Q: What is slip in an induction motor?

Ans: Slip (s) is the difference between synchronous speed (Ns) and rotor speed (Nr), expressed as a
fraction of synchronous speed: s = (Ns - Nr)/Ns. At no-load, slip ≈ 0.1–0.5%. At full load, slip ≈ 3–5%. At
standstill, s = 1. The rotor can never reach synchronous speed (s = 0) under load.

Q: Why can't an induction motor run at synchronous speed?

Ans: If the rotor runs at synchronous speed, there is no relative motion between the rotor and the
rotating magnetic field, so no EMF is induced, no current flows in the rotor, and no torque is produced.
Thus the motor would decelerate below synchronous speed.

Q: What is the difference between squirrel cage and slip ring (wound rotor) induction motors?
Ans: Squirrel cage: Rotor has short-circuited aluminum/copper bars — simple, robust, low cost, low
maintenance, but poor starting torque and no speed control. Slip ring (Wound rotor): Rotor has 3-phase
winding with external resistance via slip rings — better starting torque, adjustable speed, but more
complex and expensive.

Q: What is the synchronous speed formula?

Ans: Ns = 120f/P, where Ns = synchronous speed (RPM), f = supply frequency (Hz), P = number of
poles. For a 4-pole motor at 50 Hz: Ns = 120×50/4 = 1500 RPM.

Q: What is a synchronous motor? How does it differ from an induction motor?

Ans: A synchronous motor rotates exactly at synchronous speed (no slip) and requires DC excitation for
its rotor field. It is not self-starting. Unlike induction motors, synchronous motors can operate at leading,
lagging, or unity power factor — making them useful for power factor correction.

Q: What happens when a synchronous motor is over-excited?

Ans: An over-excited synchronous motor draws leading current from the supply, acting like a capacitor.
It generates reactive power and improves power factor of the system. When used solely for this purpose
(no mechanical load), it is called a synchronous condenser.

Q: What are the methods to start a 3-phase induction motor?

Ans: Direct-On-Line (DOL): Full voltage applied directly — simple but high starting current (6–8× full
load). Star-Delta starter: Starts in star (reduced voltage), switches to delta — reduces starting current to
1/3. Auto-transformer starter: Variable voltage reduction. Soft starter / VFD: Electronic speed control
from zero to rated speed.

Q: What is cogging and crawling in induction motors?

Ans: Cogging: Motor refuses to start due to magnetic locking between stator and rotor slots (when slot
numbers are equal). Crawling: Motor runs stably at 1/7th of synchronous speed due to 7th harmonic
torque component. Both are undesirable phenomena in squirrel cage motors and are minimized by
skewing rotor slots.
Q: What is the effect of voltage and frequency variation on induction motor performance?
Ans: Reduced voltage: Lower torque (T ∝ V²), higher slip, increased current to maintain torque,
overheating risk. Reduced frequency: Lower synchronous speed, higher flux (possible saturation).
VFDs control both V and f proportionally (V/f = constant) for efficient speed control.
6. Power Electronics

Q: What is a thyristor (SCR)? How does it work?

Ans: A thyristor (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) is a 4-layer PNPN semiconductor device with three
terminals: Anode, Cathode, and Gate. It conducts when: (1) anode is positive w.r.t. cathode AND (2) a
gate trigger pulse is applied. Once triggered, it stays ON even after gate signal is removed (latching
action). It turns OFF only when anode current falls below holding current.

Q: What is the difference between a diode, BJT, MOSFET, and IGBT?

Ans: Diode: 2-terminal, allows current in one direction only (rectification). BJT: Current-controlled
switch, moderate speed, high current capability. MOSFET: Voltage-controlled, very fast switching, used
in high-frequency applications. IGBT: Combines MOSFET's easy voltage control with BJT's high current
capability — widely used in inverters, drives, and UPS systems.

Q: What is a rectifier? What are its types?

Ans: A rectifier converts AC to DC. Types: Half-wave rectifier (1 diode, 50% efficiency), Full-wave
centre-tap rectifier (2 diodes), Full-wave bridge rectifier (4 diodes, ~81% efficiency). Three-phase
rectifiers provide smoother DC output and are used in industrial power supplies.

Q: What is an inverter in power electronics?

Ans: An inverter converts DC to AC. It uses switching devices (IGBTs/MOSFETs) controlled by PWM
(Pulse Width Modulation) to synthesize AC output. Applications: Variable Frequency Drives (VFD) for
motor control, UPS systems, solar inverters, HVDC converter stations.

