MOUSTADAMA

Promoting an Energy Sustainable

Palestinian Industry
 Renewable Energy Training
Design, Installation, Operations, and Maintenance of
Solar PV Systems
Module 2 –
Session 1: PV Systems Components
PV MODULES
 Solar Cells

• Solar Cell: is defined as an electrical device that converts light energy into
electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect.

• A PV module consists of a number of interconnected solar cells (typically 36,

60, 72 connected in series or parallel inside modules) encapsulated into a
single, long-lasting, stable unit.

• By connecting the negative pole (front) of each cell with the positive pole
▪ Solar Cell:
(back) of the following cell, the cells are connected in series.
- Generator under sun.
• Solar Cells work as electric generators under the sun. - DC current & voltage.

• The output = DC current & DC voltage. - Semiconductor (Si).

- A group of cells
• Solar cells consist of semiconductor elements (the most common element is
connected in series is
Silicon).
called a panel.
 How Solar Cells Work?
• The distribution of electrons in silicon within three orbits, which contain 14 Electrons, the first orbit takes 2
Electrons and second takes 8 Electrons and third take 4 electrons.
• Doping (adding impurities from group III [one extra hole p-type ] or V [one extra electron n-type]) silicon
increases the conductivity.
• If the PN-semiconductor (SOLAR CELL) is now exposed to light, photons with enough energy can be absorbed by
the electrons.
• An electron bond can be broken by the action of light or heat. The electron is then free to move and leaves a
broken bond (hole).

▪ Silicon has 4 e free.

▪ Doping (Add impurities).

▪ Photon energy move e.

▪ Hole (P), Electron (N).

 How Solar Cell Work?
• When photons fall on a solar cell, electrons are liberated and the resulting gaps,
and by the electric field, the electrons move resulting in an electric current.

Light (Photon) Si (PN) Electron (Hole) Current

 Absorption & Recombination

Light + Electron + Photon

Absorption Recombination

• Is the absorption of light falling on the cell by gaining electrons, and when
appropriate, the energy of the electron is liberated from his place. ▪ Electron returns from a high
• Band gap of crystalline Si is 1.12 ev . level to a lower level, due to
loss of power.
Cell & Module & Array

• Cells : from silicon or the element germanium.

• Module : A group of cells connected in series.
• Array : A group of modules connected in series or parallel.
Type of Solar Cells
• PV cells are made of light-sensitive semiconductor materials that
use photons to dislodge electrons to drive an electric current. There
are two broad categories of technology used for PV cells, namely,
crystalline silicon and thin film.
Type of Solar Cells
PV Cells

Crystalline Silicon Thin Film

Mono Amorphous-Si

CIGS
Poly (Copper Indium Gallium Selenide)
 Monocrystalline
• Efficiency: 16-18% (above 18% after 2020 because there are new technologies).
• Size: 12.5x 12.5cm^2 (old); or 15x 15cm^2 ;(15.8x15.8cm^2).
▪ Monocrystalline Cell:
• Expensive: (because the Czochralski process).
Manufactured from a single crystal with
• Energy: The best energy output compared with other cells. perfect silicon structure ,It is the highest
• Color: Dark in color. efficiency compare with other cells.
• Form: It forms a circular or square.
• Impurities: No impurities.

▪ What is Czochralski?

▪ Explain Why dark color?

Polycrystalline
• Efficiency: 13-15% (above 17% after 2020 because
there are new technologies).
• Size: 12.5x 12.5cm^2 (old); or 15x
15cm^2 ;(15.6x15.6cm^2); (21x21cm^2).
• Cheaper than Mono: (Explain why?). ▪ Polycrystalline Cell:
• Energy: less than Mono. PV cells made by casting silicon in a mold,
• Color: light in color (blue, silver). which once it solidifies , creates many
crystals within the cell. Polycrystalline
• Form: square. cell is less efficient than mono cell.
• Impurities: consists of impurities adding to silicon.

▪ Explain Why light color?

