DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

NUMERIC QUESTIONS ONLY | Unit Wise | BEU [Link] 3rd Sem | Code 105304

PYQ Years: 2017–2023 ■ = Most Repeated Focus: 30% of each 14-mark Q

UNIT 1 — Sets, Relations & Functions

■ N1 MOST REPEATED

Given A = {1,2,3,4,7}, B = {2,4,6,7,8}. Find: (i) A ∩ B (ii) A ∪ B (iii) A − B (iv) B − A (v) |A × B|

Years: 2017, 2018, 2019

• A ∩ B = elements in BOTH A and B = {2, 4, 7}

• A ∪ B = elements in A OR B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8}
• A − B = elements in A but NOT in B = {1, 3}
• B − A = elements in B but NOT in A = {6, 8}
• |A × B| = |A| × |B| = 5 × 5 = 25 ordered pairs
• Inclusion-Exclusion: |A ∪ B| = |A| + |B| − |A ∩ B| = 5 + 5 − 3 = 7 ✓

-> ANSWER: |A ∩ B| = 3, |A ∪ B| = 7, A−B = {1,3}, B−A = {6,8}, |A×B| = 25

■ Always verify using Inclusion-Exclusion: |A∪B| = |A| + |B| − |A∩B|

■ N2 MOST REPEATED

Relations R and S on A = {1,2,3} are given as matrices M_R and M_S. Find matrices for: (i) R ∪ S
(ii) R ∩ S (iii) R ■ S (Composition)
Years: 2019, 2022

• M_R = [[1,0,1],[0,1,0],[1,0,1]] and M_S = [[0,1,0],[1,0,1],[0,1,0]]

• R ∪ S → element-wise OR (max): M[i][j] = max(M_R[i][j], M_S[i][j])
• R ∩ S → element-wise AND (min): M[i][j] = min(M_R[i][j], M_S[i][j])
• R ■ S → Boolean matrix multiplication: M[i][j] = OR over k of (M_R[i][k] AND M_S[k][j])
• Boolean arithmetic rules: 1+1=1, 1×1=1, 0+0=0, 1×0=0
• M(R∪S) = [[1,1,1],[1,1,1],[1,1,1]] (example result for above matrices)
• M(R∩S) = [[0,0,0],[0,0,0],[0,0,0]] (example result for above matrices)

-> ANSWER: Use Boolean OR for union, Boolean AND for intersection, Boolean matrix multiply for
composition
■ Key: In Boolean multiplication, treat all non-zero as 1. This is the most common numeric question.

■ N3 MOST REPEATED

Prove: R = {(a,b) | a + b is even} on the set of integers is an equivalence relation.

Years: 2019, 2022
 • REFLEXIVE: a + a = 2a, which is always even. So (a,a) ∈ R. ✓
• SYMMETRIC: If a+b is even, then b+a = a+b is also even. So (b,a) ∈ R. ✓
• TRANSITIVE: If a+b is even AND b+c is even, then a+c = (a+b)+(c−b). Since a+b even and b+c even, c−b is
even. Sum of two even numbers is even. ✓
• All three properties hold → R is an equivalence relation.

-> ANSWER: R is an equivalence relation. Equivalence classes: {even integers} and {odd integers}
■ The equivalence classes partition integers into evens and odds — this is the key insight.

◆ N4 APPEARED 1-2x

If A = {1,2} and B = {a,b,c}, find A×B. How many functions exist from A to B? How many are
injective?
Years: 2023

• A × B = {(1,a),(1,b),(1,c),(2,a),(2,b),(2,c)} — 6 ordered pairs

• Total functions from A to B = |B|^|A| = 3^2 = 9
• Injective (one-to-one) functions: Each element of A maps to DIFFERENT element of B
• Count = P(3,2) = 3!/(3−2)! = 3×2 = 6 injective functions
• Surjective onto functions: Every element of B has a preimage. Not possible here since |A| < |B|. Count = 0

-> ANSWER: A×B has 6 elements. Total functions = 9. Injective functions = 6. Surjective = 0.
■ Formula: Total functions = |B|^|A|. Injective = P(|B|,|A|) when |B| ≥ |A|.

