DATA

COMMUNICATION
AND NETWORKING
[Link] Communication
Fundamentals
 We will cover
• Definition of data communication

• Components of data communication (sender, receiver, medium, message, protocol)

• Data representation (text, numbers, images, audio, video)

• Direction of data flow (simplex, half-duplex, full-duplex)

• Types of connections (point-to-point and multipoint)

• Network criteria (performance, reliability, security)

• Physical structures (topologies: bus, star, ring, mesh, hybrid)

• Transmission modes and basics of signals

________________________________________
 What is Data Communications?
• Exchange of digital information between two digital devices is data
communication.
• Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data
between two or more computers and a computer network or data
network is a telecommunications network that allows computers to
exchange data.
• The physical connection between networked computing devices is
established using either cable media or wireless media. The best-known
computer network is the Internet.
 Why Learn Data Communication &
Computer Network?
Network Basic Understanding

• A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as printers is

called computer network. This interconnection among computers facilitates information
sharing among them. Computers may connect to each other by either wired or wireless
media.

Network Engineering

• Networking engineering is a complicated task, which involves software, firmware, chip

level engineering, hardware, and electric pulses. To ease network engineering, the whole
networking concept is divided into multiple layers. Each layer is involved in some
particular task and is independent of all other layers. But as a whole, almost all
networking tasks depend on all of these layers. Layers share data between them and
they depend on each other only to take input and send output
Data Communications History
• 1800: Where we once relied on smoke signals and even carrier pigeons,
we have many more options now. During the 1800s, there was a rush
among inventors to develop newer and better ways to allow long
distance and mass communication.

• As far back as the early 1800s, letters were delivered by messengers.

In cities, quite often a servant from a family’s household was sent to
deliver a letter on foot and sometimes they would even wait at the
recipient’s house or place of business to take the answering letter back
with them. Longer distances were conquered by sending a messenger
on horseback.

• By 1837, a British schoolteacher named Rowland Hill came up with the

idea of postage stamps, and this gave birth to postal system.
 Morse Code
• 1838: Samuel Morse & Alfred Veil Invent Morse Code Telegraph System
• One man, Samuel Morse, who was actually working as a painter at the
time, received a letter that his wife was fatally ill.
• In the time it took for him to receive the letter and then return home
from her, she had already passed away. Driven by the inefficiency of
hand-delivered letters, Morse worked hard on developing an
electromagnetic telegraph system.
• More importantly, he also developed a system of communicating
through this machine. It was known as Morse code and consisted of a
series of coded dots and dashes that corresponded with the alphabet.
• Morse code is a method of transmitting text information as a series of
on-off tones, lights, or clicks that can be directly understood by a skilled
listener or observer without special equipment.
 Printing Press
• 1400s: when Johannes Guternberg created a model based on
primitive versions already in use.

• His printing press used removable metal letters that could be

rearranged to create blocks of text. Before that, people had to pen
texts by hand, which was an extremely laborious process.
• Before the printing press, books were highly valued and treasured
objects. Many families would only have one book in their homes:
the Bible. The printing press allowed people to access books and
pamphlets for far lower prices, helping to educate them and
introduce them to new ideas. Johannes Gutenberg’s first creation
using his new press was a copy of the bible.
 Telephone
• 1876: One man, Alexander Graham Bell, did succeed legally by
securing a patent for his version of the telephone, and so he is
remembered best in association with this invention.

• Several decades earlier, telephone-type devices required the

listener to speak and listen through the same piece.
• Later, the phone evolved into a device where the listener had to
hold one piece to their ear and speak into the main phone unit.
 Radio
• It was a Serbian-American engineer named Nikola Tesla who first
started publicly experimenting with radio frequencies and
transmission.

• In 1897, he got a patent for his invention and explored ways to use
radios for communication. Later, other companies and inventors
came up with variations of the radio using different technology.

• The first long radio broadcast only came in 1916, from Tufts
University.
 Television
• It was a Scottish man named John Logie Baird who was
successful in showing moving images on a screen in 1925.

• Compared to today’s high-tech sets, Baird’s invention was

quite slow, showing only about twelve frames per minute,
but it was remarkable nonetheless.

• The first TV images were halftones, and then black and

white, before color was finally introduced in 1953.
 Email
• Even before the Internet was fully evolved, electronic mail had been
developed in the 1970s as a way to send messages from one computer to
another.
• In the early days, both users had to be online at the same time in order to
send and receive messages through a central system.
• In 1971, the first email was sent by Ray Tomlinson, an American
programmer.
• Instead of only being able to send text messages, we can also transfer
multimedia and other attachments as well.
 Cell Phone
• In the 1970s, a researcher at Motorola named Martin Cooper began
working on portable communication devices.

• In 1973, he developed a type of mobile phone.

• It was a large, clunky prototype, now colloquially referred to as “the

brick” for its awkward size and shape.

• For the next couple of decades, the main aim of many cell phone
manufacturers was to make phones that were smaller and sleeker.

• With digital cell phones, new options were added, such as the ability to
store phone numbers, change ring tones and even play games.
 Applications of Communication &
Computer Network
Computer systems and peripherals are connected to form a network.
They provide numerous advantages:
• Resource sharing such as printers and storage devices
• Exchange of information by means of e-Mails and FTP
• Information sharing by using Web or Internet
• Interaction with other users using dynamic web pages
• IP phones
• Video conferences
• Instant messaging
 A COMMUNICATIONS MODEL
• A communication model is a structured framework
that simplifies and explains the complex, often
circular process of transferring information between a
sender and a receiver
 Components of communication
model
• Sender/Encoder: Initiates the message.

• Message: The information or idea being conveyed.

• Channel/Medium: The method used to transmit the message (e.g., email, voice).

• Receiver/Decoder: Processes and interprets the message.

• Feedback: The receiver's response, validating understanding.

• Noise: Internal or external distractions hindering communication.

• Context: The environment or situation surrounding the communication

These models help identify where communication breaks down, such as with "static" (poor
encoding) or physical interference, allowing for more effective interaction.
 Data Representation
Text Representation

• Text data consists of characters, including letters, numbers, and symbols. Example:

• Letter A = 65 (ASCII) = 01000001 (binary)

Number Representation

• Numbers are represented using binary number systems.

Image Representation

• Images are represented as pixels (picture elements).

Audio Representation

• Sampling: Capturing sound at intervals

• Quantization: Assigning values to samples

• Encoding: Converting into binary

Video Representation

• Video is a combination of images (frames) and audio.

Analog and Digital
Signals
• Analog Signal
• An continuously varying electromagnetic wave that may be
propagated over a variety of media (e.g., twisted pair or
coaxial cable, atmosphere), depending on spectrum.
• Digital Signal
• A sequence of voltage pulses that may be transmitted over
a wire medium, e.g., a constant positive voltage level may
represent binary 0 and a constant negative voltage level
may represent binary 1.
• Advantages of digital signal over analog signal
• Cheaper in price
• Less susceptible to noise interference
• Disadvantages of digital signal over analog signal
• Suffer more from attenuation
• Pulses become rounded and smaller
• Leads to loss of information
 Analog and Digital Signals
Analog Signals Digital Signals

• Continuous • Discrete
• Infinite range of values • Finite range of values (2)
• More exact values, but • Not as exact as analog,
more difficult to work with but easier to work with

Example:
A digital thermostat in a room displays a temperature of 72. An analog
thermometer measures the room temperature at 72.482. The analog value is
continuous and more accurate, but the digital value is more than adequate for
the application and significantly easier to process electronically.