(different orientation)
 Thin Film
• Efficiency: less than 10% (5,7, 9%).
• Size: standard modules, maximum 0.79x 2.44m^2; special modules,
maximum2x 3m^2 .
▪ Amorphous Cell:
• The cheapest: (Explain why?). Thin film is made by depositing layers of
• Energy: less than Mono & Poly. semiconductor material barely 0.3 to 2
micrometers thick onto glass or stainless steel
• Color: reddish brown to blue or blue-violet. substrates. As the semiconductor layers

• Form: One unit of solar panel. are so thin, the costs of raw material are much
lower than the capital equipment and

• Impurities: thin layers of silicon. processing costs.

▪ Disadvantage: Need more

area.

▪ Advantage: little effect with

Temperature.
 Bifacial
• Efficiency: around 19.5% - 24.7%.
• Size: 15x 15cm^2 ;(15.6x15.6cm^2); (21x21cm^2).
• Energy: More energy than Mono, thin film & Poly.
• Color: Dark in color.
• Form: It forms a circular or square.
• Bifacial PV converts sunlight to DC electricity on both the front and back
of the PV modules

▪ Disadvantage: Need more

reflected area.

▪ Advantage: little effect with

Temperature.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOLAR CELLS
Standards
• STC : Standard Test Conditions
• NOCT : Nominal Operating Cell Temperature ▪ STC use in design and
manufacture.
• CEC : California Energy Commission) and ▪ PV Modules data sheet &

• PTC : Performance Test Conditions) name plate (STC &NOCT).

Solar Cell Standards

STC NOCT CEC PTC
Tempruture 25 C /cell 20 C / Ambient 20 C / Ambient 20 C / Ambient
Irradiance 1000 W/M^2 800 W/M^2 1000 W/M^2 1000 W/M^2
Air Mass (AM) 1.5
Wind Speed 1 M/S 1 M/S 1 M/S
 IV - Curve
• Basically, the I-V curve is characterized by the following three
points:
1) The maximum power point tracking (MPPT) value is the point on
the I-V curve at which the solar cell works with maximum power.

2 ) The short-circuit current Isc is approximately 5 per cent to 15

per cent higher than the MPP current. With crystalline standard
cells (10cm x 10cm) under STC, the short-circuit current is around
the 3A (now 2020 around 10 A).

3) The open-circuit voltage Voc registers, with crystalline cells,

approximately 0.5V to 0.6V, and for amorphous cells is
approximately 0.6V to 0.9V.
▪ IV Curve contains all technical information that helps in cell analysis.

▪ Series & parallel connection effect voltage & current.

 IV - Curve
• X- Axis
Voc = open circuit voltage & current = zero (without load).
Vmax = max voltage under load.
• Y- Axis
Ish = short circuit current & voltage = zero (without load )
Imax = max current under load.
• The point in curve (MPPT)
MPPT = Vmax × Imax (Wp)

- If the curve move to right that means increase voltage and the connection is series.

- If the curve move to up that means increase current and the connection is parallel.
Connected Series
• In PV modules, the solar cells are largely connected in series to create a higher voltage.
• In design stage, the solar panels connected series (Strings) to get high voltage.
• When connected series the current is same value.
• There are some of losses in series connected (mismatch).
• Solar modules consists of 36,60,72 cells (in series).
• Usually, the voltage of solar panel around 40 v (40 – 45 v) for crystalline above 350 W.
• Vmodule (Voc) = Vcell × No cell

• Ex:
solar panel consists 72 cells &voltage for one cell = 0.6 V
- calculate voltage of module?
All of cell including panel connected series
Vmodule = 0.6 × 72 = 43.2 V.
 Connected Series
• If two or more modules are connected in series, they are commonly called as a series string.
 Connected Parallel
• A number of modules can be assembled and connected in parallel.
• In the design stage, the strings are connected in parallel to the inverter.
• When connected in parallel, the current increases but the voltage stays
the same.
• If you connect in parallel, more protections is needed due to high current.
• Parallel connections are used in off-grid systems.
• I module (Ish) = Icell

