UNIT – V

APPLICATIONS
• Applications OVERVIEW
• DNS

• E-Mail Protocol

• WWW

• SNMP

• SMTP

• Security

• Threats and Services

• Cryptography

• DES

• RSA

• Web security

• SSL
• An application layer is an abstraction layer that
specifies the shared communications protocols
and interface methods used by hosts in a
communications network.
• The application layer abstraction is used in both
of the standard models of computer networking.
• The Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) and the OSI
model.
• Although both models use the same term for their
respective highest-level layer.
 Services of Application Layers
• File Transfer
• Addressing
• Mail Services
• Directory Services
• Authentication
FTP :
FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is an application layer
protocol that transfers files over a network. It uses TCP-based
service. FTP works in two different modes:
1. Active FTP :
In the active mode, the client connects on a random port for
incoming data connections from the server. Client again sends next
port to FTP server which is acknowledged on command channel.

2. Passive FTP :
In the passive mode, the client uses the control connection to send a
PASV signal to the server. FTP server sends back IP address and
server port number.

Note: In active FTP, client establishes the command channel and the server
establishes the data channel. In passive FTP, both the command channel and the
data channel are established by the client.
 DNS
• (Domain Name System) The Internet's
system for converting alphabetic names
into numeric IP addresses.
• For example, when a Web address (URL) is
typed into a browser, DNS servers return the
IP address of the Web server associated
with that name.
• In this example, the DNS converts the URL
[Link] into the IP address
[Link].
A Hierarchy of Servers
• The DNS system is a hierarchy of duplicated
database servers worldwide that begin with the
"root servers" for the top-level domains (.com,
.net, .org, .gov, .edu, .mil, etc.). The root
servers point to the "authoritative" servers
located in ISPs,

[Link]
www --------> Host Name
Yahoo--------> Server Name
com ----------> Domain Name
 Structure of DNS
• It Consists of Four Elements

1. DNS Name Space

2. DNS Database
3. Name Servers
4. DNS Resolvers
 1. DNS Name Space
• The Domain Name Space consists of a tree data
structure.
• Each node or leaf in the tree has a label and zero or
more resource records (RR), which hold
information associated with the domain name.
• The domain name itself consists of the label, parent
node on the right.
• The tree sub-divides into zones beginning at the
A DNS zone may consist of only one
domain, or may consist of many domains and sub-
domains, depending on the administrative choices
of the zone manager.
2. DNS Database
• DNS does not only deal with IP addresses of hosts,
but also exchanges information on Name Servers.
• The Key features of the Database are as Follows :
1) Variable-Depth Hierarchy for Names.
2) Distributed Database.
3) Distribution Controlled by Database.
3. Name Servers
• The Domain Name System is maintained by a
distributed database system, which uses the
client–server model.
• The nodes of this database are the name servers.
• Each domain has at least one authoritative DNS
server that publishes information about that
domain and the name servers of any domains
subordinate to it.
• The top of the hierarchy is served by the root
name servers.
4. DNS Resolvers
• The client side of the DNS is called a DNS resolver.
• A resolver is responsible for initiating and
sequencing the queries that ultimately lead to a
full resolution.
• DNS resolvers are classified by a variety of query
methods, such as recursive, non-recursive, and
iterative.
• The DNS protocol uses two types of DNS
messages, queries and replies; both have the
same format.
• Each message consists of a header and four
sections: question, answer, authority, and an
additional space.
• A header field (flags) controls the content of these
four sections.
• The header section consists of the following
fields: Identification, Flags, Number of questions,
Number of answers, Number of authority
resource records (RRs), and Number of
additional RRs. Each field is 16 bits long.
• Primary website.
• Marketing campaign websites.
• Email servers.
• Customer support websites.
• Online resource libraries.
• Inside sales web portals.
• Multi-tier web applications.
• P2P resources.
• Electronic Mail or E-Mail is a method of sending
and receiving messages (Mail) electronically over
a Computer Network.
• E-Mail is a system allows a person or a group to
electronically communicate to others through
Internet.
• It is method of exchanging message between
people using electronic devices.
• Exchanging message as Text files and non-text
files (images, graphics Image, files so on.,)
Components of Email System
➢Mail Server
Receive, Store and Deliver the mail
➢DNS
Find and match the IP Address of the Mail
Server
➢ Mailbox
It is a Folder contains Emails and their
information.
 E-Mail Protocol

