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Study Guide in (SAD 101 – SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN) Module No._9_

STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. 9

PROCESS MODELLING

MODULE OVERVIEW

In this chapter you will learn about techniques to discover and analyze information system
requirements. You will learn how to use various fact-finding techniques to gather information about
the system's problems, opportunities, and directives. You will know that you understand fact-finding
techniques and requirements discovery when you can: This also introduced you a wide range of
techniques for discovering information system requirements. Most systems development
methodologies require some level of documentation and analysis of system requirements.

MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Define systems modeling and differentiate logical and physical models.

2. Define process modeling and explain its benefits.
3. Recognize and understand basic concepts and constructs of a process model.
4. Read and interpret a data flow diagram.
5. Explain when to construct process models and where to store them.
6. Construct a context diagram to illustrate a system’s interfaces with its environment.
7. Identify use cases, external and temporal business events.
8. Perform event partitioning and organize events in a functional decomposition diagram.
9. Draw event diagrams and merge them into a system diagram.
10. Draw primitive data flow diagrams and describe the elementary data flows in terms of data
structures and procedural logic.
11. Document the distribution of processes to [Link] data and process models
using a CRUD matrix.

LEARNING CONTENT (Models)

Systems Modeling

Model – a pictorial representation of reality. Just as a picture is worth a thousand words, most models
are pictorial representations of reality.

Logical Model – a nontechnical pictorial representation that depicts what a system is or does.
Synonyms for essential model, conceptual model, and business model

Physical Model – a technical pictorial representation that depicts what a system is or does
and how the system is implemented. Synonyms are implementation model and technical model.

Why Logical System Models

• Logical models remove biases that are the result of the way the system is currently
implemented, or the way that any one person thinks the system might be implemented.
• Logical models reduce the risk of missing business requirements because we are too
preoccupied with technical results.
• Logical models allow us to communicate with end-users in nontechnical or less technical
languages.

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Process Modeling and DFDs

Process modeling – a technique used to organize and document a system’s processes.

• Flow of data through processes

• Logic
• Policies
• Procedures

Data flow diagram (DFD) – a process model used to depict the flow of data through a system and the
work or processing performed by the system. Synonyms are bubble chart, transformation graph, and
process model.

• The DFD has also become a popular tool for business process redesign.

Simple Data Flow Diagram

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Differences Between DFDs and Flowcharts

• Processes on DFDs can operate in parallel (at-the-same-time)

• Processes on flowcharts execute one at a time
• DFDs show the flow of data through a system
• Flowcharts show the flow of control (sequence and transfer of control)
• Processes on a DFD can have dramatically different timing (daily, weekly, on demand)
• Processes on flowcharts are part of a single program with consistent timing

SYMBOLS USED IN DFDs

1. External Agents

External agent – an outside person, unit, system, or organization that interacts with a system.
Also called an external entity.

• External agents define the “boundary” or

scope of a system being modeled.
• As scope changes, external agents can
become processes, and vice versa.
• Almost always one of the following:
• Office, department, division.
• An external organization or agency.
• Another business or another
information system.
• One of system’s end-users or managers
• Named with descriptive, singular noun

2. Data Stores

Data store – stored data intended for later use. Synonyms are file and database.

• Frequently implemented as a file or database.

• A data store is “data at rest” compared to a data flow that is “data in motion.”
• Almost always one of the following:
• Persons (or groups of persons)
• Places
• Objects
• Events (about which data is captured)
• Concepts (about which data is important)
• Data stores depicted on a DFD store
all instances of data entities
(depicted on an ERD)
• Named with plural noun

3. Process Concepts

Process – work performed by a system in response to incoming data flows or conditions. A

synonym is transform.

• All information systems include processes - usually many of them

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• Processes respond to business events and conditions and transform data into useful
information
• Modeling processes helps us to understand the interactions with the system's
environment, other systems, and other processes.
• Named with a strong action verb followed by object clause describing what the work is
performed on/for.