EXAMPLE:
solar panel consists 72 cells &current for one cell = 8 A
- calculate current of module?
All cells are connected in series
I module = 8 A.
 Connected Parallel
• There are two solar modules, and their terminals are connected,
The positive (+) lead on one module connects to the positive (+)
lead on the other at the positive busbar in the combiner box. Same
happens to negative leads as well.
 Efficiency
• Efficiency of solar panels depends on solar
radiation , area, and type of cell.
• The efficiency of solar panels does not exceed
30% in laboratory conditions at best.
• The efficiency of crystalline panels is usually
about 15-20 %.
• Note that the best module is the high
efficiency and small area.
 Efficiency
• Estimate the efficiency for solar panel having the
below characteristics:
- half-cut cells (crystalline).
- P= 300 W.
- Length= 1.65 m & Width = 1 m
- consider solar radiation 1000 W/m^2

solution:
eff = {300 / ( 1000 * (1.65*1)) }*100%
eff = 18.18 %
Efficiency
• Estimate the efficiency for solar panel with the below
characteristics:
- half-cut cells (crystalline).
- P= 450 W.
- Length= 2 m & Width = 1 m
- consider solar radiation 1000 W/m^2

solution:
eff = {450/ ( 1000 * (2*1)) }*100%
eff = 22.5 %

▪ When you choose the modules, you should look for:

- high-efficiency with minimum area needs.
- balanced price with advantage and disadvantage.
THE EFFECT ON SOLAR PANELS
(TEMPERATURE & RADIATION)
 General Effects

• Solar panels are affected by many variables which may affect efficiency and
productivity.
• We will study the effects on the main parameters (V,I,P,E).
General Effects on PV

Life Time
Temperature Solar Radiation Power Shading (Hot Spot)
(Degradation)
 Temperature
• Solar panels are manufactured at standard test condition (STC) T=25 C.
‫تأثير الحرارة على الفولتية أكبر وواضح‬
• Temperature changes affect solar cell performance (especially voltage).
• The temperature coefficients for the open-circuit voltage and the short-circuit current are measured for the
module certification to IEC 61215.
- Explain why temperature affects voltage & current ?

- Compare effect between crystalline & thin film.

V I P E
Increase T
Decrease T
Solar Radiation
• Solar radiation changes in day and season ( low in morning & winter, high in mid day &
summer).
• Changes in solar radiation affects solar cell performance. ‫تأثير اإلشعاع الشمسي على التيار أكبر وواضح‬

• Power increases directly with the increase in solar radiation at fixed temperature.

- Explain why radiation affects current?

V I P E - Compare effect between crystalline & thin film.
Increase Radiation
Decrease Radiation

▪ The changes in irradiance affect the module current

most of all since the current is directly dependent
upon the irradiance. When irradiance drops by half,
the electricity generated also reduces by half.
 Power
• Power of panel is affected by solar radiation and ‫زيادة االشعاع الشمسي مع نقصان درجة‬
temperature. .‫الحرارة يحسن من أداء الخلية الشمسية‬

• Sometimes the power in winter is good and the

production is high (Explain Why).
P E
Increase Radiation
Increase Temperature

▪ Increasing solar radiation leads to an increase in

temperature, but the significant increase in
productivity (from radiation) compensates for the
heat loss by the solar panel.
 Shading – Hot Spot (Problem)
• Avoid installing solar panels in a shaded place (in design and installation process). ‫الظل يعمل بقعة سوداء على الخلية‬
• 1) If a leaf falls (or any shading) on the solar module so that a solar cell is .‫الشمسية تؤدي الى تلفها مع مرور الوقت‬
darkened, this solar cell becomes an electricity load.
• 2) No more current is generated in this cell (No generation because change as
load).
• 3) It uses the current from the other cells: the direction of the voltage is reversed.
(when relatively high reverse current flows through the unlit solar cell)
• 4) The current from the other illuminated solar cells is driven through the
darkened cell.
• 5) This current flow is then converted into heat and make (Hot Spot).
Flow
Cell No current Current
current
Shading becomes (No convert to Hot Spot
from other
(Load) generation) heat
cells