21
 Example of Analog Signals
• An analog signal can be any time-varying signal.

• Minimum and maximum values can be either positive or negative.

• They can be periodic (repeating) or non-periodic.

• Sine waves and square waves are two common analog signals.

• Note that this square wave is not a digital signal because its minimum
value is negative.

0 volts

Sine Wave Square Wave Random-Periodic

(not digital)
22
Parts of an Analog Signal
Period
(T)

Frequency:
Amplitude
(peak) 1
F  Hz
Amplitude T
(peak-to-peak)

23
Data transmission
• Data needs to be transmitted between devices in a
computer system.

• Data is transmitted in the form of bits.

• So an 8 bit byte, which stands for a single character,

will be transmitted in 8 parts, one signal for each bit.
 Digital Data Transmission
• There are five possible different modes of transmission.

• They fall into groups:

• Serial

• Parallel
 Timing of Serial Transmission
Three broad categories of serial transmission:

Asynchronous

• Transmission can occur at any time

• Arbitrary delay between the transmission of two data items

Synchronous

• Continuous transmission

• No gap between transmission of data items

Isochronous

• Transmission occurs at regular intervals

• Fixed gap between transmission of two data items

Serial transmission of data
• One bit transmitted at a time using a single wire.
• Advantage:
• Simple and reliable because the next bit is not transmitted
until the current one has arrived at its destination. So little
or no chance of the bits arriving out or order and can be
used over long distances – see parallel transmission on the
next slide for more explanation of this.
• Disadvantage:
• Slow, because only one bit can be transmitted at a time.

e.g. 01101101 being transmitted.

Parallel Transmission
• Bits sent at the same time using more than one wire.
• Usually 8, so a whole byte can be sent at once.
• Advantage:
• Faster because all the bits are travelling at the same time.
• Disadvantage:
• Due to fine tolerances (resistances) in the transmission, it is
less reliable as the bits can become muddled up (as they may
arrive out of order).
• The longer the wires the more effect these fine tolerances
(resistances) would have.
 What is Asychronous
• In contrast, asynchronous transmission works in spurts and must
insert a start bit before each data character and a stop bit at its
termination to inform the receiver where it begins and ends.

• The term asynchronous is used to describe the process where

transmitted data is encoded with start and stop bits, specifying the
beginning and end of each character.
characteristics specific to asynchronous communication:
• Each character is preceded by a start bit and followed by one or more stop bits.
• Gaps or spaces between characters may exist.

• With asynchronous transmission, a large text document is organized into long strings of
letters (or characters) that make up the words within the sentences and paragraphs. These
characters are sent over the communication link one at a time and reassembled at the remote
location.

• In asynchronous transmission, ASCII character would actually be transmitted using 10 bits.

• For example, "0100 0001" would become "1 0100 0001 0". The extra one (or zero, depending
on parity bit) at the start and end of the transmission tells the receiver first that a character
is coming and secondly that the character has ended. In the previous example the start and
stop bits are in bold.

• Asynchronous transmission is used commonly for communications over telephone

lines.
Asynchronous Transmission
 What is Synchronous Transmission?
• The term synchronous is used to describe a continuous and consistent timed transfer of data blocks.

• Synchronous data transmission is a data transfer method in which a continuous stream of data signals is
accompanied by timing signals (generated by an electronic clock) to ensure that the transmitter and the
receiver are in step (synchronized) with one another. The data is sent in blocks (called frames or packets)
spaced by fixed time intervals.

• Synchronous transmission modes are used when large amounts of data must be transferred very quickly
from one location to the other. The speed of the synchronous connection is attained by transferring data in
large blocks instead of individual characters.

• Synchronous transmission synchronizes transmission speeds at both the receiving and sending end of the
transmission using clock signals built into each component. A continual stream of data is then sent between
the two nodes.
• The timing needed for synchronous connections is obtained from the devices located on the communication
link. All devices on the synchronous link must be set to the same clocking.

• characteristics specific to synchronous communication:

• There are no gaps between characters being transmitted.

• Timing is supplied by modems or other devices at each end of the connection.

• Special syn characters precede the data being transmitted.

• The syn characters are used between blocks of data for timing purposes.

• Due to there being no start and stop bits the data transfer rate is quicker although more errors will occur, as
the clocks will eventually get out of sync, and the receiving device would have the wrong time that had been
agreed in the protocol for sending/receiving data, so some bytes could become corrupted (by losing bits).

• Ways to get around this problem include re-synchronization of the clocks and use of check digits to ensure the
bytes is correctly interpreted and received.

• Most network protocols (such as Ethernet, SONET, Token Ring) use synchronous transmission.
Synchronous Transmission
 Isochronous transmission
Isochronous transmission is designed for real-time applications
where timing is critical, such as streaming.

It guarantees that data is sent and arrives at a fixed rate with

constant intervals (jitter-free).

Even if there is a delay, the gap between data units remains

constant to prevent audio/video stutter.
 Simplex mode
• Data can only travel in one direction.

• Used if only one direction is necessary.

• e.g. Television picture which is passed to a television receiver aerial, but there is no way to send
data in the other direction.
• N.B. Not modern interactive digital television.

Transmitter Receiver
Half duplex mode
• Data can pass in both directions, but only in one direction
at a time.

• Used if both directions are necessary but not at the same

time.
• e.g. Walkie talkie in which each handset can either be set to
receive mode or send mode.

Device 1 Device 2
Duplex mode
• Data can pass in both directions at the same time.
• Used if both directions are necessary at the same
time.
• e.g. A telephone conversation as both users can speak
and be heard at the same time. Modern networks

Device 1 Device 2
 Physical Structures

• Type of Connection
• Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver

• Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission

• Physical Topology
• Connection of devices

• Type of transmission - unicast, mulitcast, broadcast

1.40
 Types of connection
• Point-to-Point Connection:
• A dedicated link exists between two devices.
• The channel capacity is reserved solely for the two
connected devices.
• Common examples include telephone calls and leased lines
Example: A company connecting its head office to a branch
office, Internet Service Providers providing dedicated internet
access to businesses
 Multipoint Connection:
The link is shared among multiple devices.

• The channel capacity is temporarily shared among all devices connected to the link.

• Applications include Wi-Fi network where many devices connect to one router ,Bus network topology ,Shared
Ethernet network (older LANs using hubs)

Key Differences:

• Link Quantity: Point-to-point involves only two devices, while multipoint involves multiple devices.

• Channel Capacity: In point-to-point, the entire channel capacity is reserved for two devices, whereas in multipoint, it
is shared among multiple devices.

• Transmitter and Receiver: Point-to-point has one transmitter and one receiver, while multipoint can have multiple
transmitters and receivers.