◆ N5 APPEARED 1-2x

Given f(x) = x+3 and g(x) = x², find (f■g)(x) and (g■f)(x). Are they equal?
Years: 2017, 2018

• (f■g)(x) = f(g(x)) = f(x²) = x² + 3

• (g■f)(x) = g(f(x)) = g(x+3) = (x+3)² = x² + 6x + 9
• Compare: x²+3 ≠ x²+6x+9 in general (they differ by 6x+6)

-> ANSWER: (f■g)(x) = x²+3. (g■f)(x) = (x+3)² = x²+6x+9. They are NOT equal.
■ Composition is NOT commutative in general: f■g ≠ g■f

UNIT 2 — Mathematical Induction & Counting

■ N1 MOST REPEATED

Prove by Mathematical Induction: 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + n = n(n+1)/2

Years: 2017, 2018, 2019, 2022 — MOST IMPORTANT
 • STEP 1 — Base Case (n=1): LHS = 1. RHS = 1(1+1)/2 = 1. LHS = RHS ✓
• STEP 2 — Inductive Hypothesis: Assume P(k) is true: 1+2+...+k = k(k+1)/2
• STEP 3 — Inductive Step: Prove P(k+1): 1+2+...+k+(k+1) = (k+1)(k+2)/2
• LHS = [k(k+1)/2] + (k+1) [using hypothesis]
• = (k+1)[k/2 + 1]
• = (k+1)(k+2)/2 ✓ [this matches RHS for n = k+1]
• By the Principle of Mathematical Induction, formula holds for all n ≥ 1.

-> ANSWER: PROVED. Formula: Sum of first n natural numbers = n(n+1)/2

■ This is the #1 most repeated induction proof. Memorize all 3 steps exactly.

■ N2 MOST REPEATED

Prove by induction: 1² + 2² + 3² + ... + n² = n(n+1)(2n+1)/6

Years: 2017, 2019, 2023

• STEP 1 — Base Case (n=1): LHS = 1. RHS = 1(2)(3)/6 = 1. TRUE ✓

• STEP 2 — Hypothesis: Assume 1²+2²+...+k² = k(k+1)(2k+1)/6
• STEP 3 — Add (k+1)² to both sides:
• LHS = k(k+1)(2k+1)/6 + (k+1)²
• = (k+1)[k(2k+1)/6 + (k+1)]
• = (k+1)[(2k²+k + 6k+6)/6]
• = (k+1)(2k²+7k+6)/6
• = (k+1)(k+2)(2k+3)/6 ✓ [matches formula for n=k+1]

-> ANSWER: PROVED. Formula: n(n+1)(2n+1)/6

■ Remember: (k+1)(k+2)(2(k+1)+1)/6 = (k+1)(k+2)(2k+3)/6. Verify factoring carefully.

■ N3 MOST REPEATED

Prove by induction: n³ − n is divisible by 6 for all positive integers n.

Years: 2017, 2019

• STEP 1 — Base Case (n=1): 1³−1 = 0. 0 is divisible by 6. TRUE ✓

• STEP 2 — Hypothesis: Assume k³−k is divisible by 6.
• STEP 3 — Consider (k+1)³ − (k+1):
• (k+1)³ − (k+1) = k³+3k²+3k+1 − k−1
• = (k³−k) + 3k²+3k
• = (k³−k) + 3k(k+1)
• (k³−k) is divisible by 6 [by hypothesis]
• 3k(k+1): One of k or k+1 is always EVEN, so k(k+1) is even. Thus 3k(k+1) is div by 6.
• Sum of two multiples of 6 is a multiple of 6. ✓

-> ANSWER: PROVED. n³−n is divisible by 6 for all n ≥ 1.

■ Key insight: k(k+1) is always even because consecutive integers.

■ N4 MOST REPEATED
 Prove by induction: 1 + 3 + 5 + ... + (2n−1) = n²
Years: 2019, 2022

• STEP 1 — Base Case (n=1): LHS = 1. RHS = 1² = 1. TRUE ✓

• STEP 2 — Hypothesis: Assume 1+3+5+...+(2k−1) = k²
• STEP 3 — Add next odd number (2k+1):
• LHS = k² + (2k+1) = k² + 2k + 1 = (k+1)² ✓
• This matches formula for n = k+1.

-> ANSWER: PROVED. Sum of first n odd numbers = n²

■ Quick check: n=3: 1+3+5=9=3². n=4: 1+3+5+7=16=4². ✓

◆ N5 APPEARED 1-2x

Find GCD of 414 and 662 using Euclidean Algorithm. Express GCD as linear combination.
Years: 2022

• Step 1: 662 = 414 × 1 + 248 (remainder 248)

• Step 2: 414 = 248 × 1 + 166 (remainder 166)
• Step 3: 248 = 166 × 1 + 82 (remainder 82)
• Step 4: 166 = 82 × 2 + 2 (remainder 2)
• Step 5: 82 = 2 × 41 + 0 (remainder 0 → STOP)
• GCD = last non-zero remainder = 2
• Linear combination: 2 = 166 − 82×2 = 166 − (248−166)×2 = 3×166 − 248... (back-substitute)

-> ANSWER: GCD(414, 662) = 2

■ Always divide LARGER by SMALLER. Stop when remainder = 0. GCD = last non-zero remainder.