Gane and Sarson

A System is a Process
- A system describes almost any orderly arrangement of ideas or constructs, such
as: educational systems, computer systems, management systems, business
systems, and, information systems.
- In the oldest and simplest of all system models, a system is a process
- In the diagram below, the simplest process model of a system is based on inputs,
outputs, and the system itself – viewed as a process.

Process Decomposition
- the act of breaking a system into sub-components. Each level of abstraction
reveals more or less detail about the overall system or a subset of that system.
- The figure below shows that a system consists of many subsystems and
processes

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Decomposition Diagrams
- a tool used to depict the decomposition of a system. Also called hierarchy chart.
- This is essentially a planning tool for more detailed process models, namely, data
flow diagrams.
- Below is an example of a decomposition diagram

- The following rules apply for decomposition diagrams:

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o Each process in a decomposition diagram is either a parent process, a

child process (of a parent), or both.
o A parent must have two or more children – a single child does not make
sense because that would not reveal any additional detail about the
system.
o In most decomposition diagramming standards, a child may have only one
parent
o Finally, a child of one parent may be the parent of its own children
- The upper and lower halves of the decomposition diagram above demonstrate two
styles for laying out the processes and connections. You may use either or both as
necessary to present an uncluttered model.
- The connections on a decomposition diagram DO NOT contain arrowheads
because the diagram is meant to show STRUCTURE, NOT FLOW. Also, the
connections are not named. Implicitly they all have the same name – CONSISTS
OF – since the sum of the child processes for a parent process EQUALS the parent
process.

Logical Processes and Conventions

- These are work or actions that MUST be performed and no matter HOW you
implement the system.
- Each logical process is (or will be) implemented as one or more physical processes
that may include work performed by people, work performed by robots or machines,
or work performed by computer software. It doesn’t matter which implementation is
used, however, because logical processes should only indicate THAT there is work
that must be done.
- Naming conventions for logical processes depends on where the process is in the
decomposition diagram/data flow diagram and the type of process depicted.

Types of Logical Processes

Function – a set of related and ongoing activities of a business.

• A function has no start or end. It just continuously performs its work as needed
• Example: a manufacturing system may include the following functions (subsystems):
• Productions planning
• Production scheduling
• Materials management
• Production control
• Quality management
• Inventory control
• Each of these functions may consist of dozens or hundreds of more discrete processes
to support specific activities and tasks
• Function names are nouns that describe the entire function. Other examples are:
order entry, order management, sales reporting, customer relations, and returns and
refunds

Event – a logical unit of work that must be completed as a whole. Sometimes called a
transaction.

• Triggered by a discrete input and is completed when process has responded with
appropriate outputs.
• Functions consist of processes that respond to events.

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• Event process name tends to be very general. Examples are: process customer
order, process customer change of address, generate back-order report, generate
invoice.

Elementary process – a discrete, detailed activity or task required to complete the response
to an event. Also called a primitive process.

• The lowest level of detail depicted in a process model.

• Should be named with strong action verb followed by an object clause that describes
what the work is performed on (or for). Examples are validate customer identification,
validate ordered product number, check product availability, calculate order cost, sort
back orders, get customer address, update customer address, add new customer, and
delete customer.

COMMON PROCESS ERRORS ON DFDS

- Black hole.
o Process has inputs but no outputs (see 3.1.2). data enters the process and
then disappears.
o Process has outputs but no inputs (see 3.1.3). the input flows were likely
forgotten

- Gray hole. The inputs are insufficient to produce an output (see 3.1.1)

Data Flows & Control Flows

Data flow – data that is input to or output from a process. Data flow
name
• A data flow is data in motion

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• A data flow may also be used to rep resent the creation, reading, deletion, or updating
of data in a file or database (called a data store).

Composite data flow – a data flow that consists of other data flows.

Control flow – a condition or nondata event that triggers a process.

• Used sparingly on DFDs. Control flow name

Data Flow Packet Concept

- Data that should travel together should be shown as a single data flow, no matter
how many physical documents might be included.