• These distinctions are crucial for understanding network design and optimization
 Figure 1.3 Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

1.44
 Network topology
Network topology is the physical or logical arrangement of
devices (nodes) and connections (links) in a computer
network, determining how data flows between computers,
routers, and switches.

It acts as a network map influencing performance, scalability, and

security,

with common types including star, bus, ring, mesh, and tree
structures
 Network Topologies
• Packets

• Pieces of data transmitted over a network

• Packets are created by sending node

• Data is reassembled by receiving node

• Packet header

• Sending and receiving address

• Packet payload

• Number and size of data

• Actual data

• Packet error control

9A-47
 Figure 1.4 Categories of topology

1.48
 Figure 1.5 A fully connected mesh topology (five devices)

In mesh topology, we need n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode links

1.49
 Advantage of mesh topology

1- Use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own
data load.
2- Robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire
system.
4- Redundancy
3- Security. When every message travels along a dedicated line, only the
intended recipient sees it.
4- Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.

1.50
 Disadvantage of mesh topology

1- The amount of cabling because every device must be

connected to every other device.
2- The number of I/O ports required.
3- The hardware required to connect each link can be
prohibitively expensive.

1.51
 Figure 1.6 A star topology connecting four stations

1.52
 Advantage of Star topology

1- Less expensive than a mesh topology.

2- Easy to install and reconfigure. Far less cabling needs to be housed.
3- Include robustness.

Disadvantage of Star topology

1- the dependency of the whole topology on one single point.

2- more cabling is required in a star than in some other topologies (such as ring or
bus).

1.53
 Figure 1.7 A bus topology connecting three stations

1.54
 Advantage of Bus topology

1- Ease of installation.
2- Less cabling than mesh or star topologies.
3- Backbone cable can be laid along the most
efficient path, then connected to the nodes by
drop lines of various lengths.

1.55
 Disadvantage of Bus topology

1- Difficult reconnection and fault isolation.

2- Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.
3- Fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission.

1.56
 Figure 1.8 A ring topology connecting six stations

1.57
 Advantage of Ring topology

1- Easy to install and reconfigure.

2- Fault isolation is simplified.

Disadvantage of Ring topology

- Unidirectional traffic.

1.58
 Figure 1.9 A hybrid topology: a star backbone with three bus networks

1.59
 How Networks Are Structured
• Networks Structure fall into two major types: peer-to-peer and
client/server (also called server-based)

• This discussion of network types addresses the roles that

computers play on the network and how those roles interact

• Server-based networks are the most typical and represent the

primary focus of the discussion here

• Understanding both types is essential, especially as they compare

with one another
Peer-to-Peer Networking
Peer-to-Peer Networking
(continued)
• In a peer-to-peer network, every user must also act as a network administrator,
controlling access to the resources on their machines
• Because of this flexibility and individual discretion, institutionalized chaos
is the norm for peer-to-peer networks, and security can be a major concern
• Computers can be affiliated into loose federations called workgroups,
but no network-wide security can be enforced
• As the number of users and resources grows, these networks can
become unworkable
Peer-to-Peer Networking
Advantages
• Advantages:
• Easy to install and configure
• Machines don’t depend on the presence of a dedicated server
• Users control their own shared resources
• Inexpensive to purchase and operate
• Need no additional equipment or software beyond a suitable operating system
• No dedicated administrators are needed
• Work best for networks with 10 or fewer users
Peer-to-Peer Networking
Disadvantages
• Disadvantages:
• Network security applies to only a single resource at a time
• Users might be forced to use as many passwords as there are
shared resources
• Each PC must be backed up to protect shared data
• When a shared resource is accessed, performance of the PC
where the resource resides is reduced
• There is no centralized organizational scheme to locate or
control access to data
• Access to a shared resource is unavailable if PC where
resource resides is turned off/crashes
• Doesn’t usually work well with more than 10 users
Server-Based Networks
 Server-Based Networking
Advantages
• Centralized user accounts, security, and access controls simplify network
administration

• More powerful equipment means more efficient access to network resources

• Server hardware design is generally more robust

• A single password delivers access to network-wide resources as specified in access

controls

• Server-based networking makes the most sense for networks with 10 or more users or
any networks where resources are heavily used
 Server-Based Networking
Disadvantages
• At the worst, server failure renders a network unusable; at
the least, it results in loss of network resources

• Complex server software requires allocating expert staff,

which increases expenses

• Dedicated hardware and specialized software add to the cost

of server-based networking
 Common Network Types
• Local Area Network (LAN)
• Contains printers, servers and computers
• Systems are close to each other
• Contained in one office or building
• Organizations often have several LANS

9A-68
 Common Network Types
• Wide Area Networks (WAN)
• Two or more LANs connected
• Over a large geographic area
• Typically use public or leased lines
• Phone lines
• Satellite
• The Internet is a WAN

9A-69
 Hybrid Network Types
• Campus Area Networks (CAN)
• A LAN in one large geographic area
• Resources related to the same organization
• Each department shares the LAN

9A-70
 Hybrid Network Types
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Large network that connects different organizations
• Shares regional resources
• A network provider sells time

9A-71
 Hybrid Network Types
• Home Area Network (HAN)
• Small scale network
• Connects computers and entertainment appliances
• Found mainly in the home

9A-73
 Hybrid Network Types
• Personal Area Network (PAN)
• Very small scale network
• Range is less than 2 meters
• Cell phones, PDAs, MP3 players

9A-74
 The Uses of a Network
• Shared peripheral device
• Printers and faxes are common shares
• Reduces the cost per user
• Devices can be connected to the network
• Print servers control network printing
• Manage the print queue

9A-75
 Sharing Data

File server contains documents used by

other computers.

9A-76
 The Uses of a Network

• Personal communication
• Email
• Instantaneous communication
• Conferencing
• Tele conferencing
• Videoconferencing
• Audio-conferencing
• Data-conferencing
• Voice over IP
• Phone communication over network wires

9A-77
 Voice Over IP

9A-78
 The Uses of a Network

• Easier data backup

• Backup copies data to removable media
• Server data backed up in one step

9A-79
Module 2:Network Models
and Protocols
 PROTOCOLS

• A network protocol is a collection of rules that governs how data is transmitted,

received, and interpreted between devices on a network, regardless of their
internal structure or design.

• Defines what, how, and when data is communicated.

• Enables communication between heterogeneous devices.

• Ensures reliable and standardized data exchange.

• Prevents data loss, duplication, and misinterpretation.

 How Do Network Protocols Work?
• Network protocols work by dividing communication tasks into layers, where each
layer performs a specific function to ensure successful data transmission.

• Communication is based on the OSI Model, which consists of 7 layers.

• Each OSI layer uses specific protocols to perform its task.

• Data moves layer by layer from sender to receiver.

• Example: Internet Protocol (IP) operates at the Network Layer and handles routing
using source and destination addresses.

• Layered communication improves reliability, scalability, and troubleshooting

 Types of Network Protocols
• In most cases, communication across a network like the Internet uses the OSI model.
The OSI model has a total of seven layers. Secured connections, network
management, and network communication are the three main tasks that the network
protocol performs. The purpose of protocols is to link different devices.

