Geometric Design Of Rural Highways

[IRC 73]

Cross Sectional Elements

Pavement Characteristics

i)​ Friction (f): As per IRC recommendation it should lay between 0.35 to 0.40 and lateral
friction is 0.15. With smooth and worn out tyres there exists higher friction on dry
pavements. With new tyres there use to be higher friction on wet pavements.

𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑓) 0. 40 0. 38 0. 37 0. 36 0. 35

Speed (km/h) < 30 40 50 60 > 80

→​ For calculating Stopping Sight Distance, the longitudinal friction coefficient values of
0.35 to 0.40 is recommended by IRC, depending upon the speed. These values
have been suggested by keeping in view minimum coefficient of friction in
longitudinal direction on wet pavements and after allowing suitable Factor of Safety.
Further when longitudinal friction coefficient is 0.4, the resultant retardation
becomes 3.93 m/s2 which creates discomfort for the passengers.

ii)​ Skid: When path travelled along road surface is more than circumferential movement of
wheels
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 > 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

Slip: Rotation of wheels is more than longitudinal movement.

𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 > 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

iii)​ Light Reflecting Characteristic of Pavement: Black top pavement with white borders;
Black top reduces glare during day time and white borders guides the traffic during night.
𝐴𝑙𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑠 ⟹𝑅𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠

iv)​ Pavement Unevenness: Cumulative vertical undulation measured per unit horizontal
distance. It is measured using the Bump Indicators developed by CRRI. For a good
Pavement:
[𝑈𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛]≤150 𝑐𝑚/𝑘𝑚

Camber/ Cross Slope/ Cross Fall

→​ Transverse Slope provided to the road to drain off surface water from the pavement.

Pavement Material Rainfall

Heav Low
y

Cement Concrete or High type 2% 1. 7%

Bitumen

Thin Bitumen 2. 5% 2%

WBM or Gravel 3% 2. 5%
Earth Roads 4% 3%

→​ Camber of shoulder is 0.5% steeper than camber of roads subjected to minimum of 3%.

→​ On super-elevated sections camber of road is same as that of the road.

→​ For cement concrete roads, straight line camber is preferred.

→​ Parabolic or elliptical cambers are preferred for overtaking operations.

(𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡) = 2 * (𝐶𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟)

Width of Pavement/ Carriage way

Type of Pavement Width of Lane

Single lane 3. 75 𝑚
Double lane without Kerb 7𝑚
Double lane with Kerb 7. 5 𝑚
Intermediate lane 5. 5 𝑚
Multilane Pavement 3. 5 𝑚/𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

→​ Intermediate lane is provided between lanes for traffic operation manoeuvres such as
overtaking, crossing, merging, diverging etc.
Kerb

→​ It is the boundary between road and shoulder. It differentiates pavement from footpath and
provides lateral support to the pavement.

Width of Formation/ Roadway

→​ Width of road from shoulder to shoulder.

→​ For single lane, two way traffic movement:

𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 [𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡]
⎡ 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⎤ =
⎣ ⎦ −[𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑟]

→​ For two lane, two way traffic:

𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 [𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡] +[𝑀𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ]
⎡ ⎤=
⎣ 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⎦ −[𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑆ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑𝑒𝑟]

→​ Width of formation for bridges:

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒⇒4. 25 𝑚

𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑑𝑔𝑒⇒7. 5 𝑚

 This width is measured from outer side of parapet wall [Bridge (Length) > 6 m, Culvert
(Length) < 6 m].

Median/ Divider

→​ Main purpose is to segregate traffic to avoid head-on collision and further reducing glaring
effect at night.

→​ IRC recommendation for rural highways, median width = 5 m subject to a minimum of 3

m if land in restricted.

Road Margin

→​ These are the amenities that can be provided in road margins:

Cycle Track (width = 2 m)

Guard Rail (Height of fill > 3m)

Lay-Bayes (for Bus stops)

Driveways (For Petrol Pumps)

Service Roads/ Frontage Road (For road side

amenities and for enter and exit main road)

Shoulder

Footpath (Width = 1.5 m)

→​ Shoulder: Extra width provided adjacent to road that can be used as an emergency lane.
Its colour should be different and also it should be rougher from road. As per IRC,
minimum width of shoulder be 2.5 m for 2 lane rural highway. It also provides lateral
support to base and sub-base.