Q: What is PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)?

Ans: PWM is a technique to control the average value of voltage/current delivered to a load by varying
the duty cycle (ratio of ON time to total period) of a switching signal. Higher duty cycle = higher average
voltage. PWM is used in motor drives, DC-DC converters, and power amplifiers.

Q: What are DC-DC converters? Name the types.

Ans: DC-DC converters change one DC voltage level to another. Types: Buck converter (step-down):
Output voltage < Input voltage. Boost converter (step-up): Output voltage > Input voltage. Buck-Boost:
Can step up or step down. Isolated types: Flyback, Forward, Push-Pull converters.

Q: What is the difference between controlled and uncontrolled rectifiers?

Ans: Uncontrolled rectifier: Uses diodes — output DC voltage is fixed, depends only on AC input.
Controlled rectifier: Uses thyristors (SCRs) — output DC voltage is variable, controlled by the firing
angle (α) of the thyristors. Used in DC drives and HVDC systems.

Q: What is a FACTS device? Give examples.

Ans: FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) devices use power electronics to control power flow
in AC transmission lines. Examples: SVC (Static VAR Compensator) — reactive power control;
STATCOM — voltage regulation; TCSC (Thyristor Controlled Series Compensator) — series
impedance control; UPFC — unified power flow controller.
7. Control Systems

Q: What is the difference between open-loop and closed-loop control systems?

Ans: Open-loop: Output has no effect on the input — no feedback, simpler but less accurate (e.g.,
washing machine timer). Closed-loop (feedback): Output is measured and compared with desired value
— error signal corrects the output, more accurate and stable (e.g., thermostat, speed governor).

Q: What is a transfer function?

Ans: Transfer function is the ratio of Laplace transform of output to Laplace transform of input, with all
initial conditions zero: G(s) = Y(s)/X(s). It characterizes the dynamic behavior of a linear time-invariant
(LTI) system and is used to analyze stability, frequency response, and transient response.

Q: What is the Laplace transform and why is it used in control systems?

Ans: The Laplace transform converts differential equations (time domain) into algebraic equations
(s-domain), greatly simplifying analysis. It allows use of transfer functions, block diagram algebra, and
frequency domain analysis techniques like Bode plots and root locus.

Q: What is a PID controller? Explain each component.

Ans: PID = Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller. P (Proportional): Output proportional to error —
reduces error but may leave steady-state error. I (Integral): Integrates error over time — eliminates
steady-state error. D (Derivative): Responds to rate of error change — improves transient response,
reduces overshoot. Combined, they provide robust control for most industrial processes.

Q: What is stability in a control system? State Routh-Hurwitz criterion.

Ans: A system is stable if its output returns to equilibrium after a disturbance (bounded input → bounded
output). Routh-Hurwitz criterion: A system is stable if all elements in the first column of the Routh array
are positive. The number of sign changes indicates the number of poles in the right half of the s-plane.

Q: What is Bode plot? What information does it give?

Ans: A Bode plot consists of two graphs: magnitude (in dB) vs frequency and phase angle (°) vs
frequency, both plotted on a logarithmic frequency scale. It gives: gain margin, phase margin, gain
crossover frequency, phase crossover frequency, and bandwidth — all useful for stability analysis and
controller design.

Q: What is the root locus technique?

Ans: Root locus is a graphical method that shows how the closed-loop poles of a system move in the
s-plane as a parameter (usually gain K) varies from 0 to ∞. It helps in controller design by selecting gain
values to achieve desired transient response characteristics like damping ratio and natural frequency.

Q: Define gain margin and phase margin.

Ans: Gain Margin (GM): Additional gain (in dB) that can be added before the system becomes unstable
— measured at the phase crossover frequency (where phase = -180°). Phase Margin (PM): Additional
phase lag tolerable before instability — measured at the gain crossover frequency (where |G(jω)| = 1 or
0 dB). Both should be positive for stability.
8. Electrical Measurements

Q: What is the difference between accuracy and precision in measurements?

Ans: Accuracy: Closeness of measured value to the true value — related to systematic errors.
Precision: Repeatability of measurements — how consistent results are regardless of whether they are
close to the true value. A measurement can be precise but not accurate, or accurate but not precise.

Q: What is a Wheatstone bridge? What is it used for?

Ans: A Wheatstone bridge is a circuit with four resistors arranged in a diamond configuration with a
galvanometer across the middle. At balance condition: R1/R2 = R3/R4, the galvanometer reads zero. It
is used to accurately measure unknown resistances and forms the basis of many sensor circuits.