• The protocols can be broadly classified into three major categories:

Need For Protocol Architecture
• E.g. File transfer
• Source must activate comms. Path or
inform network of destination
• Source must check destination is prepared
to receive
• File transfer application on source must
check destination file management system
will accept and store file for his user
• May need file format translation
• Task broken into subtasks
• Implemented separately in layers in stack
• Functions needed in both systems
• Peer layers communicate
 Key Elements of a Protocol
• Syntax
• Data formats
• Signal levels
• Semantics
• Control information
• Error handling
• Timing
• Speed matching
• Sequencing
 Protocol Architecture
• Task of communication broken up into modules

• For example file transfer could use three modules

• File transfer application
• Communication service module
• Network access module
PAGE 89
PAGE 90
PAGE 91
 WHAT IS OSI MODEL
• OSI stands for Open Systems Interconnection.

• It has been developed by ISO – International Organization of

Standardization, in the year 1984.
• It is a 7 layer architecture with each layer having specific functionality
to perform.

• All these 7 layers work collaboratively to transmit the data from one
person to another across the globe.

PAGE 92
 International Standards
Organization (ISO)
• International Standards Organization (ISO) ISO was started in 1946.
The members of ISO are selected from various governments throughout
the world. The ISO creates the sets of rules and standards for graphics
and document exchange and provides models for equipment and
system compatibility, quality and reduced costs. The ISO is responsible
for coordinating the work of the other standards organizations. The
member body of the ISO from the United States is the American
National Standards Institute (ANSI)
 Purpose of OSI model
• Breaks the network communications into simpler parts that are
easier to develop
• It allows different types of network hardware and software to
communicate to each other.
• It prevents the changes in one layer from affecting other layers, so
that they can develop so quickly.
OSI Model & TCP/IP
Out Line
• Introduction OSI

• OSI History

• OSI Layers

• Introduction TCP/IP

• TCP/IP Layers

96
 Introduction OSI

• The Open System Interconnection Reference Model (OSI

Reference Model or OSI Model) is an abstract description for
layered communications and computer network protocol design.

• It divides network architecture into seven layers which, from top

to bottom, are the Application, Presentation, Session, Transport,
Network, Data Link, and Physical Layers. It is therefore often
referred to as the OSI Seven Layer Model.

97
 OSI History

• In 1978, the International Standars Organization (ISO)

began to develop its OSI framework architecture.

• OSI has two major components: an abstract model of

networking, called the Basic Reference Model or seven-
layer model, and a set of specific protocols.

98
 OSI History
• The concept of a 7 layer model was provided by the work
of Charles Bachman, then of Honeywell.

• Various aspects of OSI design evolved from experiences

with the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network
(ARPANET) and the fledgling Internet.

99
OSI Layers
OSI Model
Data unit Layer Function
7. Application Network process to application
Data representation, encryption
Data 6. Presentation
Host and decryption
layers 5. Session Interhost communication
End-to-end connections and
Segments 4. Transport
reliability, Flow control
Path determination and logical
Packet 3. Network
addressing
Media
Frame 2. Data Link Physical addressing
layers
Media, signal and binary
Bit 1. Physical
transmission
Going from layer 1 to 7: Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza
Away
Going from layer 7 to 1: All People Seem To Need Data
Processing 100
 Layer1: Physical Layer

• The Physical Layer defines the electrical and physical

specifications for devices. In particular, it defines the
relationship between a device and a physical medium.

• This includes the layout of pin, voltages, cable

specification, hubs, repeaters, network adapters, host
bus adapters, and more.

101
 Layer1: Physical Layer
• The major functions and services performed by the
Physical Layer are:
• Establishment and termination of a connection to
a communication medium.
• Participation in the process whereby the communication
resources are effectively shared among multiple users.
For example, flow control.
• Modulation, or conversion between the representation
of digital data in user equipment and the corresponding
signals transmitted over a communications channel.
These are signals operating over the physical cabling
(such as copper and optical fiber) or over a radio link.

102
 Layer1: Physical Layer con.
• The same applies to local-area networks, such
as Ethernet

FDDI(Fiber Distributed Data Interface),

ITU-T( International Telecommunication Union

Telecommunication Standardization Sector) [Link] and
IEEE802.1I.

• Personal area networks such as Bluetooth and IEEE

802.15.4.

103
 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
• The Data Link Layer provides the functional and
procedural means to transfer data between network
entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that
may occur in the Physical Layer.
• Originally, this layer was intended for point-to-point
and point-to-multipoint media, characteristic of wide
area media in the telephone system.
• The data link layer is divided into two sub-layers by
IEEE.

104
 Layer 2: Data Link Layer
• One is Media Access Control (MAC) and another is Logical
Link Control (LLC).
• Mac is lower sub-layer, and it defines the way about the
media access transfer, such as CSMA/CD/CA(Carrier
Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection/Collision
Avoidance)
• LLC provides data transmission method in different
network. It will re-package date and add a new header.

105
 Layer 3: Network Layer

• The Network Layer provides the functional and

procedural means of transferring variable
length data sequences from a source to a destination via
one or more networks, while maintaining the quality of
service requested by the Transport Layer.

106
 Layer 3: Network Layer
• The Network Layer performs
• network routing functions,
• perform fragmentation and reassembly,
• report delivery errors.
• Routers operate at this layer—sending data throughout the
extended network and making the Internet possible.

107
 Layer 4: Transport Layer
• The Transport Layer provides transparent transfer of data between end
users, providing reliable data transfer services to the upper layers.

• The Transport Layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow
control, segmentation/de-segmentation, and error control.
• Transport layer protocols generally categorized into;

– Connection Oriented
– Connectionless

108
 Transport Layer Functions
Flow Control
Regulates data transmission rate to match receiver capacity and prevent overload.

Buffering
Temporarily stores data to handle speed differences between sender and receiver.

Congestion Notification
Detects and signals network congestion to reduce data transmission rate.

Windowing
Uses sliding window technique to control how much data can be sent before acknowledgment.

Segmentation
Breaks large data into smaller segments for efficient transmission and reassembles at destination.

Multiplexing
Allows multiple applications to share the same network connection using port numbers.
 Transport Layer 1/2

TCP

110
 Transport Layer 2/2

Process-to-process delivery

TCP

111
 TCP & UDP
Transmission Control Protocol(TCP)
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented transport layer protocol that provides
reliable and ordered data delivery.

User Datagram Protocol(UDP)

User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless transport layer protocol that provides fast but
unreliable data transmission
 TCP Connection Establishment

Passive open

SYN: Synchronize
ACK: Acknowledge

TCP
© Dr. Ayman Abdel-Hamid, CS4254
113
 Layer 5: Session Layer
• The Session Layer controls the dialogues (connections)
between computers.

• It establishes, manages and terminates the connections

between the local and remote application.

• It provides for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation,

and establishes checkpointing, adjournment, termination,
and restart procedures.

114
 Layer 5: Session Layer
• The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful close of
sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control
Protocol, and also for session check pointing and recovery, which
is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite.
• The Session Layer is commonly implemented explicitly in
application environments that use remote procedure calls.

