Punctuation

Capital letters (B, D) and full stops (.)

We use capital letters to mark the beginning of a sentence, and we use full stops to
mark the end of a sentence:
We went to France last summer. We were really surprised that it was so easy to travel on
the motorways.
The Football World Cup takes place every four years. The next World Cup will be held in
South Africa. In 2006 it was held in Germany.

We also use capital letters at the beginning of proper nouns. Proper nouns include
personal names (including titles before names), nationalities and languages, days of
the week and months of the year, public holidays as well as geographical places:
Dr David James is the consultant at Leeds City Hospital.
They are planning a long holiday in New Zealand.
Can she speak Japanese?
The next meeting of the group will take place on Thursday.
What plans do you have for the Chinese New Year?

We use capital letters for the titles of books, magazines, newspapers, plays, and
music:
‘Oliver’ is a musical based on the novel ‘Oliver Twist’ by Charles Dickens.
The Straits Times is a daily English-language newspaper in Singapore.
They are performing Beethoven’s Sixth Symphony.

In addition to closing sentences, we also use full stops in initials for personal names:
G. W. Dwyer
David A. Johnston, Accountant
Full stops are also used after abbreviations, although this practice is becoming less
common:

Arr. (arrival) etc. (etcetera)

Dr. (doctor) Prof. (Professor)

Question marks (?) and exclamation marks (!)

We use question marks to make clear that what is said is a question. When we use
a question mark, we do not use a full stop:
Why do they make so many mistakes?
A:
So you’re Harry’s cousin?
B:
Yes. That’s right.

We use exclamation marks to indicate an exclamative clause or expression in

informal writing. When we want to emphasize something in informal writing, we
sometimes use more than one exclamation mark:
Listen!
Oh no!!! Please don’t ask me to phone her. She’ll talk for hours!!

Commas (,)
We use commas to separate a list of similar words or phrases:
It’s important to write in clear, simple, accurate words.
They were more friendly, talkative, and open than when we met them.
We do not normally use a comma before and at the end of a list of single words:
They traveled through Oman, UAE, Qatar, Bahrain, and Kuwait.

English does use a comma in lists before and:

We took bread, cheese, and fruit with us.

We use commas to separate words or phrases that mark where the voice would
pause slightly:
I can’t tell you now. However, everything will be revealed tomorrow at midday.
We had, in fact, lost all of our money.
James, our guide, will accompany you on the boat across to the island.

Separating clauses with commas

When main clauses are separated by and, or, but, we don’t normally use a comma
if the clauses have the same subject. However, we sometimes use commas if the
clauses have different subjects:
They were very friendly and invited us to their house in Basrah. (same subject)
Footballers these days earn more money but they are fitter and play many more
matches. (same subject)
It was an expensive hotel in the center of Stockholm, but we decided it was worth the
money. (different subjects)

When a subordinate clause comes before the main clause, we commonly use a
comma to separate the clauses. However, we do not always do this in short
sentences:
If you get lost in the city center, please don’t hesitate to text us or phone us.
If you get lost just phone us.

When we use subordinate or non-finite comment clauses to give further details or

more information, we commonly use commas to separate the clauses:
You do need to wear a darker jacket, if I may say so.
To be honest, I thought they were very very rude.

Commas and relative clauses

We use commas to mark non-defining clauses. Such clauses normally add extra,
non-essential information about the noun or noun phrase:
The ambulance, which arrived after just five minutes, took three people to the hospital
immediately.
Hong Kong, where the first ASEAN meeting was held, is a very different city now.

The same is true for non-finite clauses:

The storm, lasting as it did for several days, caused serious damage to villages near the
coast.

Warning:
We don’t use commas to mark defining clauses:
Barcelona was the Spanish city that was selected for the Olympic Games.
Not: … the Spanish city, that was selected …

Commas and speech forms

We commonly separate tags and yes-no responses with commas:
They are going to the party, aren’t they?
No, thank you. I’ve already eaten too much.

We also usually separate vocatives, discourse markers and interjections with

commas:
Open the door for them, Aymen, can you. Thanks. (vocative)
Well, what do you think we should do about it? (discourse marker)
Wow, that sounds really exciting. (interjection)

We use commas to show that direct speech is following or has just occurred:
He said in his opening speech, ‘Now is the time to plan for the future.’ (or He said in his
opening speech: ‘Now is the time to plan for the future.’)

When the direct speech is first, we use a comma before the closing of the quotation
marks:
‘We don’t want to go on holiday to the same place every year,’ he said impatiently.