Q: What is the difference between ammeter, voltmeter, and wattmeter connections?

Ans: Ammeter: Connected in series — has very low resistance to minimize voltage drop. Voltmeter:
Connected in parallel — has very high resistance to minimize current drawn. Wattmeter: Has two coils
— current coil in series with load, pressure coil in parallel — measures real power as P = VI cos φ.

Q: What is a CT (Current Transformer) and PT (Potential Transformer)?

Ans: CT (Current Transformer): Steps down high line currents to standard 5A for metering and
protection relays. Never open-circuit a CT with primary energized — dangerous high voltage develops.
PT (Potential Transformer): Steps down high voltages to standard 110V for metering and protection. CT
and PT provide isolation and scaling.

Q: What is the principle of moving coil and moving iron instruments?

Ans: Moving Coil: Current-carrying coil in a permanent magnet field — deflection proportional to current,
used for DC measurements only, more accurate. Moving Iron: Iron vane attracted by a coil — deflection
proportional to square of current, works on both AC and DC, suitable for power frequency
measurements.

Q: What is meant by loading effect in measurements?

Ans: Loading effect occurs when the measuring instrument affects the quantity being measured. A
voltmeter with finite resistance draws current, reducing the measured voltage. An ammeter with
non-zero resistance adds impedance, reducing measured current. Ideal instruments have infinite input
impedance (voltmeter) or zero impedance (ammeter).

Q: What is an energy meter? How does it work?

Ans: An energy meter (kWh meter) measures electrical energy consumed. The conventional induction
type has: (1) voltage coil creating alternating flux, (2) current coil, (3) aluminum disc that rotates due to
eddy current interaction — rotation is proportional to energy consumed. Modern digital meters use
electronic pulse counting.
9. Power Systems

Q: What are the components of a power system?

Ans: A power system consists of: Generation (thermal, hydro, nuclear, solar, wind power plants),
Transmission (high-voltage lines 132kV–765kV), Sub-transmission (33kV–132kV), Distribution (11kV
primary, 415V/230V secondary to consumers), and Load (industrial, commercial, residential).
Transformers interconnect these voltage levels.

Q: Why is electrical power transmitted at high voltage?

Ans: At high voltage, current is low (P = VI), reducing I²R transmission losses. For example, transmitting
1 MW at 400kV vs 11kV reduces current by 36× and losses by 1300×. This is why step-up transformers
are used at generating stations and step-down at receiving ends.

Q: What is a per-unit system in power systems?

Ans: The per-unit (pu) system expresses all quantities (voltage, current, power, impedance) as fractions
of chosen base values. It simplifies calculations in multi-voltage systems, eliminates the need to refer
values across transformers, and allows direct comparison of machines of different ratings.

Q: What is a circuit breaker? How does it differ from a fuse?

Ans: Circuit breaker: Automatically interrupts fault current and can be reset — used for repeated
operation and remote switching. Fuse: One-time protection device that melts and breaks the circuit on
overcurrent — must be replaced after operation. Circuit breakers are preferred for high-voltage
systems; fuses for low-cost protection in distribution.

Q: What are symmetrical and asymmetrical faults in power systems?

Ans: Symmetrical fault: Three-phase fault (3φ short circuit) — most severe, all three phases equally
affected, used for switchgear rating. Asymmetrical faults: Single line-to-ground (most common, ~70% of
faults), line-to-line, double line-to-ground — analyzed using symmetrical components (positive,
negative, zero sequence).

Q: What is load flow (power flow) analysis?

Ans: Load flow analysis determines voltage magnitudes, phase angles, real and reactive power flows in
all buses and lines under steady-state conditions. It is essential for system planning, operation, and
identifying overloaded lines. Methods include Gauss-Seidel, Newton-Raphson, and Fast Decoupled
load flow.

Q: What is the purpose of earthing (grounding) in electrical systems?

Ans: Earthing provides: (1) Safety — fault current flows to earth instead of through a person, (2)
Equipment protection — limits overvoltages, (3) Stable reference potential for the system. Types include
solid earthing, resistance earthing, reactance earthing, and isolated neutral systems.

Q: What is the difference between overhead lines and underground cables?

Ans: Overhead lines: Lower cost, easier fault detection and repair, affected by weather, higher charging
current. Underground cables: Higher cost, immune to weather, better aesthetics, used in cities, difficult
fault location, higher capacitance leading to charging current issues at high voltages.
10. Electronics & Semiconductors

Q: What is a p-n junction? How is it formed?