115
 Layer 6: Presentation Layer
• The Presentation Layer establishes a context between
Application Layer entities, in which the higher-layer entities
can use different syntax and semantics, as long as the
presentation service understands both and the mapping
between them.
• This layer provides independence from differences in data
representation (e.g., encryption) by translating from application
to network format, and vice versa.
• This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a
network, providing freedom from compatibility problems.
• It is sometimes called the syntax layer.

116
 Layer 7: Application Layer
• The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end
user, which means that both the OSI application layer
and the user interact directly with the software
application.
• Application layer functions typically include:
• identifying communication partners,
• determining resource availability,
• synchronizing communication.

117
Layer 7: Application Layer
• Identifying communication partners
• Determines the identity and availability of communication
partners for an application with data to transmit.
• Determining resource availability
• Decide whether sufficient network or the requested
communication exist.
• Synchronizing communication
• All communication between applications requires
cooperation that is managed by the application layer.

118
 Layer 7: Application Layer

• Some examples of application layer implementations

include
• Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
• File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
• Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

119
OSI Feature
• Open system standards over the world

• Rigorously defined structured, hierarchical network

model

• Complete description of the function

• Provide standard test procedures

120
Introduction TCP/IP
• The Internet Protocol Suite (commonly known as TCP/IP) is the
set of communications protocols used for the Internet and other
similar networks.
• It is named from two of the most important protocols in it:
• the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
• the Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two networking protocols
defined in this standard.

121
TCP/IP Layers

122
 TCP/IP Model
The TCP/IP model is a conceptual framework used to understand
and implement network communication. It consists of **four
layers**, each with specific functions and protocols. These layers
work together to ensure data is transmitted reliably and efficiently
across networks. Below is a detailed breakdown of each layer:

1. Application Layer
- Purpose: Provides network services directly to end-user
applications.
- Functions:
- Enables communication between software applications and the
network.
- Handles data formatting, encryption, and user authentication.
- Manages high-level protocols for specific types of
communication.
- Key Protocols:
- HTTP/HTTPS: For web browsing (Hypertext Transfer
PAGE 124
PAGE 125
 TCP/IP Model..
Protocol/Secure).
- FTP: For file transfers (File Transfer Protocol).
- SMTP/POP3/IMAP: For email communication (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol/Post Office Protocol/Internet Message Access Protocol).
- DNS: For domain name resolution (Domain Name System).
- SNMP: For network management (Simple Network Management
Protocol).
- Telnet/SSH: For remote access (Secure Shell).
- DHCP: For dynamic IP address assignment (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol).
 TCP/IP Model..
2. Transport Layer
- Purpose: Ensures reliable data delivery between devices.
- Functions:
- Manages end-to-end communication.
- Segments data into smaller packets for transmission.
- Provides error detection, flow control, and retransmission of lost
packets.
- Ensures data arrives in the correct order.
- Key Protocols:
- TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):
- Connection-oriented.
- Reliable, with acknowledgments and retransmissions.
- Used for applications requiring high reliability (e.g., web
browsing, email).
- UDP (User Datagram Protocol):
- Connectionless.
- Faster but less reliable.
- Used for real-time applications (e.g., video streaming, online
gaming).
 TCP/IP Model..
3. Internet Layer
- Purpose: Handles logical addressing and routing of data packets across
networks.
- Functions:
- Provides logical addressing (IP addresses) to identify devices.
- Routes packets between source and destination across multiple
networks.
- Fragments and reassembles packets if necessary.
- Manages congestion and error reporting.
- Key Protocols:
- IP (Internet Protocol):
- IPv4: 32-bit addresses (e.g., [Link]).
- IPv6: 128-bit addresses (e.g., 2001:0db8::).
- ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol):
- Used for error reporting and diagnostics (e.g., ping).
- ARP (Address Resolution Protocol):
- Maps IP addresses to MAC addresses.
- IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol):
- Manages multicast group membership.
 TCP/IP Model..
4. Network Access Layer (Link Layer)
- Purpose: Manages the physical transmission of data over network
hardware.
- Functions:
- Handles the physical connection between devices.
- Encapsulates data into frames for transmission.
- Performs error detection and correction at the bit level.
- Manages access to the physical medium (e.g., Ethernet, Wi-Fi).
- Key Technologies:
- Ethernet: Wired LAN technology.
- Wi-Fi: Wireless LAN technology.
- PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol): For direct connections between two
nodes.
- MAC Addresses: Unique hardware addresses for network
interfaces.
TCP/IP Some Protocol
Layer Protocol
DNS, TFTP, TLS/SSL, FTP, Gopher, HTTP, IMAP, IRC, NNTP, P
OP3, SIP, SMTP, SMPP, SNMP, SSH, Telnet, Echo, RTP, PNRP, rl
Application ogin, ENRP
Routing protocols like BGP and RIP which run over TCP/UDP,
may also be considered part of the Internet Layer.
Transport TCP, UDP, DCCP, SCTP, IL, RUDP, RSVP
IP (IPv4, IPv6), ICMP, IGMP, and ICMPv6
Internet OSPF for IPv4 was initially considered IP layer protocol since it
runs per IP-subnet, but has been placed on the Link since RFC
2740.
Link ARP, RARP, OSPF (IPv4/IPv6), IS-IS, NDP

130
 Types of Network Protocols and
Their Uses
A network protocol is a collection of rules that governs how data is
transmitted, received, and interpreted between devices on a network,
regardless of their internal structure or design.

• Defines what, how, and when data is communicated.

• Enables communication between heterogeneous devices.
• Ensures reliable and standardized data exchange.
• Prevents data loss, duplication, and misinterpretation.
How Do Network Protocols
Work?
• Network protocols work by dividing communication tasks into layers, where each layer performs a specific
function to ensure successful data transmission.

• Communication is based on the OSI model, which consists of 7 layers.

• Each OSI layer uses specific protocols to perform its task.

• Data moves layer by layer from sender to receiver.

• Example: Internet Protocol (IP) operates at the Network Layer and handles routing using source and
destination addresses.

• Layered communication improves reliability, scalability, and troubleshooting.

Port numbers
• Port numbers (0–65535) are logical, 16-bit identifiers used to route
data to specific applications/processes, while a socket is the unique
endpoint of a connection defined by the combination of an IP
address and a port number

• Act as virtual endpoints that direct incoming data to the correct

service
PORT NUMBERS
• Well-known (0-1023): Reserved for core services like HTTP
(80), HTTPS (443), and SSH (22).

• Registered (1024-49151): Used by vendor-specific

applications.

• Dynamic/Ephemeral (49152-65535): Temporarily assigned

by the OS to client applications.
 socket
Ports and sockets allow processes on the same device to communicate over a network.
Every TCP connection is uniquely identified by its two endpoints
Network Communication
Protocols
• HTTP (Port 80)

• TCP (Port varies)

• UDP (Port varies)

• BGP (Port 179)

• ARP (No port)

• IP (No port)

• DHCP (Ports 67/68)

 TCP/IP MODEL
•TCP/IP is a four-layer network
model:
[Link] Layer – User-facing
services and applications
[Link] Layer – Reliable
delivery of data
[Link] Layer – Logical
addressing and routing
[Link] Access Layer – Physical
addressing and transmission
•Purpose: Standardize
communication across
heterogeneous networks
 Application Layer
The application layer provides services directly to users or applications. It includes protocols that allow communication over
the internet and between devices.

• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is used to transfer web pages and uses port 80.

• HTTPS provides secure web communication over port 443 using encryption.

• FTP (File Transfer Protocol) transfers files between systems and uses port 21 for control and port 20 for data.

• Email protocols include SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) on port 25 for sending emails,

• POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) on port 110 for retrieving emails, and

• IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) on port 143 for advanced email retrieval.

• DNS (Domain Name System) translates domain names into IP addresses and operates on port 53. For remote access,

• Telnet uses port 23, while SSH (Secure Shell) uses port 22 for secure connections.
 Application Layer
The application layer provides services directly to users or applications. It includes protocols that allow communication over
the internet and between devices.

• HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is used to transfer web pages and uses port 80.

• HTTPS provides secure web communication over port 443 using encryption.

• FTP (File Transfer Protocol) transfers files between systems and uses port 21 for control and port 20 for data.

• Email protocols include SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) on port 25 for sending emails,

• POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) on port 110 for retrieving emails, and

• IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) on port 143 for advanced email retrieval.

• DNS (Domain Name System) translates domain names into IP addresses and operates on port 53. For remote access,

• Telnet uses port 23, while SSH (Secure Shell) uses port 22 for secure connections.
 Transport Layer
The transport layer ensures that data is delivered efficiently and reliably
between hosts.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is connection-oriented, meaning it

establishes a session and guarantees reliable delivery.

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is connectionless, providing faster

transmission without guaranteed delivery.

Transport layer protocols rely on port numbers to identify the sending and
receiving applications.

For example, HTTP over TCP uses port 80, while DNS over UDP uses port
53.
 Transport Layer
The transport layer ensures that data is delivered efficiently and reliably
between hosts.

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is connection-oriented, meaning it

establishes a session and guarantees reliable delivery.

UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is connectionless, providing faster

transmission without guaranteed delivery.

Transport layer protocols rely on port numbers to identify the sending and
receiving applications.

For example, HTTP over TCP uses port 80, while DNS over UDP uses port
53.
 Internet Layer
The internet layer handles logical addressing, routing, and packet delivery across
networks.

IP (Internet Protocol) assigns unique addresses to devices and routes packets.

ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is used for diagnostics and error
reporting, such as with the ping command, but does not use port numbers.

ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) translates IP addresses into physical MAC

addresses to allow devices to locate each other on the same network.
 Internet Layer
The internet layer handles logical addressing, routing, and packet delivery across
networks.

IP (Internet Protocol) assigns unique addresses to devices and routes packets.

ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) is used for diagnostics and error
reporting, such as with the ping command, but does not use port numbers.

ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) translates IP addresses into physical MAC

addresses to allow devices to locate each other on the same network.
 Network Access Layer
The network access layer is responsible for the physical transmission of
data, including how bits are encoded and sent over the medium.

Protocols like Ethernet handle framing and physical addressing, while Wi-
Fi allows wireless communication.
This layer does not involve port numbers, as it focuses on hardware-level
data delivery.
 WAN Protocols
WAN protocols operate at Layer 2 (data link) and Layer 3 (network) but are part of
TCP/IP’s Internet/Network Layer responsibilities for routing and addressing
across wide networks.
WAN Protocols (used for long-distance communication):

Frame Relay – Packet-switched WAN, connects LANs over long distances

PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) – Provides direct connection between two nodes over
serial links

HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) – Encapsulation protocol for synchronous

links

MPLS (Multiprotocol Label Switching) – High-speed WAN switching and routing

Circuit Switching
and
Packet Switching

146
Overview
• Transmission of data beyond a local area, communication is
typically achieved by transmitting data from source to
destination through a network of intermediate switching
nodes.
• Networks are used to interconnect many devices or stations.
• The stations may be computers, terminals, telephones, or
other communicating devices.

147
 Switched Communications Networks
• Long distance transmission between stations is typically done over a
network of switching nodes.

• Switching nodes do not concern with content of data. Their purpose

is to provide a switching facility that will move the data from node to
node until they reach their destination (the end device).
• Switching is the method of transmitting data from source to destination
through a network.
• Two primary types:
• Circuit Switching
• Packet Switching
• Choice depends on data type, network efficiency, and reliability.
148
Simple Switching Network

149
Types of Switching

150
 Circuit Switching
• Circuit switching:
• There is a dedicated communication path
between two stations.
• The path is a connected sequence of links
between network nodes.
• On each physical link, a logical channel is
dedicated to the connection.
• Communication via circuit switching has
three phases:
• Circuit establishment (link by link)
• Data transfer
• Circuit disconnect
• Deallocate the dedicated resources
151
 1. Circuit establishment.
• Before any signals can be transmitted, an end-to-end (station-to-
station) circuit must be established.
• For example, station A sends a request to node 4 requesting a
connection to station E.
• Typically, the link from A to 4 is a dedicated line node 4 must
find the next route leading to E node 4 selects the link to node 5
and so on then sends a message requesting connection to E.
• Thus, a dedicated path has been established from A-4-5-6-E

152
2. Data transfer.
• Data can now be transmitted from A through
the network to E.
• The transmission may be analog or digital,
depending on the nature of the network.
• The path is A-4 link, internal switching through
4, 4-5 channel, internal switching through 5, 5-
6 channel, internal switching through 6, 6-E
link. Generally, the connection is full duplex.

153
3. Circuit disconnect.
• After some period of data transfer, the

connection is terminated, usually by the

action of one of the two stations.

• Signals must be propagated to nodes 4, 5, and

6 to deallocate the dedicated resources.

154
 Advantages of Circuit Switching
1. The dedicated path/circuit established between sender and receiver
provides a guaranteed data rate.

2. Once the circuit is established, data is transmitted without any delay as

there is no waiting time at each switch.

3. Since a dedicated continuous transmission path is established, the method

is suitable for long continuous transmission.

155
Disadvantages of Circuit Switching

1. As the connection is dedicated it cannot be used to

transmit any other data even if the channel is free.
2. It is inefficient in terms of utilization of system resources.
As resources are allocated for the entire duration of connection,
these are not available to other connections.
3. Dedicated channels require more bandwidth.
4. Prior to actual data transfer, the time required to establish
a physical link is too long.

156
Summary
In circuit switching, the resources need

to be reserved during the setup phase;

the resources remain dedicated for the

entire duration of data transfer until the

teardown phase.

157
 Packet Switching
• Packet switching can be seen as a solution that tries to
combine the advantages of message and circuit switching.
• There are two methods of packet switching:
•Datagram and
•virtual circuit.

160
 Packet Switching
• In packet switching methods, a message is broken into
small parts, called packets.
• Each packet is tagged with appropriate source and
destination addresses.
• Since packets have a strictly defined maximum length,
they can be stored in main memory instead of disk,
therefore access delay and cost are minimized.
• Also the transmission speeds, between nodes, are
optimized.
• With current technology, packets are generally accepted
onto the network on a first-come, first-served basis.
Use of Packets

162
Packet Switching Technique
• A station breaks long message into packets

• Packets are sent out to the network sequentially, one at

a time
• How will the network handle this stream of packets as
it attempts to route them through the network and
deliver them to the intended destination?
• Two approaches
• Datagram approach
• Virtual circuit approach

164
 Datagram
• Each packet is treated independently, with no reference to packets
that have gone before.
• Each node chooses the next node on a packet’s path.