Composite and Elementary Data Flows

- A composite data flow is a data flow that consists of other data flows. They are
used to combine similar data flows on high-level data flow diagrams to make those
diagrams easier to read.
- Another common use of composite data flows is to consolidate all reports and
inquiry responses into one or two composite flows. The reasons are:
o These outputs can be quite numerous.
o Many modern systems provide extensive user-defined reports and
inquiries that cannot be predicted before the system’s implementation and
use.
- a control flow represents a condition or nondate event that triggers a process

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Composite flow

Elementary
flows

Junction indicates that any

given order is an instance of
only one of the order types.

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Data Flows to and from Data Stores

Rules for Data Flows

• A data flow should never go unnamed.

• In logical modeling, data flow names should describe the data flow without describing the
implementation
• All data flows must begin and/or end at a process.

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Data Conservation

Data conservation – the practice of ensuring that a data flow contains only data needed by
the receiving process.

• Sometimes called starving the processes.

• New emphasis on business process redesign to identify and eliminate inefficiencies.
• Simplifies the interface between those processes.
• Must precisely define the data composition of each data flow, expressed in the form of
data structures.

Data Structures

Data attribute – the smallest piece of data that has meaning to the users and the business.

Data structure – a specific arrangement of data attributes that defines an instance of a data flow.

• The data attributes that comprise a data flow are organized into data structures.
• Data flows can be described in terms of the following types of data structures:
• A sequence or group of data attributes that occur one after another.
• The selection of one or more attributes from a set of attributes.
• The repetition of one or more attributes.

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Data Structure for a Data Flow

Data Structure Constructs

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Data Types and Domains

Data attributes should be defined by data types and domains.

Data type - a class of data that be stored in an attribute.
• Character, integers, real numbers, dates, pictures, etc.

Domain – the legitimate values for an attribute.

Diverging and Converging Data Flows

Diverging data flow – a data flow that splits into multiple data flows.
• Indicates data that starts out naturally as one flow, but is routed to different
destinations.
• Also useful to indicate multiple copies of the same output going to different
destinations.

Converging data flow – the merger of multiple data flows into a single packet.
• Indicates data from multiple sources that can (must) come together as a single packet
for subsequent processing.

When to Draw Process Models

• Strategic systems planning

• Enterprise process models illustrate important business functions.
• Business process redesign
• “As is” process models facilitate critical analysis.
• “To be” process models facilitate improvement.
• Systems analysis (primary focus of this course)
• Model existing system including its limitations
• Model target system’s logical requirements
• Model candidate technical solutions
• Model the target technical solution

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LEARNING ACTIVITY 1

Individual Activity:

1. Recall your enrolment process at PSU. You may want to visit and browse your student
portal to be more familiar with the process.
2. Take note of all data that serve as input during your registration/enrolment process as
well as the output generated by the portal.
3. Using the information you have gathered from the first two activities, construct a data
flow diagram of the enrollment process at our institution using the student as user.

Instructions for document format before submission:

Encode your final answers in MS Word and submit on or before the given deadline. Your answer for
each question should be a maximum of 10 sentences only. Check grammar, spelling errors before
submitting. Place your name, year level and section at the beginning of the page.

LEARNING CONTENT (CLASSICAL STRUCTURED ANALYSIS)

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2

Instructions for document format before submission:

Encode your final answers in MS Word and submit on or before the given deadline. Your answer for
each question should be a maximum of 10 sentences only. Check grammar, spelling errors before
submitting. Place your name, year level and section at the beginning of the page.

LEARNING CONTENT (FACT-FINDING TECHNIQUES)

LEARNING ACTIVITY 3

Instructions for document format before submission:

Encode your final answers in MS Word and submit on or before the given deadline. Your answer for
each question should be a maximum of 10 sentences only. Check grammar, spelling errors before
submitting. Place your name, year level and section at the beginning of the page.

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SUMMARY

REFERENCES

1. Bentley, Lonnie D., Whitten, Jeffrey L., 2007. System Analysis & Design Methods 7th
edition, McGraw-Hill Education.
2. Scott Tilley, 2020, Systems Analysis and Design, Twelfth Edition, Cengage Learning, Inc.
3. Kendall, Kenneth E. & Kendal, Julie E., 2011. System Analysis and Design 8th edition.
Pearson Education, Inc.,.
4. [Link]
5. [Link]
6. [Link]

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