Ans: A p-n junction forms when p-type (acceptor-doped) and n-type (donor-doped) semiconductors are
joined. Majority carriers diffuse across, leaving behind immobile ions, creating a depletion region with a
built-in electric field (barrier potential). This allows current in only one direction (rectification).

Q: What is the difference between forward and reverse bias?

Ans: Forward bias: Positive terminal to p-side — reduces barrier, allows large current flow (diode ON,
V_threshold ≈ 0.7V for silicon). Reverse bias: Positive terminal to n-side — increases barrier, allows
only small leakage current (diode OFF) until breakdown voltage is reached.

Q: What is a Zener diode and what is it used for?

Ans: A Zener diode is a heavily doped p-n junction designed to operate in reverse breakdown at a
precise Zener voltage (Vz). It maintains constant voltage across itself despite varying current — used as
a voltage reference and for voltage regulation in power supplies.

Q: What are the configurations of a BJT transistor?

Ans: Three configurations: Common Emitter (CE) — most widely used, high voltage and current gain,
inverts signal; Common Base (CB) — high voltage gain, low current gain, no phase inversion, best
high-frequency performance; Common Collector (CC / Emitter Follower) — unity voltage gain, high
current gain, used for impedance matching.

Q: What is an operational amplifier (op-amp)?

Ans: An op-amp is a high-gain DC differential amplifier with very high input impedance and very low
output impedance. Ideal op-amp: infinite gain, infinite input impedance, zero output impedance, infinite
bandwidth. With negative feedback, it performs operations like amplification, integration, differentiation,
addition, and comparison.

Q: What is the difference between analog and digital signals?

Ans: Analog signal: Continuous in time and amplitude — can take any value (e.g., audio, temperature
sensor output). Digital signal: Discrete levels, usually 0 (LOW) or 1 (HIGH) — more noise-immune,
easier to process and store (e.g., computer data). ADC converts analog to digital; DAC converts digital
to analog.

Q: What is a logic gate? Name the basic gates.

Ans: A logic gate is a digital circuit that performs a Boolean logic operation on binary inputs to produce a
binary output. Basic gates: AND (output 1 only if all inputs are 1), OR (output 1 if any input is 1), NOT
(inverts input), NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR. NAND and NOR are universal gates — any logic function
can be built from them alone.

Q: What is the difference between MOSFET and BJT?

Ans: BJT: Current-controlled (base current controls collector current), bipolar (uses both electrons and
holes), lower input impedance, better for analog amplification. MOSFET: Voltage-controlled (gate
voltage controls drain current), unipolar, very high input impedance (gate oxide), faster switching,
dominates in digital ICs and power electronics.

Q: What is meant by TTL and CMOS logic families?

Ans: TTL (Transistor-Transistor Logic): Uses BJTs, operates at 5V, faster but higher power
consumption, not suitable for battery operation. CMOS (Complementary MOS): Uses paired PMOS and
 NMOS transistors, very low static power dissipation, wide supply range (1.2V–18V), scalable —
dominant technology in modern digital ICs and microprocessors.

Q: What is an oscilloscope used for?

Ans: An oscilloscope is a test instrument that displays electrical signals as waveforms on a screen
(voltage vs time). It is used to measure: signal amplitude, frequency, period, phase difference, rise/fall
time, duty cycle, and to analyze waveform shape, noise, and distortion. Essential in electronics
troubleshooting and design.
Quick Interview Tips for EEE Students

✔ Revise fundamentals thoroughly

Most interviewers test Ohm's Law, transformer principles, motor types, and basic circuit theorems.
Ensure you can derive key formulas, not just state them.

✔ Know your final year project inside-out

Be ready to explain every component, its working, and why you chose it. Interviewers often probe
project details deeply.

✔ Connect theory to applications

When answering, relate concepts to real-world applications (e.g., 'Back EMF in motors is used in
regenerative braking in electric vehicles').

✔ Practice numerical problems

For power, transformer turns ratio, slip, efficiency — practice calculations. Many technical interviews
include quick numerical questions.

✔ Be honest about what you don't know

It is better to say 'I am not sure, but I think...' than to bluff. Interviewers respect intellectual honesty and
logical thinking more than memorized answers.

✔ Prepare for HR questions too

Why EEE? Where do you see yourself in 5 years? Teamwork examples. Strengths/weaknesses.
Practice concise, confident answers.

Best of luck with your EEE interviews! Prepared with dedication and clarity, you will succeed. ■