→​ Right of way [ROW]: It is area of land acquired for construction of road along the
alignment and width of that area in known as land width.
 →​ Width of Formation:

Plain and Rolling Terrain Mountainous and Steep Terrain

State Highway/ Single Lane 12 𝑚 6. 25 𝑚

National Highway
Two Lane 12 𝑚 8. 8 𝑚

→​ In between boundary line and building line, not a single construction is allowed while
temporary constructions can be permitted between building line and control line.

Sight Distances

Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)/ Non-Passing Sight Distance/ Absolute Minimum Sight
Distance/ Headlight Sight Distance

→​ Length of the road visible ahead of the driver from a specified height above carriage way at
any specific time to stop the vehicle before collision.

𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐿𝑎𝑔 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 + 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝐿𝑎𝑔 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = Distance travelled by vehicle during total reaction time.

𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = Distance travelled by a vehicle after applying the brake to dead stop
position
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 = Actual duration for which brakes are applied
2
𝑣
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 + 2𝑔𝑓

Here, 𝑣 = velocity of the vehicle

 𝑡 = Total reaction time
𝑔 = Acceleration due to gravity
𝑓 = Coefficient of friction for road surface

→​ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡): Depends of two factors:

i)​ Perception Time: Time between watching and reacting by the driver of the vehicle.

ii)​ Brake Reaction Time: Time between reaction and action of the driver of the
vehicle.

Further total reaction time is analysed using PIEV theory:

→​ Effect of gradient on braking distance: If the road has a slope Ɵ then its effect on braking
distance(𝑙) will be given by:
2
𝑣
𝑙= 2𝑔(tan𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ +𝑓)

→​ Final equation for Stopping Sight Distance:

2
𝑣
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 + 2𝑔𝑓𝑏

2
𝑣
𝑆𝑆𝐷 = 𝑣𝑡 + 2𝑔(𝑓𝑏±𝑥%)

Here, 𝑏 = Braking Efficiency and 𝑥% = Gradient of slope (positive for upward gradient and
negative for downward gradient).

Type of Road Stopping Sight Distance Provided

Single lane one-way road 𝑆𝑆𝐷

Single lane two-way road 2𝑆𝑆𝐷

Two lane two-way road 𝑆𝑆𝐷

→​ For calculating Stopping Sight Distance prescribed reaction time by IRC is 2.5 second.
Overtaking Sight Distance

→​ It is the minimum distance available to the driver of a vehicle trying to overtake slow
vehicle ahead with safety from traffic of opposite direction.

→​ Analysis of Overtaking Sight Distance (OSD):

𝑑1 = 𝑣𝑏𝑡

Here, 𝑣𝑏 = Speed of vehicle A when it is following vehicle B. When following speed of A is

considered equal to vehicle B.
𝑡 = Reaction Time = 2.0 second recommended for OSD by IRC.

𝑑2 = 𝑏 + 2𝑠

Here,
𝑏 = 𝑣𝑏𝑇

'
( )
𝑠 = [𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑤𝑎𝑦 ] = 0. 7𝑣 + 𝐿 = (0. 2𝑣 + 𝐿)

𝑠 = Space-Headway in m
'
𝑣 = Design Speed of highway or speed of oncoming or overtaking vehicle in m/s

𝑣 = Design Speed of highway or speed of oncoming or overtaking vehicle in km/h

𝐿 = Length of wheel base in m (6.0 m)

1 2
𝑑2 = 𝑣𝑏𝑇 + 2
𝑎𝑇

1 2
2𝑠 = 2
𝑎𝑇

4𝑠
⇒𝑇 = 𝑎

𝑇 = Time taken by vehicle to reach from A2 to A3 or B1 to B2 or C1 to C2.