◆ N6 APPEARED 1-2x

500 students: 200 take Maths, 150 take Physics, 75 take both. Find: (i) at least one subject (ii)
neither subject.
Years: 2017, 2018

• Inclusion-Exclusion: |M ∪ P| = |M| + |P| − |M ∩ P|

• |M ∪ P| = 200 + 150 − 75 = 275 students take at least one
• Neither = Total − |M ∪ P| = 500 − 275 = 225 students take neither

-> ANSWER: At least one subject: 275. Neither subject: 225.

■ Inclusion-Exclusion for 3 sets: |A∪B∪C| = |A|+|B|+|C|−|A∩B|−|B∩C|−|A∩C|+|A∩B∩C|

UNIT 3 — Propositional Logic

■ N1 MOST REPEATED

Construct complete truth table for p→q, its converse (q→p), inverse (~p→~q), and
contrapositive (~q→~p). Identify which are logically equivalent.
Years: 2018, 2019, 2022, 2023
 • p=T, q=T: p→q=T | q→p=T | ~p→~q=T | ~q→~p=T
• p=T, q=F: p→q=F | q→p=T | ~p→~q=T | ~q→~p=F
• p=F, q=T: p→q=T | q→p=F | ~p→~q=F | ~q→~p=T
• p=F, q=F: p→q=T | q→p=T | ~p→~q=T | ~q→~p=T
• Compare columns: p→q and ~q→~p have IDENTICAL truth values → EQUIVALENT
• q→p and ~p→~q have IDENTICAL truth values → EQUIVALENT
• But p→q ≠ q→p (they differ in rows 2 and 3)

-> ANSWER: p→q ≡ ~q→~p (contrapositive). Converse ≡ Inverse. p→q ■ converse.

■ EXAM TIP: p→q is ONLY equivalent to its contrapositive. NOT to converse or inverse.

■ N2 MOST REPEATED

Prove: (p→q) ∧ (~p→r) — construct truth table. Also show (p→q) ∧ (p→~q) implies ~p.
Years: 2018, 2022

• For (p→q) ∧ (p→~q) implies ~p:

• (p→q) ∧ (p→~q)
• = (~p ∨ q) ∧ (~p ∨ ~q) [implication law: p→q = ~p ∨ q]
• = ~p ∨ (q ∧ ~q) [distributive law]
• = ~p ∨ FALSE [contradiction: q ∧ ~q = F]
• = ~p [identity: A ∨ F = A]
• Therefore the expression IMPLIES ~p. (p must be false)

-> ANSWER: PROVED: (p→q) ∧ (p→~q) simplifies to ~p.

■ Key laws used: Implication, Distributive, Contradiction, Identity.

■ N3 MOST REPEATED

Show p→(q→r) ≡ (p∧q)→r using logical laws (Exportation Law).

Years: 2018, 2022, 2023

• Start with: p → (q → r)
• = ~p ∨ (q → r) [implication: A→B = ~A ∨ B]
• = ~p ∨ (~q ∨ r) [implication again on q→r]
• = (~p ∨ ~q) ∨ r [associativity of ∨]
• = ~(p ∧ q) ∨ r [De Morgan's law]
• = (p ∧ q) → r [implication law backward]

-> ANSWER: PROVED: p→(q→r) ≡ (p∧q)→r [Exportation Law]

■ This exact proof appears almost every year. Learn the 5 steps in order.