The E-Mail communication is done via

three protocols in general. They are,

[Link] ( Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

[Link] ( Post Office Protocol)
[Link] ( Internet Mail Access Protocol)
❖ SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
➢ The SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
➢ Email is sent using this protocol.
➢ Is an internet standard communication protocol for
electronic mail transmission.
➢ Mail servers and other message transfer agents use
SMTP to send and receive mail messages.
✓ ADVANTAGES:
➢ SMTP provides the simplest form of communicating
through email message between various computers
in a particular network.
➢ Since SMTP is developed from a simple platform ,
email messages may be sent easily and quickly.
➢ SMTP also offers reliability in terms of outgoing
email messages.
✓DISADVANTAGES:
➢ The main drawback of sending through an SMTP
server is that it is insecure, it can be easily hacked.
➢ Another disadvantage is the server limitation.
❖ POP (Post Office Protocol):
➢ This protocol is also used for incoming emails.
➢ The main difference with the both protocols is that POP
downloads the entire email into the local computer and
deletes the data on the server once it is downloaded.
➢ This is helpful in a server with less free memory.
➢ Current version of POP is POP3 .
✓ ADVANTAGES:
➢ Emails are downloaded to the user`s computer.
➢ opening attachments is quick and easy as they are already
downloaded.
➢ Less server storage space required all emails are stored on local
machine.
➢ Storage capacity of emails limited by the size of your hard disk.
➢ very popular, easy to configure and use.

✓DISADVANTAGES:
➢ Emails cannot be accessed from other machines(unless configured
to do so).
➢ Exporting the local mail folder to another email client or physical
machine can be difficult.
➢ Email folders can become corrupted, potentially losing the entire
mailbox at once.
❖ IMAP(Internet Mail Access Protocol)
➢ This protocol is used while receiving an email.
➢ When one uses IMAP, the emails will be present in the
server and not get downloaded to the user`s mail box and
deleted from the server.
➢ This helps to have less memory used in the local
computer and server memory is increased.
✓ ADVANTAGES:
➢ Mail stored on remote server, i.e. accessible from
multiple different location.
➢ Internet connection needed to access mail.
➢ Mail is automatically backed up if server is managed
properly.

✓ DISADVANTAGES:
➢ The main disadvantage of the IMAP protocols is that
it is mandatory to have an internet connection on
all the time to read/reply and search the message.
 WWW
• The World Wide Web is the universe of network-
accessible information.
• In simple terms, The World Wide Web is a way of
exchanging information between computers on the
Internet.
• The World Wide Web is based on several different
Technologies : Web browsers, Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML) and Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP).
 Features of WWW
• HyperText Information System
• Cross-Platform
• Distributed
• Open Standards and Open Source
• Uses Web Browsers to provide a single interface
for many services
• Dynamic, Interactive and Evolving.
• “Web 2.0”
 Components of WWW
• There are 5 Components of WWW:
[Link] Resource Locator (URL): serves as
system for resources on web.
[Link] Transfer Protocol (HTTP): specifies
communication of browser and server.
[Link] Text Markup Language (HTML): It Defines
structure, organisation and content of webpage.
[Link] Server : A web server is computer software
and underlying hardware that accepts requests via
HTTP, the network protocol created to distribute
web pages.
 Components of WWW
5. Web Browser : A web browser (commonly
referred to as a browser or internet browser).
• It is an application software for accessing the
World Wide Web.
• When a user requests a web page from a
particular website, the web browser retrieves the
necessary content from a web server and then
displays the page on the user's device.
WWW Architecture
 Working of WWW
• The World Wide Web is based on several different
technologies :
1. Web browser.
2. Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).
3. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
1. Web browser : It is used to access webpages.
Web browsers can be defined as programs which
display text, data, pictures, animation and video on
the Internet.
[Link] : Hyperlinked resources on the World
Wide Web can be accessed using software
interface provided by Web browsers.
[Link] : It can be used for several tasks
including : searches, mailing, transferring files,
and much more. Some of the commonly used
browsers are Internet Explorer, Opera Mini,
Google Chrome.
• Online Forms
• Shopping Carts
• Word Processors
• Spreadsheets
• Video and Photo Editing
• File Conversion
• File Scanning
• E-mail programs such as Gmail, Yahoo and AOL.
• Popular Applications include Google Apps and
Microsoft 365.
 SNMP
• Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
is an application–layer protocol defined by the