𝑎 = Acceleration of overtaking vehicle
𝑑3 = 𝑣𝑐𝑇
 •​ If not given, speed of the slower vehicle:
𝑣𝑏 = (𝑣 − 4. 5)𝑚/𝑠

𝑣𝑏 = (𝑣 − 16)𝑘𝑚/ℎ

Case Recommended OSD

One way 𝑑1 + 𝑑2

Two way 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3

Undivided 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 + 𝑑3

Divided 𝑑1 + 𝑑2

Four-lane Undivided 𝑑1 + 𝑑2

→​ Overtaking Zone:

Intermediate Sight Distance

𝑆𝑆𝐷 < 𝐼𝑆𝐷 < 𝑂𝑆𝐷

→​ As per IRC:
𝐼𝑆𝐷 = 2𝑆𝑆𝐷

→​ ISD is provided only when OSD can’t be provided due to site consideration in mostly hilly
region.

Stopping Sight Overtaking Sight Intermediate Sight

Distance Distance Distance

Height of 0. 15 𝑚 1. 2 𝑚 1. 2 𝑚
Object
Height of 1. 2 𝑚 1. 2 𝑚 1. 2 𝑚
Driver

Horizontal Alignment

→​ Design Speed for Urban Roads:

Class of Roads Arterial Sub-Arterial Collectors Local Streets

Design Speed (km/h) 80 60 50 30

→​ Design Speed for Rural Highway:

Terrain
Class of Roads
Plain Rolling

Ruling Minimum Ruling Minimum

National Highway/ State Highway 100 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 80 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 80 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 65 𝑘𝑚/ℎ

Major District Roads 80 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 65 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 65 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 50 𝑘𝑚/ℎ

Other District Roads 65 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 50 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 50 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 40 𝑘𝑚/ℎ

Village Roads 50 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 40 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 40 𝑘𝑚/ℎ 35 𝑘𝑚/ℎ

→​ Horizontal Curves: On moving through it, vehicle is subjected to centrifugal force acting in
outward direction.

→​ Effect of force when there isn’t any super-elevation:

PA and PB are pressure bulbs in which 𝑃𝐴 > 𝑃𝐵

On being on verge of overturning
𝑃𝐵 = 0
 For Overturning:
𝑏
𝑃ℎ≥𝑊 2

For Lateral Skidding:

𝑃≥𝑓𝑊
𝑃
𝐼𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑢𝑔𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = 𝑊

In limiting condition:
2
𝑃 𝑏 𝑣
𝑊
= 2ℎ
= 𝑓= 𝑔𝑅

Case 1.​ Avoiding Overturning:

𝑃 𝑏
⇒ 𝑊
< 2ℎ

Case 2.​ Avoiding Skidding:

𝑃
𝑊
<𝑓

Case 3.​ Avoiding Skidding and Overturning both:

𝑃
𝑊
< 𝑚𝑖𝑛 { 𝑏
2ℎ
,𝑓 }
Case 4.​ Vehicle skid prior to overturning:
( 𝑏
2ℎ
>𝑓 , 𝑓< )( 𝑃
𝑊
<
𝑏
2ℎ )
Case 5.​ Vehicle overturn prior to skid:
( 𝑏
2ℎ
<𝑓 , 𝑓> )( 𝑃
𝑊
>
𝑏
2ℎ )
→​ Pot Holes are small bowl shaped holes developed on the surface layer of flexible
pavement generally after rain. When a vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve on a highway,
without super elevation the pressure on the tyres on the outer edge is more than that on
inner ones. Hence the chance of appearance of Pot Holes is more on outer edge.

Super elevation/ Cant/ Banking

→​ It is the practice of raising the outer edge wrt the inner edge to counteract the centrifugal
force and to reduce the tendency of vehicle to overturn.
 𝑃 cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ = 𝑊 sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ + 𝑓(𝑊 cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ + 𝑃 sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ )
𝑃 tan𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ +𝑓 𝑒+𝑓
𝑊
= 1−𝑓tan𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ
= 1−𝑒𝑓

𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 (1 − 𝑒𝑓)≈1

2 2
𝑃 𝑣 𝑉
⇒ 𝑊
= 𝑔𝑅
= 𝑒+ 𝑓= 127𝑅

Here, 𝑣 = Design Speed in m/s

𝑉 = Design speed in km/h
𝑅 = Radius of curve in m

→​ Equilibrium Super elevation: When entire centrifugal force is counter-acted by providing

super elevation then theoretical contribution of friction is negligible and pressure in inner
and outer tyre will be equal:
2 2
𝑃 𝑣 𝑉
𝑊
= 𝑔𝑅
= 127𝑅
= 𝑒

→​ Attainment of Super Elevation:

Step 1:​ Elimination of crown. This can be achieved with one of the given two
methods:

Method 1:​ Rotation of outer edge wrt the centre.