◆ N4 APPEARED 1-2x

Obtain the PDNF and PCNF of the expression: ~(p∨q) ↔ (p∧q)

Years: 2019, 2022, 2023
 • Build full truth table for ~(p∨q) ↔ (p∧q):
• p=T,q=T: ~(T)=F, T∧T=T, F↔T = FALSE
• p=T,q=F: ~(T)=F, T∧F=F, F↔F = TRUE
• p=F,q=T: ~(T)=F, F∧T=F, F↔F = TRUE
• p=F,q=F: ~(F)=T, F∧F=F, T↔F = FALSE
• PDNF: rows where result is TRUE → rows 2 and 3
• Row 2 (T,F): minterm = p ∧ ~q
• Row 3 (F,T): minterm = ~p ∧ q
• PDNF = (p ∧ ~q) ∨ (~p ∧ q)
• PCNF: rows where result is FALSE → rows 1 and 4
• Row 1 (T,T): maxterm = ~p ∨ ~q
• Row 4 (F,F): maxterm = p ∨ q
• PCNF = (~p ∨ ~q) ∧ (p ∨ q)

-> ANSWER: PDNF = (p∧~q) ∨ (~p∧q). PCNF = (~p∨~q) ∧ (p∨q)

■ PDNF = OR of AND minterms (TRUE rows). PCNF = AND of OR maxterms (FALSE rows).

UNIT 4 — Proof Techniques

■ N1 MOST REPEATED

Prove that √2 is irrational using proof by contradiction.

Years: 2022, 2023 — HIGH PRIORITY

• ASSUME: √2 is rational. Then √2 = p/q where p,q are integers with gcd(p,q)=1.
• Squaring both sides: 2 = p²/q²
• Therefore: p² = 2q²
• This means p² is even → p must be even (if p odd, p² is odd). Let p = 2k.
• Substituting: (2k)² = 2q² → 4k² = 2q² → q² = 2k²
• This means q² is even → q must be even.
• CONTRADICTION: Both p and q are even, so gcd(p,q) ≥ 2. But we assumed gcd(p,q)=1. ✗
• Our assumption was wrong. Therefore √2 is IRRATIONAL.

-> ANSWER: √2 is irrational. PROVED by contradiction.

■ This is a near-certain question for 2024. Learn all 8 steps in exact order.

◆ N2 APPEARED 1-2x

Disprove: 'For all real a,b: if a < b then a^2 < b^2'. Provide counterexample.
Years: 2022
 • To disprove a universal statement, ONE counterexample is enough.
• Try: a = −2, b = 1
• Check condition: a < b? −2 < 1 ✓ (condition satisfied)
• Check conclusion: a^2 < b^2? (-2)^2 < (1)^2? 4 < 1? FALSE ✗
• The conclusion FAILS for this example.

-> ANSWER: DISPROVED. Counterexample: a=−2, b=1. Here a < b but a^2=4 > b^2=1.
■ To disprove ∀x P(x), find ONE x where P(x) is false. That's all you need.

◆ N3 APPEARED 1-2x

Prove directly: If n is odd, then n² is odd.

Years: 2022, 2023

• ASSUME: n is odd. By definition, n = 2k+1 for some integer k.

• Then n² = (2k+1)² = 4k²+4k+1 = 2(2k²+2k) + 1
• Let m = 2k²+2k (an integer). Then n² = 2m+1.
• A number of the form 2m+1 is ODD by definition.

-> ANSWER: PROVED directly: If n is odd, then n² is odd.

■ Direct proof: Start with the hypothesis, manipulate to reach the conclusion.

UNIT 5 — Algebraic Structures

■ N1 MOST REPEATED

Verify that (Z■, +■) = ({0,1,2,3,4,5}, addition mod 6) is a group. Is it Abelian?

Years: 2017, 2018, 2019

• 1. CLOSURE: For any a,b ∈ Z■, (a+b) mod 6 ∈ Z■. E.g., 4+5=9≡3(mod6)∈Z■ ✓
• 2. ASSOCIATIVITY: (a+b)+c = a+(b+c) mod 6. Addition of integers is associative ✓
• 3. IDENTITY: 0 ∈ Z■ and a+0 = a for all a ∈ Z■ ✓
• 4. INVERSE: For each a, the inverse is (6−a) mod 6:
• inverse of 0=0, 1→5, 2→4, 3→3, 4→2, 5→1. All inverses in Z■ ✓
• ABELIAN: a+b = b+a (mod 6) for all a,b. Addition is commutative ✓

-> ANSWER: (Z■, +■) is an Abelian group. All 4 group properties + commutativity satisfied.
■ Template: Check Closure → Associativity → Identity → Inverse → Commutativity (for Abelian).

■ N2 MOST REPEATED

H = {0, 3, 6} — Prove H is a subgroup of (Z■, +■).