• Packets can take any possible route.

• Packets may arrive at the receiver out of order.

• Packets may go missing.

• It is up to the receiver to re-order packets and recover from missing
packets.

• Example: Internet

165
Datagram

166
 Virtual Circuit
• In virtual circuit, a preplanned route is established before any
packets are sent, then all packets follow the same route.

• Each packet contains a virtual circuit identifier instead of

destination address, and each node on the pre-established
route knows where to forward such packets.
• The node need not make a routing decision for each packet.

• Example: X.25, Frame Relay, ATM

167
Virtual
Circuit
A route between stations is
set up prior to data transfer.
All the data packets then
follow the same route.
But there is no dedicated
resources reserved for the
virtual circuit! Packets need
to be stored-and-forwarded.

168
 Advantages of packet switching

• Packet switching is cost effective, because switching

devices do not need massive amount of secondary
storage.
• Packet switching offers improved delay characteristics,
because there are no long messages in the queue.
(maximum packet size is fixed).
• Packet can be rerouted if there is any problem, such as,
busy or disabled links.
• The advantage of packet switching is that many network
users can share the same channel at the same time.
• Packet switching can maximize link efficiency by making
optimal use of link bandwidth.
169
 Disadvantages of packet
switching
• Protocols for packet switching are typically more
complex.
• It can add some initial costs in implementation.
• If packet is lost, sender needs to retransmit the data.
• Another disadvantage is that packet-switched systems still
can’t deliver the same quality as dedicated circuits in
applications requiring very little delay - like voice
conversations or moving images.

170
Module 3 : Network Media
and Devices
 Network Media and Devices
Network Media
Definition:
Network media refers to the physical or wireless channels through
which data is transmitted between devices in a network. It acts as
the communication pathway connecting computers, servers, and
other devices for data exchange.

Types of Network Media:

Network media can be broadly classified into two categories:
1. Wired Media (Guided Media)
2. Wireless Media (Unguided Media)
PAGE 175
 Network Media and Devices

1. Wired Media (Guided Media)

Wired media involves physical cables through which data travels. These
cables guide the data signals from the source to the destination.

a) Twisted Pair Cable:

A twisted pair cable consists of two insulated copper wires twisted together to
reduce electromagnetic interference (EMI).
Types of Twisted Pair Cable:
○ Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): No additional shielding; widely used
in LANs.
○ Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Contains a metal shield for extra
protection against interference.
 Twisted Pair
Shielded Twisted Unshielded Twisted
Pair(STP) Pair(UTP)
 UTP CABLES CATEGORIES
• UTP cables are categorized into different standards, such as Cat 5, Cat 6, and Cat 7, each offering varying levels
of speed, performance, and application.

• Category 5 (Cat 5) is one of the earlier standards, supporting data transmission speeds of up to 100 Mbps with
a bandwidth of about 100 MHz. An improved version, Cat 5e (enhanced), supports speeds up to 1 Gbps. Cat 5
cables are commonly used in basic LAN networks, small offices, and home networking where high speed is not
critical. However, they are more susceptible to interference compared to higher categories.

• Category 6 (Cat 6) offers significant improvements in performance. It supports speeds up to 10 Gbps over short
distances (up to 55 meters) and has a bandwidth of 250 MHz. Cat 6 cables have tighter twists and better
insulation, which reduces crosstalk and interference. They are widely used in modern office networks, data
centers, and high-speed applications where better performance is required.

• Category 7 (Cat 7) is a more advanced cable that supports speeds up to 10 Gbps or higher with a bandwidth of
600 MHz. It includes shielding for each pair and the entire cable, making it highly resistant to interference and
noise. Cat 7 is typically used in high-performance environments, such as data centers, enterprise networks,
and industrial systems, where reliability and speed are critical.
 Network Media and Devices
Advantages:

○ Inexpensive and easy to install.

○ Supports data rates up to 10 Gbps (with advanced versions like Cat6 and Cat7).

Disadvantages:

○ Limited range (up to 100 meters for standard Ethernet).

○ Vulnerable to electromagnetic interference.

Applications:

○ Ethernet networks (LAN).

○ Telephone lines.
 Network Media and Devices

b) Coaxial Cable:

Consists of a central conductor (copper) surrounded by an insulating layer, a metallic shield,

and an outer insulating cover.

● Types of Coaxial Cable:

○ Thicknet (10BASE5): Older, supports long distances (up to 500 meters).
○ Thinnet (10BASE2): Flexible, supports shorter distances (up to 185 meters).
Advantages:

○ Better shielding than twisted pair.

○ Supports higher bandwidth over longer distances.
 Network Media and Devices
Disadvantages:

○ Bulky and difficult to install.

○ More expensive than twisted pair.
● Applications:
○ Cable TV (CATV).
○ Older Ethernet networks.
c) Fiber Optic Cable:

Uses light signals to transmit data through thin strands of glass or plastic fibers.

Types of Fiber Optic Cable:

○ Single-mode Fiber (SMF): Transmits a single light beam; suitable for long distances
(up to 100 km).
○ Multi-mode Fiber (MMF): Transmits multiple light beams; used for shorter distances
(up to 2 km).
 Network
Fiber Optic Cables(Cont..)
Media and Devices
Advantages:

○ Extremely high bandwidth (up to Tbps).

○ Immune to electromagnetic interference.
○ Secure and ideal for long-distance communication.
Disadvantages:

○ Expensive and complex to install.

○ Fragile and requires specialized handling.
Applications:

Internet backbone and submarine cables

•Long-distance telephone networks
•High-speed Cable television (CATV)
•LANs and data centers
•Medical equipment and sensors (e.g., endoscopy)
•High-speed data centers.
 Network Media and Devices
Fiber Optic Cables Structure

Structure of Fiber Optic Cables

•Core: Thin glass or plastic center that
carries light signals.
•Cladding: Surrounds the core and reflects
light back into the core using total internal
reflection.
•Buffer/Coating: Protects the fiber from
physical damage and moisture.
•Jacket: Outer protective layer for durability
and safety.
 Difference between Coaxial cable and fiber optic cable

Feature Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Cable

Transmission Medium Electrical signals (copper) Light signals (glass/plastic fiber)

Speed Moderate Very high

Bandwidth Limited Extremely high

Signal Loss Higher over long distances Very low

Prone to electromagnetic Immune to electromagnetic

Interference
interference (less than twisted pair) interference

Distance Coverage Short to medium distances Long distances

Security Less secure Highly secure (difficult to tap)

Cost Lower Higher

Installation Easy Complex (requires skilled handling)

Internet backbone, telecom, high-

Applications Cable TV, broadband, CCTV
speed networks
 Network Media and Devices
2. Wireless Media (Unguided Media)
Wireless media uses electromagnetic waves to transmit data
without physical connections.

a) Radio Waves:
Low-frequency signals used for broadcasting and wireless
communication.
Advantages:
○ Can travel long distances.
○ Suitable for mobile communication.
Disadvantages:
○ Susceptible to interference.
○ Limited bandwidth.
 Network Media and Devices
Applications:
○ Wi-Fi (802.11 standards).
○ AM/FM radio broadcasting.

b) Microwaves:
High-frequency signals used for point-to-point communication.
Advantages:
○ High data rates (up to several Gbps).
○ Effective for long-distance terrestrial communication.
Disadvantages:
○ Requires line-of-sight between transmitters and receivers.
 Network Media and Devices

○ Affected by atmospheric conditions.