Method 2:​ Diagonal crown method (not used generally)

 Step 2:​ Rotation of Pavement. Rotation of pavement can be carried out in one of
the given two methods:

Method 1:​ Rotation of pavement wrt the inner edge. When pavement is
rotated about inner edge:
●​ Centreline won’t remain same.
●​ Earthwork isn’t balanced.
●​ No drainage associated problem.

Method 2:​ Rotation of pavement wrt centre. When pavement is rotated about
centre:
●​ Centreline remains the same throughout the curve.
●​ Earthwork gets balanced.
●​ Drainage problem may occur (which may be eliminated by
constructing the curve on an embankment).

→​ Rate of change of Super elevation:

1
𝑁
= tan 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ

𝑦1 1
⇒ 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 𝑁

𝑊𝑁𝐶
⇒ 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑁𝑦1 = 2

𝑊𝐶
⇒ 𝑦1 = 2

Here, 𝑦1 = Height of crown in straight section

𝑊 = Width of the pavement
𝐶 = Camber

→​ Tangent Runout: Length of roadway needed to fulfil the change in outside lane
cross-slope from normal to zero or vice-versa.
→​ Super-elevation Run-off: Length of roadway needed to fulfil the change in outside lane
cross slope from zero to full super-elevation or vice-versa.

[𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 ] = [𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑢𝑛 − 𝑜𝑓𝑓 ]

2 𝑟𝑑
In case where transition curve can’t be provided, 3
of the super elevation may be
1 𝑟𝑑
attained in straight section before the start of circular curve and remaining 3
is
provided in the circular curve itself.

→​ Design Super Elevation:

●​ High value of super elevation is considered safer for fast moving vehicles but is
inconvenient for slower vehicles.

●​ Hence for practical considerations, it is suggested to keep super elevation such that
it counter-act a centrifugal force of 75% design speed by neglecting lateral friction.

2 2
(0.75𝑉) 𝑉
⇒ 𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑠 = 127𝑅
= 225𝑅

→​ Method to design Super elevation for a curve:

Step 1:​ Calculate design super elevation for the curve:

2
𝑉
𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 225𝑅

For 𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙 ≤ 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥, keep 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙.

For 𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙 > 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥, move to step 2.

Step 2:​ Assume 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 and calculate coefficient of friction (𝑓) using given
equation:
 2
𝑉
𝑒+𝑓 = 127𝑅

For 𝑓≤0. 15, then put 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥.

For 𝑓 > 0. 15, then keep 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥, with 𝑓 = 0. 15 and move to step 3.

Step 3:​ Calculate allowable speed while keeping 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 and 𝑓 = 0. 15:
2
𝑉𝑎𝑙
𝑒+𝑓 = 127𝑅

⇒ 𝑉𝑎𝑙 = 127 * 0. 22𝑅

For 𝑉𝑎𝑙 > 𝑉, then the alright otherwise restrict speed by using Speed limiting sign.

→​ Maximum Super elevation recommended:

Plain and rolling terrains in Rural Roads and Area covered which may get 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 7%
covered with snow in Rural Roads

Hilly Rural Roads without snow 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 10%

Urban Roads 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4%

→​ Minimum Super Elevation:

𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐶𝑎𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

→​ Ruling Minimum Radius: If ruling velocity is 𝑉 then ruling minimum radius will be given by:
2
𝑉
𝑅𝑅𝑀 =
(
127 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥+𝑓 )

→​ Absolute Minimum Radius:

2
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑅𝐴𝑀 =
(
127 𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑥+𝑓 )

→​ Minimum Radius beyond which no Super elevation is required: (Here 𝐶 = Camber)

2
𝑉
𝑅= 225𝐶

→​ Super elevation is always kept less than coefficient of friction as to insure lateral stability of
the standing vehicle.
Extra Widening

→​ Objectives to provide extra-widening:

i)​ To avoid off-tracking due to rigidity of wheel base.

ii)​ To increase visibility at curves.
iii)​ To counter-act transverse skidding.
iv)​ To counter-act psychological tendency during overtaking operations.