Years: 2017, 2018
 • Check 3 conditions for subgroup (closed, identity, inverses):
• CLOSURE under +■: 0+0=0✓, 0+3=3✓, 0+6=6✓, 3+3=6✓, 3+6=9≡0✓, 6+6=12≡3✓. All ∈ H ✓
• IDENTITY: 0 ∈ H ✓
• INVERSES: inv(0)=0∈H✓, inv(3)=6(since 3+6=9≡0)∈H✓, inv(6)=3(since 6+3=9≡0)∈H✓

-> ANSWER: H = {0,3,6} is a subgroup of (Z■, +■). Order of H = 3, order of G = 9. 3|9 ✓ (Lagrange's).
■ Subgroup test: Just check Closure + Identity ∈ H + Inverses in H. (No need to recheck associativity.)

◆ N3 APPEARED 1-2x

Prove every group of order 3 is cyclic.

Years: 2019

• Let G = {e, a, b} where e is identity element and |G| = 3.

• By Lagrange's Theorem: order of each element divides |G| = 3.
• Order of e = 1 (always).
• Order of a ≠ 1 (a ≠ e), so order of a must be 3.
• Then a, a^2, a³=e are distinct elements → G = {e, a, a^2} = generated by a
• G is generated by a alone → G is CYCLIC.

-> ANSWER: Every group of order 3 is cyclic. It is generated by any non-identity element.
■ Similarly, every group of prime order is cyclic — generalization of this result.

◆ N4 APPEARED 1-2x

Given the group (Z, +), verify: f(x) = 2x is a group homomorphism from (Z,+) to (Z,+). Is it an
isomorphism?
Years: 2018, 2022

• HOMOMORPHISM CHECK: f(a+b) = f(a) + f(b)?

• f(a+b) = 2(a+b) = 2a+2b
• f(a) + f(b) = 2a + 2b ✓ → f is a homomorphism
• INJECTIVE: f(a)=f(b) → 2a=2b → a=b ✓ → f is injective (one-to-one)
• SURJECTIVE: Is every integer in the range? f(x)=2x only gives EVEN integers. 1 ∉ image.
• f is NOT surjective (not onto Z). Only maps to even integers.
• Therefore f is NOT an isomorphism.

-> ANSWER: f(x)=2x is a group homomorphism but NOT an isomorphism (not surjective onto Z).
■ Isomorphism requires bijective homomorphism. Check surjectivity carefully.

UNIT 6 — Graphs & Trees

■ N1 MOST REPEATED

For a graph G with vertices V={v■,v■,v■,v■,v■} and edges

E={(v■v■),(v■v■),(v■v■),(v■v■),(v■v■)}: Find degree of each vertex, degree sequence, and
check if Eulerian path exists.
Years: 2017, 2019, 2022, 2023

• Count edges incident to each vertex:

• deg(v■) = 2 (connected to v■, v■)
• deg(v■) = 2 (connected to v■, v■)
• deg(v■) = 3 (connected to v■, v■, v■)
• deg(v■) = 2 (connected to v■, v■)
• deg(v■) = 1 (connected to v■)
• Degree sequence: [3, 2, 2, 2, 1] (non-increasing order)
• Sum of degrees = 2+2+3+2+1 = 10 = 2|E| = 2×5 = 10 ✓ (Handshaking Lemma verified)
• Vertices with ODD degree: v■(deg 3) and v■(deg 1) → exactly 2 odd-degree vertices
• Eulerian path condition: Exactly 0 or 2 odd-degree vertices → EULERIAN PATH EXISTS
• Eulerian path starts at v■ (or v■) and ends at the other.

-> ANSWER: Degree sequence: [3,2,2,2,1]. Sum=10=2|E|✓. Eulerian path EXISTS (2 odd-degree
vertices: v■,v■).
■ Eulerian CIRCUIT needs ALL vertices even degree. Eulerian PATH needs exactly 0 or 2 odd vertices.

■ N2 MOST REPEATED

Write the adjacency matrix and incidence matrix for the graph: V={1,2,3,4},
E={(1,2),(1,3),(2,3),(2,4),(3,4)}.
Years: 2019, 2022, 2023

• ADJACENCY MATRIX A (4×4): A[i][j] = 1 if edge between i and j, else 0

•1234
•1[0110]
•2[1011]
•3[1101]
•4[0110]
• Note: Matrix is symmetric (undirected graph). Row sum = degree of that vertex.
• INCIDENCE MATRIX M (4×5): M[i][j] = 1 if vertex i is in edge j, else 0
• e■(1,2) e■(1,3) e■(2,3) e■(2,4) e■(3,4)
• v■ [ 1 1 0 0 0 ]
• v■ [ 1 0 1 1 0 ]
• v■ [ 0 1 1 0 1 ]
• v■ [ 0 0 0 1 1 ]

-> ANSWER: Adjacency matrix: symmetric 4×4. Incidence matrix: 4×5. Both shown above.
■ Row sum of adjacency matrix = degree. Column sum of incidence matrix = 2 (each edge has 2 endpoints).