• It is a part of Transmission Control

Protocol⁄Internet Protocol (TCP⁄IP) protocol
suite.
• SNMP is one of the widely accepted network
protocols to manage and monitor network
elements.
SNMP consists of
• GET: The GET operation is a request sent by the manager to
the managed device.
• GET NEXT: The significant difference is that the GET NEXT
operation retrieves the value of the next MIB tree.
• GET BULK: The GETBULK operation is used to retrieve
voluminous data from large MIB table.
• SET: This operation is used by the managers to modify or
assign the value of the Managed device.
• TRAPS: TRAPS are initiated by the Agents. It is a signal to the
SNMP Manager by the Agent on the occurrence of an event.
• INFORM: It includes confirmation from the SNMP manager
on receiving the message.
• RESPONSE: It is the command used to carry back the value(s)
or signal of actions directed by the SNMP Manager.
• SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol.
• SMTP is a set of communication guidelines
that allow software to transmit an
electronic mail over the internet is called
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
• It is a program used for sending messages to
other computer users based on e-mail
addresses.
• It provides a mail exchange between users on the
same or different computers, and it also
supports:
1. It can send a single message to one or more
recipients.
2. Sending message can include text, voice, video
or graphics.
3. It can also send the messages on networks
outside the internet.
4. The main purpose of SMTP is used to set up
communication rules between servers.
• It have the following Working Functionalities :
1. Composition of Mail
2. Submission of Mail
3. Delivery of Mail
4. Receipt and Processing of Mail
5. Access and Retrieval of Mail
✓ ADVANTAGES:
➢ SMTP provides the simplest form of communicating
through email message between various computers
in a particular network.
➢ Since SMTP is developed from a simple platform ,
email messages may be sent easily and quickly.
➢ SMTP also offers reliability in terms of outgoing
email messages.
✓DISADVANTAGES:
➢ The main drawback of sending through an SMTP
server is that it is insecure, it can be easily hacked.
➢ Another disadvantage is the server limitation.
• Network Security deals with all aspects related to
the protection of the sensitive information assets
existing on the network.
• It covers various mechanisms developed to
provide fundamental security services for data
communication.
• It describes the functioning of most common
security protocols employed at different
networking layers right from application to data
link layer.
 Goals of Network Security
• The primary goal of network security are
Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability. These
three pillars of Network Security are often
represented as CIA triangle.
[Link] − The function of confidentiality is
to protect precious business data from unauthorized
persons.
[Link] − It means maintaining and assuring the
accuracy and consistency of data.
The function of integrity is to make sure that the data
is reliable and is not changed by unauthorized
persons.
3. Availability − The function of availability in
Network Security is to make sure that the data,
network resources/services are continuously
available to the users, whenever they require it.
 Security Services
fundamental security services as the following −
[Link] − E-mail message should not be
read by anyone but the intended recipient.
[Link] − E-mail recipient can be sure of
the identity of the sender.
[Link] − Assurance to the recipient that the e-
mail message has not been altered since it was
transmitted by the sender.
[Link]-repudiation − E-mail recipient is able to
prove to a third party that the sender really did send
the message.
5. Proof of submission − E-mail sender gets the
confirmation that the message is handed to the mail
delivery system.
6. Proof of delivery − Sender gets a confirmation
that the recipient received the message.
 Threats and Services
A Computer System Threat is anything that
leads to loss or corruption of data or physical
damage to the hardware or infrastructure.
• Security Threats can be many like Software
attacks, theft of intellectual property, identity
theft, theft of equipment or information.
• Threat is any activity that can lead to data
loss/corruption through to delay of normal business
operations.
Types of Threats
• There are physical and non-physical threats.
• Physical Threats : cause damage to computer
systems hardware and infrastructure. Examples
include theft, vandalism through to natural
disasters.
• Non-physical Threats : Target the software
and data on the computer systems.
• A physical threat is a potential cause of an incident
that may result in loss or physical damage to the
computer systems.
• The following list classifies the physical threats
into three main categories
• Internal: The threats include fire, unstable power
supply, humidity in the rooms housing the
hardware, etc.
• External: These threats include Lightning, floods,
earthquakes, etc.
• Human: These threats include theft, vandalism of
the infrastructure and hardware, accidental or
intentional errors.
The following list is the common types of non-physical threats;
• Virus
• Trojans
• Worms
• Spyware
• Key loggers
• Adware
• Denial of Service Attacks
• Distributed Denial of Service Attacks
• Unauthorized access to computer systems resources such as
data
• Phishing
• Other Computer Security Risks
 Cryptography
• Cryptography is a method of protecting information
and communications through the use of codes.
• The information is intended can read and process
it.
• The prefix "crypt-" means "hidden" or "vault" --
and the suffix "-graphy" stands for "writing."
• Cryptography refers to secure information and
communication techniques derived from
mathematical concepts and a set of rule-based
calculations called algorithms.
 Cryptography Techniques
• Cryptography is closely related to the disciplines of