→​ Off-tracking is the occurrence of a situation when path traversed by front axle isn’t same
as path traversed by rare axle:
2
𝑙
⇒ 𝑂𝑓𝑓 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 = 2𝑅

2
𝑙 𝑣
𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 ⇒ 𝑊𝑒 = 𝑛 2𝑅
+
9.5 𝑅

Here, 𝑛 = Number of lanes.

𝑙 = Wheel base (usually 6m).
2
𝑙
𝑛 2𝑅
= Total mechanical widening.
𝑣
= Psychological Widening (For single lane road its value is zero).
9.5 𝑅

→​ Above formula is valid for 2 lane roads. If we need to find this for 3 lane then it is required
to first find it for 2 lanes and raise it by 50%.

→​ For curves of small radius (high centrifugal force), rotation of pavement about centre-line
is preferred to provide Extra-Widening and Super Elevation simultaneously.

→​ Providing Extra-Widening in a curve:

Case 1.​ For 𝑅 < 50𝑚, extra-widening is provided on the inner side of the curve.

Case 2.​ For 50𝑚 < 𝑅 < 300𝑚, extra-widening is provided on the both sides of
the curve.

Case 3.​ For 300𝑚 < 𝑅, practically there isn’t any need of extra-widening.
 2 𝑟𝑑
→​ In case where transition curve can’t be provided, 3
of the extra-widening may be
1 𝑟𝑑
provided in straight section before the start of circular curve and remaining 3
is
provided in the circular curve itself.

Transition Curve

→​ Transition curves are provided between straight and circular section of a curve in such a
way the radius of the curvature of the road gradually changes from infinity to R. Objectives
to provide transition curve:

i)​ To introduce gradually the centrifugal force between straight section and circular
section.
ii)​ To avoid heavy Jerks (= Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration wrt time).
iii)​ To introduce super elevation and extra widening gradually.
iv)​ To enable driver to turn the vehicle gradually with comfort and safety.
v)​ To improve aesthetic appearance of the curve.

→​ Types of transition Curve:

i)​ Spiral or Clothoid ii)​ Cubic Parabola iii)​ Bernoulli’s Lemniscate

→​ Ideal shape of Transition curve is Spiral or Clothoid because of the given reasons:

i)​ Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is constant.

ii)​ Calculation and field implementation is easy.
iii)​ Length of Transition curve is inversely proportional to radius of curve.

→​ Length of Transition Curve:

i)​ Based on rate of change of centrifugal acceleration wrt time:

 3
𝑣
𝐿𝑠 = 𝐶𝑅

Here,
80
𝐶 = 𝐽𝑒𝑟𝑘 = 75+𝑉
= 0. 5 𝑡𝑜 0. 6

ii)​ Based on rate of change of Extra-widening and Super elevation:

(
𝑒𝑁 𝑊+𝑊𝑒 )
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 ⇒ 𝐿𝑠 = 2

𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑑𝑔𝑒 ⇒ 𝐿𝑠 = 𝑒𝑁 𝑊 + 𝑊𝑒 ( )

1
𝑁
= tan 𝑡𝑎𝑛 θ ⇒ 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Plane and Rolling Terrain Hilly Terrain

𝑁 Value 150 60

iii)​ Empirical Formulas: Here design speed 𝑉 is given in km/h and radius of curve 𝑅 is
given in metre.

For plain and Rolling Terrain

2
2.7𝑉
𝐿𝑠 = 𝑅

For Hilly Terrain

2
2.7𝑉
𝐿𝑠 = 𝑅

→​ Elements of a curve:

i)​ Tangent Distance:

∆ 𝐿𝑠
𝑇𝑠 = (𝑅 + 𝑆) tan 𝑡𝑎𝑛 2
+ 2

ii)​ Apex Distance:

∆
𝐸𝑠(≈𝐵𝑃) = (𝑅 + 𝑆) sec 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
−𝑅

iii)​ Angle subtended by circular curve on centre:

 𝐿𝑐 180
θ𝑐 = 𝑅
* π

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 ⇒ 𝐿𝑐 = 𝑅θ𝑐

2
𝐿𝑠
𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 ⇒𝑆 = 24𝑅

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 = 𝐿𝑐 + 2𝐿𝑠

Set Back Distance

→​ It is the clearance distance required from centreline of the curve to an obstruction on

the inner side of the curve to provide adequate sight distance.