■ N3 MOST REPEATED

Prove: A tree with n vertices has exactly n−1 edges (by induction).
Years: 2017, 2019, 2022, 2023
 • STEP 1 — Base Case: n=1: 0 edges. TRUE ✓. n=2: 1 edge. TRUE ✓.
• STEP 2 — Inductive Hypothesis: Assume every tree with k vertices has k−1 edges.
• STEP 3 — Inductive Step: Consider tree T with k+1 vertices.
• A tree with k+1 ≥ 2 vertices has at least one LEAF (vertex of degree 1).
• Remove leaf v and its edge e from T. Result T' has k vertices.
• T' is still connected (removing leaf doesn't disconnect) and acyclic → T' is a tree.
• By inductive hypothesis: T' has k−1 edges.
• Restoring v and e: T has (k−1)+1 = k edges = (k+1)−1 edges. ✓

-> ANSWER: PROVED: Tree with n vertices has exactly n−1 edges.
■ Key fact: Every tree with ≥2 vertices has at least one leaf (degree-1 vertex).

◆ N4 APPEARED 1-2x

Verify Euler's formula v − e + f = 2 for: (i) A cube graph (ii) K■ (complete graph on 4 vertices).
Years: 2018, 2022, 2023

• CUBE GRAPH: v=8 vertices, e=12 edges, f=6 faces

• v − e + f = 8 − 12 + 6 = 2 ✓
•
• K■ (complete graph on 4 vertices): v=4, e=C(4,2)=6 edges
• Draw K■ as planar graph. Count faces including outer face.
• f = e − v + 2 = 6 − 4 + 2 = 4 faces
• Verify: 4 − 6 + 4 = 2 ✓
•
• K■ edges formula: n(n−1)/2. So K■ has 10 edges.
• K■: v−e+f=2 → 5−10+f=2 → f=7. But minimum faces for K■ needs each face ≥ 3 edges.
• If K■ were planar: 3f ≤ 2e → 3(7) ≤ 20 → 21 ≤ 20. CONTRADICTION → K■ is NOT planar.

-> ANSWER: Cube: 8−12+6=2 ✓. K■: 4−6+4=2 ✓. K■ is NOT planar (proved by contradiction).
■ For planar graphs: if every face has ≥3 edges, then 3f ≤ 2e. Combined with v−e+f=2 gives e ≤ 3v−6.

◆ N5 APPEARED 1-2x

Given the sequence 4,6,12,1,3,6,10: Apply Pigeonhole to show there is a period of consecutive
days in a 30-day month where a baseball team plays exactly 14 games (plays ≥1/day, ≤45 total).
Years: 2022, 2023

• Let S(i) = total games played from day 1 to day i. So S(0)=0.

• We have S(0), S(1), S(2), ..., S(30). That's 31 values.
• Also consider S(i)+14 for i=0,1,...,30. Another 31 values.
• All 62 values lie in the range 0 to 45+14 = 59.
• But 62 values in range 0 to 59 → 60 possible values.
• 62 > 60 → by Pigeonhole, TWO of the 62 values must be equal.
• If S(i) = S(j)+14 for some i > j, then games in days j+1 to i = S(i)−S(j) = 14.
• These consecutive days had exactly 14 games. QED.
 -> ANSWER: PROVED by Pigeonhole Principle. Such a consecutive period always exists.
■ Setup: define S(i), consider S(i) and S(i)+14 as 62 values in 60 slots → pigeonhole.

EXAM QUICK SUMMARY

Unit Most Important Numeric Marks

Unit 1 — Sets Matrix relations (R∪S, R∩S, R■S) + Set operations 4-7

Unit 2 — Induction 1+2+...+n = n(n+1)/2 AND 1²+2²+...+n² proof 7-10

Unit 3 — Logic Truth table + Exportation law + PDNF/PCNF 4-7

Unit 4 — Proof √2 irrational proof + counterexample technique 4-7

Unit 5 — Algebra Subgroup verification (Z■) + Group axioms (Z■) 4-7

Unit 6 — Graphs Adjacency matrix + Euler path check + Tree edges proof 7-10

Theory gives most marks (70%) but Numerics are fully formulaic — do ALL of these for guaranteed scoring.