Colons (:) and semi-colons (;)

We use colons to introduce lists:
There are three main reasons for the success of the government: economic, social and
political.
We also use colons to indicate a subtitle or to indicate a subdivision of a topic:
Life in Provence: A Personal View
We often use colons to introduce direct speech:
Then he said: ‘I really cannot help you in any way.’
We commonly use a colon between sentences when the second sentence explains
or justifies the first sentence:
Try to keep your flat clean and tidy: it will sell more easily.
We use semi-colons instead of full stops to separate two main clauses. In such
cases, the clauses are related in meaning but are separated grammatically:
Spanish is spoken throughout South America; in Brazil the main language is Portuguese.
Semi-colons are not commonly used in contemporary English. Full stops and
commas are more common.
Quotation marks (‘…’ or “…”)
Quotation marks in English are ‘…’ or “…”. In direct speech, we enclose what is
said within a pair of single or double quotation marks, although single quotation
marks are becoming more common. Direct speech begins with a capital letter and
can be preceded by a comma or a colon:
She said, “Where can we find a nice Indian restaurant?” (or She said: ‘Where can we
find a nice Indian restaurant?’)
We can put the reporting clause in three different positions. Note the position of
commas and full stops here:
The fitness trainer said, ‘Don’t try to do too much when you begin.’ (quotation mark after
comma introducing speech and after full stop)
‘Don’t try to do too much when you begin,’ the fitness trainer said. (comma before
closing quotation mark)
‘Don’t try to do too much,’ the fitness trainer said, ‘when you begin.’ (commas separating
the reporting clause)
When we use direct speech inside direct speech, we use either single quotation
marks inside double quotation marks, or double quotation marks inside single
quotation marks:
“It was getting really cold,” he said, “and they were saying ‘When can we go back
home?’”
Jaya said, ‘They were getting really excited and were shouting “Come on!”’.
We commonly use question marks inside the quotation marks unless the question
is part of the reporting clause:
‘Why don’t they know who is responsible?’ they asked.
So did they really say ‘We will win every match for the next three weeks’?
We also use single quotation marks to draw attention to a word. We can use
quotation marks in this way when we want to question the exact meaning of the
word:
I am very disappointed by his ‘apology’. I don’t think he meant it at all.

We sometimes use quotation marks to refer to the titles of books, newspapers,

magazines, films, songs, poems, videos, CDs, etc:
There’s a special report all about it in ‘The Daily Mail’.
We can use italics instead of quotation marks for these citations:
There’s a special report all about it in The Daily Mail.
Articles or chapters within books, or titles of short stories, are normally punctuated
by single quotation marks:
The longest chapter in the book is the last one called ‘The Future of Africa’.

Dashes ( – ) and other punctuation marks

Dashes are more common in informal writing. They can be used in similar ways to
commas or semi-colons. Both single and multiple dashes may be used:
Our teacher – who often gets cross when we’re late – wasn’t cross at all. No one could
believe it!
Just wanted to thank you for a lovely evening – we really enjoyed it.
Brackets have a similar function to dashes. They often add extra, non-essential
information:
Thriplow (pronounced ‘Triplow’) is a small village in the eastern part of England.
We use brackets around dates and page numbers in academic writing:
Heaton (1978) gives a convincing explanation of how hurricanes are formed (pages 27–
32).
We often use forward slashes in internet addresses and to indicate and/or in
academic references:
You can find the figures you need on [Link]/finance
Binks (1995/1997) has already researched this aspect of Roman history.

Numerals and punctuation

• In British English, the date is usually given in the order of day, month, and
year.
We use full stops in dates. Forward slashes or dashes are also commonly used:
Date of birth: 1.8.1985 (or 1/8/1985 or 1–8–1985)
 • In American English the day and the month are in a different order so that 8
January 1985 is written as follows:
1–8–1985 (or 1/8/1985 or 1.8.1985)

We don’t usually punctuate weights and measures and references to numbers:

4kg (4 kilograms)10m (10 meters) 5m dollars (5 million dollars)

Commas are used in numbers to indicate units of thousands and millions:

7,980 (seven thousand, nine hundred and eighty)
11,487,562 (eleven million, four hundred and eighty-seven thousand, five hundred
and sixty-two)
We use full stops, not commas, to indicate decimal points:
6.5 (six point five)
Not: 6,5
We can punctuate times with full stops or colons:
The shop opens at 9.30. (or 9:30)

Hyphens (-)
We use hyphens to join words in compound terms:

➢ To form compound adjectives:

When two or more words combine to describe a noun, we use a
hyphen to avoid confusion.
Example: She is a well-known author.
➢ To link words in compound nouns:
Hyphens can be used to create compound nouns that are often used
together.
Example: My brother-in-law is visiting.
➢ To indicate word breaks:
When a word is split at the end of a line, a hyphen is used to show that
 the word continues on the next line.
Example: The man was very friend-ly.
➢ To clarify meaning:
Hyphens can help clarify meaning when two words might otherwise be
misunderstood.
Example: A small-business owner is different from a small business
owner (the former refers to a business that is small, while the latter
refers to an owner of a business that is small).
➢ To form numbers and fractions:
Hyphens are used in writing out numbers and fractions.
Example: Twenty-one or two-thirds.