Case 1.​ If curve length 𝐿𝑐 > 𝑆𝑆𝐷.

i)​ For Single lane road:

 ii)​ For Two lane road:

Case 2.​ If curve length 𝐿𝑐 < 𝑆𝑆𝐷.

i)​ For single lane road:

𝐿𝑐 180
For two lane road: θ𝑐 = 2𝑅
* π

(
𝑀 = ⎡⎢ 𝑆 −
⎣
𝐿𝑐
2 ) sin 𝑠𝑖𝑛 θ ⎤⎥⎦ + [(𝑅 − 𝑑) − (𝑅 − 𝑑) cos 𝑐𝑜𝑠 θ ]
𝑐 𝑐

Vertical Alignment

Gradient

→​ It is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road. Types of Gradient:

i)​ Ruling Gradient (Design Gradient): Maximum gradient desired by the designer
want to provide to the vertical profile of the road. It depends on the type of terrain,
speed and pulling power of the vehicle.
 ii)​ Limiting Gradient: This gradient is steeper than ruling gradient and it is provided
only when there is tremendous increase in cost on using ruling gradient.

iii)​ Exceptional Gradient: It is steeper than ruling or limiting gradient and it is provided
only when circumstances become unavoidable. This gradient isn’t provided for a
road length greater than 100 m.

iv)​ Minimum Gradient: It is provided along length of the road for drainage purposes.

Cement Concrete Road Kutcha Road

Minimum Gradient 1 1
500 200

→​ Critical length of gradient is the length of road along which there will be no change in
speed when moving towards upward gradient.

→​ Grade Compensation: When there is gradient in addition to curve, then there will be
increased resistance to traction hence it is necessary to compensate the gradient and
horizontal curve in hilly terrain:

[𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ] = [𝑅𝑢𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ] − [𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ]

𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ⟩ 𝐺𝐶 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 { 30+𝑅

𝑅
,
75
𝑅 }

As per IRC, grade compensation isn’t necessary for grade flatter than 4%.

Terrain Ruling Limiting Exceptional

Gradient (%) Gradient (%) Gradient (%)

Plain and Rolling 3. 3 5 6. 7

Mountainous and steep terrain having 5 6 7

elevation more than 3000 m above MSL

Mountainous and steep terrain not having 6 7 8

elevation more than 3000 m above MSL

Vertical Curves
I.​ Summit Curves: Change in grade such that initial grade is positive and final grade is
negative:
𝑁 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2

→​ If in a vertical curve point of intersection of grades lies above the curve then it is
called a summit curve.

→​ Summit curve is convex upward and concave downward.

→​ Square Parabola is generally preferred for summit curve due to following reasons:

i.​ Best riding quality

ii.​ Simplicity in designing.
iii.​ Uniform rate of change of grade.

→​ Ideal shape for a summit curve is circular as in that case sight distance availability
remains constant throughout.

→​ Generally there is problem of discomfort on summit curve because centrifugal force

acts in upward direction and gravity force in downward direction as a part of
pressure on tyre and load on suspension of the vehicle gets released.

→​ Design of Summit Curve is based on sight distance only:

i.​ When equation of the summit is written wrt initial point of tangency (A) as
shown:
 ' 2
𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
2
𝑁𝑥
𝑦= 2𝐿

𝑦 = 𝑛1𝑥 − 𝑦'

ii.​ When equation is written wrt the tangent as shown:

2
𝑁𝑥
𝑦= 2𝐿

→​ When grade are equal, the curve would be symmetric about vertical bisector of
intersecting angle and highest point lies on the on this bisector.

→​ When two grades are unequal the curve would be tilted and the highest point of the
curve would lie on the side of flatter gradient.