Voltage Current Power Losses Life period

Shading decrease big drop big drop Increase Decrease
 Shading – Bypass Diode (Solution)
• Bypass Diodes: are used in parallel with either a single or a number of photovoltaic solar cells to prevent the current(s) flowing from
good cell and provide the path from the bad cell.
• Protect:
- (Protect from large voltage) it prevents large voltages from building up across the solar cells in the reverse-biased direction.
- (Protect from reverse current) the largest shading tolerance would be attained if bypass diodes were connected across every cell.

36 cells 60 Cells 72 Cells

# of Bypass Diode 2 3 4
Hot Spot & Bypass Diode (Figures)

• Thermal imaging (detect hot spot)

▪ Shading effect with bypass diode or without

▪ Inside bypass diode

▪ Solar module from back

Lifetime & Warranty (Degradation)
▪ No moving parts in solar modules resulting in long life time. • NREL research has shown
that solar panels have a
▪ Life time around 25 years (some modules 20 or 30 years). median degradation rate of
about 0.5% per year but the
▪ Degradation happens because of unavoidable infuences like: rate could be higher in
hotter climates and for
rooftop systems.
- Water ingress.
- Temperature stress. Microcracks are usually created by external
-UV exposure. impact to the panels, so a good way to prevent

- Weather cycles. microcracks in solar panels is to toughen up the

overall product by design. Key components that
-Shading.
add strength to a module are glass and frame.
- Dust (output power).
- Micro cracks.

Degradation 10 years 20 years

Production 90% 80%
Degradation & Micro Cracks (Figures)
STRUCTURE OF SOLAR MODULE
(MECHANICAL & ELECTRICAL)
Frame of Module (Mechanical)
▪ External shape is often rectangular or square.
▪ Solid and sturdy design:
▪ Resist external factors such as water and humidity.
▪ Bear mechanical loads up to certain limits (e.g., snow load).
▪ Many different types of PV modules exist and the module structure is often different for different
types of solar cells or for different applications. For example, amorphous silicon solar cells are often
encapsulated into a flexible array, while bulk silicon solar cells for remote power applications are
usually rigid with glass front surfaces

Many different types of PV modules exist and the module

structure is often different for different types of solar cells
or for different applications. For example, amorphous
silicon solar cells are often encapsulated into a flexible
array, while bulk silicon solar cells for remote power
applications are usually rigid with glass front surfaces.
The Material of Module (Mechanical)
• Modules materials :
• - Top surface
• - Encapsulate
• - Cells
• - Rear layer
• - Frame outer

- In most modules, the top surface is glass.

- The encapsulate is EVA (ethyl vinyl acetate).

- The rear layer is Tedlar .

The Material of Modules (Mechanical)

• Top surface:
• High transmission across wavelengths
• High permeability
• Clear
• Low reflection
 The Material of Module (Mechanical)

• Frame outer :
• Usually made of aluminum.
• There are two types.

Frameless Panel

Frameless Panel
The Module (Electrical)
• Module Junction Boxes
• - An electrical enclosure that is used to
access conductor when installing wires

Sometimes positive and negative

with distance between it
The Module (Electrical)
• Module Interconnects
• - Modules are manufactured with prewired “quick connect”
positive ad negative leads and the junction boxes from which it
originates on the back of the module.

• - MC4 connectors are used to connect PV panels

MC4

MC3

Not Used
The Module (Electrical)

• Module hole earthing:

• - Every solar module should to earthing to protect from any fault or lightning.

• - In frame of modules there are 2 holes to connect with other module for grounding.
Solar Module Data Sheet
(Example)
Solar Module Data Sheet (Example)
Solar Module Data Sheet (Example)
THANK YOU!