Parentheses ( )
We use parentheses to include additional information or clarifications within a
sentence:

➢ To provide extra details:

The Amazon rainforest (which is often called the lungs of the Earth)
plays a crucial role in the global ecosystem.
➢ To add examples or explanations:
Many countries have adopted renewable energy sources (such as solar
and wind power) to combat climate change.
➢ To indicate acronyms or abbreviations:
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) works to promote global
financial stability.
➢ To include asides or comments:
The concert was amazing (even better than I expected) and lasted for
over three hours.
➢ To cite sources or references:
The research was conclusive (Smith, 2020) and supported previous
studies.

Parentheses are useful for adding information without disrupting the main flow of
the sentence. Information inside parentheses can be omitted without changing the
overall meaning of the sentence.
Brackets [ ]
We use brackets to include additional information, clarifications, or comments
within a sentence:

➢ To provide clarifications or explanations:

Brackets can be used to add information that is not part of the main
sentence but helps clarify the context.
Example: The committee [formed in 2020] has released its findings.
➢ To indicate alterations in quotations:
When quoting someone, brackets can show changes made for clarity or
grammatical correctness.
Example: She said, “He [the manager] will attend the meeting.”
➢ To include citations or references:
In academic writing, brackets often enclose references or additional
details about sources.
Example: The results were significant [Smith, 2021].
➢ To set off technical terms or jargon:
Brackets can help define specialized terms or acronyms within the text.
Example: The CPU [central processing unit] is essential for computer
performance.
➢ In mathematical or programming contexts:
Brackets are used to denote specific operations or functions.
Example: In programming, use the command [function()].

Apostrophes (’)

We use apostrophes to indicate possession and form contractions:

➢ To show possession:
Apostrophes indicate that something belongs to someone or something.
Example: This is Sarah's book. (The book belongs to Sarah.)
➢ To form contractions:
Apostrophes are used to combine two words into one, showing that
letters have been omitted.
Example: I can’t go to the party. (Cannot → can’t)
➢ To indicate plural forms in certain cases:
When pluralizing letters, numbers, or symbols, an apostrophe can clarify
meaning.
Example: Mind your p’s and q’s.
 ➢ To show possession with plural nouns:
For plural nouns that already end in "s," we add only an apostrophe to
indicate possession.
Example: The teachers' lounge. (The lounge belongs to multiple
teachers.)
➢ To avoid confusion with homophones:
Apostrophes can clarify meaning in cases where words sound the same
but have different meanings.
Example: It's (it is) raining today. (Not to be confused with its, which
denotes possession.)

Apostrophes are essential for clarity in writing, as misuse can lead to

misunderstandings or ambiguity.

Ellipses (…)
We use ellipses to indicate omitted text, pauses, or unfinished thoughts:

➢ To indicate omitted text:

Ellipses are used in quotations to show that some words have been left
out for brevity.
Example: "The results were... inconclusive." (Some words from the
original statement are omitted.)
➢ To create a pause or hesitation:
Ellipses can convey a pause in speech or thought, suggesting uncertainty
or contemplation.
Example: "I’m not sure… maybe we should reconsider."
➢ To indicate an unfinished thought:
Ellipses can suggest that a statement is incomplete or that the speaker
has trailed off.
Example: "I was thinking about… never mind."
➢ In dialogue:
Ellipses can show characters hesitating or not finishing their sentences in
dialogue.
Example: "I wanted to say that… well, it's complicated."
➢ In creative writing:
Ellipses can be used for stylistic purposes to create suspense or tension.
Example: "And then I saw it…"
Ellipses are useful for conveying nuances in writing, but overuse can lead to
confusion or ambiguity.

Slashes (/)
We use slashes to indicate alternatives, separate lines, or denote fractions:

1. To indicate alternatives:
Slashes can be used to show that one option or the other is applicable.
Example: Please bring your pen/pencil to the exam. (You can bring either a
pen or a pencil.)

2. To separate lines of poetry or lyrics:

Slashes are often used to indicate line breaks in poems or song lyrics when
written in a single line.
Example: "Roses are red / Violets are blue."

3. To denote fractions:
Slashes are used in mathematical contexts to represent fractions.
Example: The ratio of the ingredients is 2/3 flour to 1/3 sugar.

4. In dates:
Slashes can separate elements in dates, especially in informal contexts.
Example: 12/25/2023 represents December 25, 2023.

5. In URLs and web addresses:

Slashes are used to separate different parts of a web address.
Example: [Link]/about/us.

6. To indicate a per-unit measurement:

Slashes can specify measurements per unit.
Example: The speed limit is 60 km/h (kilometers per hour).