→​ For Summit point:

𝑑𝑦'
𝑑𝑥
= 0

𝑛1𝐿
⇒𝑥 = 𝑁

𝐿
Hence summit point is at a distance = 𝑛1 𝑁
from starting of first gradient.

→​ Length of Summit Curve:

 i.​ When length of curve is greater than Stopping Sight Distance (general
equation):
2
𝑁𝑆
𝐿= 2
( 2𝐻+ 2ℎ)

Here, 𝑆 = Stopping Sight Distance

𝑁 = 𝑛1 + 𝑛2
𝐻 = Height of eye level of driver.
ℎ = Height of object above the pavement surface in m.
As per IRC:
2
𝑁𝑆
𝐿= 4.4

ii.​ When length of curve is less than Stopping Sight Distance:

𝐿 = 2𝑆 − (
2𝐻+ 2ℎ)
𝑁

As per IRC:
4.4
𝐿 = 2𝑆 − 𝑁

Here 𝑆 = Stopping Sight Distance

iii.​ When length of curve is greater than Overtaking Sight Distance:

2
𝑁𝑆
𝐿= 8𝐻

As per IRC:
2
𝑁𝑆
𝐿= 9.6

Here, 𝑆 = Overtaking Sight Distance

iv.​ When length of curve is less than Overtaking Sight Distance:

8𝐻
𝐿 = 2𝑆 − 𝑁
 As per IRC:
9.6
𝐿 = 2𝑆 − 𝑁

Here, 𝑆 = Overtaking Sight Distance

II.​ Valley Curve: Change of grade in such a way that initial grade is negative and final grade
is positive.

→​ If point of vertical intersection lies below the curve, it is called valley curve. Valley
curve is concave upward and convex downward.

→​ Cubic parabola is generally preferred in case of valley curve to gradually introduce

the centrifugal force. For small angle of deflection:

𝐶𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑎 ≈𝑆𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑎𝑙≈𝐵𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑖'𝑠 𝐿𝑒𝑚𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒

→​ IRC recommended square parabola for simplifying calculations. Valley curve is

usually made of two transition curves of equal length without having circular curve
in between.

→​ Centrifugal force and weight of the vehicle acts in downward direction which
creates discomfort for the passengers.

→​ Criteria for design of Valley Curve:

i.​ Headlight Sight Distance

ii.​ Motorist Comfort
iii.​ Cross Drainage considerations
iv.​ Aesthetic appearance.

→​ Stopping Sight Distance doesn’t use to be a problem in case of valley curve

because at night other vehicles with headlights can be seen from a considerable
distance.

→​ Length of Valley Curve:

 i.​ Valley Curve length as per Motorist Comfort:
1
3 2
𝐿𝑣 = 2⎡⎢
𝑁𝑣 ⎤ = 0. 38 𝑁𝑉3
𝐶 ⎥
⎣ ⎦

Here, 𝐶 = Jerk
𝑉 = Speed of vehicle in km/h
𝑣 = Speed of vehicle in suitable units.

ii.​ Valley Curve Length based on Headlight Sight Distance:

Case 1.​ Length of valley curve greater than Stopping Sight

(
Distance 𝐿𝑣 > 𝑆 : )
2 2
𝑁𝑆 𝑁𝑆
𝐿𝑣 = 2ℎ+2𝑆tan𝑡𝑎𝑛 α
= 1.5+0.035𝑆

Here, ℎ = Height of Headlight (= 0.75 m)

α = Beam angle (= 1˚)
𝑆 = Stopping Sight Distance

Case 2.​ When Length of Valley Curve is less than Stopping Sight
(
Distance 𝐿𝑣 < 𝑆 : )
𝐿𝑣 = ⎡2𝑆 −
⎣ ( 1.5+0.035𝑆
𝑁 )⎤⎦
→​ Length of Summit Curve depends on:

i.​ Stopping Sight Distance for single lane two-way highway.

ii.​ Overtaking Sight Distance for two lane two way highway.

→​ Provisions of emergency escape ramp on longitudinal descending grades is

appropriate for slowing or stopping out of control vehicle away from the main
stream traffic.

→​ Diagram showing all important physical conditions of an accident including road

condition of an accident including road location, bridges, trees etc. is called
Condition Diagram.