Applications:
○ Satellite communication.
○ Mobile phone networks.

c) Infrared Waves:
Short-range communication using light waves.
 Network Media and Devices
Advantages:
○ Secure communication.
○ No interference from other signals.
Disadvantages:
○ Limited range (a few meters).
○ Requires direct line-of-sight.
Applications:
○ TV remote controls.
○ Wireless peripheral devices.
 Network Media and Devices
d) Satellite Communication:
Uses satellites to relay data signals between distant locations.
Advantages:
○ Global coverage.
○ Reliable for remote areas.
Disadvantages:
○ High cost.
○ Signal latency (delay).
Applications:
○ Global positioning systems (GPS).
○ International telecommunications.
PAGE 190
 Network Media and Devices

Comparison of Network Media:

Feature Twisted Pair Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Wireless Media

Bandwidth Up to 10 Gbps Up to 10 Gbps Up to 100 Tbps Varies (few

Mbps to Gbps)

Cost Low Moderate High Moderate

Distance ~100 meters Up to 500 meters 2 km (MMF) to Varies (a few

(LAN) 100 km (SMF) meters to
global)

Interference High Moderate None High

(depending on
frequency)

Installation Easy Complex Difficult Easiest

Security Low Moderate High Low

 Network Media and Devices

Criteria for Choosing Network Media:

1. Cost: Budget constraints affect media selection (e.g., twisted pair
is cheaper than fiber).
2. Bandwidth: Higher bandwidth requirements may require fiber
optics.
3. Distance: Longer distances favor fiber optics or wireless.
4. Interference: Environments with high interference benefit from
fiber optics.
5. Scalability: Consider future growth when selecting media.
 Network Media and Devices
Network Devices

Network devices are essential hardware components that facilitate the communication and
transfer of data between computers and other devices within a network. Each device has a
specific role in ensuring data flows efficiently, securely, and accurately across the network.
Below is a comprehensive examination of key network devices and their functions.

1. Router

A router is a device that connects multiple networks and directs data packets between them. It
functions by analyzing the destination address of data packets and determining the most
efficient path for delivery. Routers are commonly used to connect a local network to the internet
and can also provide security through features like firewalls and traffic management.
 Network Media and Devices
Functions of a Router:

● Directs traffic between different networks

● Connects local networks to external networks (e.g., the internet)
● Provides Network Address Translation (NAT) for IP address sharing
● Supports wireless and wired connectivity
● Enhances network security through firewall and encryption capabilities
 Network Media and Devices
2. Switch
A switch is a network device that connects multiple devices within a
local area network (LAN) and manages the flow of data. Unlike
hubs, switches operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI
model and use MAC addresses to forward data to the appropriate
destination.
Functions of a Switch:
● Connects devices within a LAN (e.g., computers, printers)
● Reduces network congestion by intelligently forwarding data
● Supports multiple simultaneous communications
● Provides VLAN (Virtual LAN) segmentation for improved security
● Operates faster and more efficiently than hubs
 Network Media and Devices
2. Switch..
 Network Media and Devices

3. Hub
A hub is a basic network device that connects multiple Ethernet
devices and relays data to all connected devices. It operates at the
physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model and does not differentiate
between recipients, making it less efficient than a switch.
Functions of a Hub:
● Connects multiple devices in a LAN
● Broadcasts data to all connected devices
● Facilitates basic data communication
● Suitable for small-scale, low-cost networks
 Network Media and Devices

3. Hub..
 Network Media and Devices

4. Modem
A modem (modulator-demodulator) is a device that converts digital
data from a computer into a signal suitable for transmission over
telephone lines, cable systems, or fiber optics. It also demodulates
incoming signals back into digital data.
Functions of a Modem:
● Converts digital signals to analog for transmission and vice
versa
● Connects home or business networks to Internet Service
Providers (ISPs)
● Supports different types of communication mediums (DSL,
cable, fiber)
● Provides basic connectivity and signal modulation
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 Network Media and Devices
4. Modem
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5. Access Point (AP)

An access point is a device that extends wireless network coverage
and allows Wi-Fi devices to connect to a wired network. Access
points are often used in large environments to provide seamless
wireless coverage.
Functions of an Access Point:
● Provides wireless connectivity to wired networks
● Expands the range of wireless signals
● Supports multiple devices simultaneously
● Enhances network flexibility and mobility
 Network Media and Devices

5. Access Point (AP)..

 Network Media and Devices

6. Gateway
A gateway is a network device that serves as a bridge between two
different networks that use different communication protocols. It
translates data from one protocol to another, enabling
interoperability.
Functions of a Gateway:
● Connects networks with different protocols
● Translates communication protocols
● Acts as a bridge between internal and external networks
● Ensures seamless data flow across diverse systems
 Network Media and Devices

7. Firewall
A firewall is a network security device that monitors and controls
incoming and outgoing traffic based on predetermined security
rules. Firewalls can be hardware-based, software-based, or a
combination of both.
Functions of a Firewall:
● Filters incoming and outgoing traffic
● Blocks unauthorized access
● Protects against cyber threats
● Implements access control policies
 Network Media and Devices

8. Network Interface Card (NIC)

A NIC is a hardware component that allows a device to connect to a
network. It can be an internal card embedded in the motherboard
or an external adapter.
Functions of a NIC:
● Provides physical connection to the network
● Converts data into signals suitable for transmission
● Supports wired (Ethernet) or wireless communication
● Facilitates communication with network protocols
 Network Media and Devices

8. Network Interface Card (NIC)

 Network Media and Devices
9. Bridge
A bridge is a device that connects two or more network segments,
allowing them to function as a single network. It filters traffic and
reduces collisions by segmenting the network.
Functions of a Bridge:
● Connects separate network segments
● Filters traffic based on MAC addresses
● Reduces network collisions
● Enhances overall network performance
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10. Repeater
A repeater is a device that regenerates and amplifies weak signals
over long distances. It is useful in extending the range of a network,
especially in large buildings or outdoor areas.
Functions of a Repeater:
● Regenerates and amplifies signals
● Extends network coverage
● Reduces signal degradation
● Supports both wired and wireless networks
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Bridge Repeater
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. What is network transmission media?
2. What are the two main categories of transmission media in computer
networks?
3. What is guided transmission media? Give two examples.
4. What is unguided transmission media? Give two examples.
5. Explain the differences between twisted pair cable, coaxial cable, and
fiber optic cable.
6. What are the advantages of fiber optic cable in networking?
7. What is a network device?
8. Explain the functions of the following network devices: router, switch,
hub, and modem.
9. What is the difference between a hub and a switch?
10. Why are network devices important in a computer network?

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