• It includes techniques such as microdots, merging

words with images, and other ways to hide
information in storage or transit.
• Cryptography is used to convert Plaintext into
Ciphertext is known as Encryption. then back
again

• Encryption : Known to Unknown

• Decryption : Unknown to Known
Cryptography Techniques
• Cryptography concerns with the following
Four objectives:
the information cannot be
understood by anyone for whom it was
unintended.
the information cannot be altered
in storage or transit between sender and
intended receiver without the alteration
being detected.
 the creator/sender of the
information cannot deny at a later stage his
or her intentions in the creation or
transmission of the information.
the sender and receiver can
confirm each other's identity and the
origin/destination of the information.
1. Single-key or Symmetric-key Cryptography.
2. Public-key or Asymmetric-key Cryptography.
1. Single-key or Symmetric-key Cryptography :
Symmetric cryptography is based on the use of just
is used to both Encrypt and Decrypt the
messages ( only Private Key or Secret Key )
2. Public-key or Asymmetric-key Cryptography :
Asymmetric cryptography, also known as public-key
cryptography, Here Two keys are used to Encrypt and
Decrypt the messages (Both Private and Public Key)
Single-key or Symmetric-key
Cryptography
Public-key or Asymmetric-key
Cryptography
• The Data Encryption Standard is a symmetric-key
algorithm for the encryption of digital data.
• The DES (Data Encryption Standard) algorithm is a
symmetric-key block cipher created in the early 1970s by
an IBM team and adopted by the National Institute of
Standards and Technology (NIST).
• DES is an implementation of a Feistel Cipher. It uses 16
round Feistel structure.
• Key length is 64-bit.
• Since DES is based on the Feistel Cipher.
1. Round function.
2. Key schedule.
3. Any additional processing − Initial and final
permutation.
• The algorithm process breaks down into the following steps:
[Link] process begins with the 64-bit plain text block getting
handed over to an initial permutation (IP) function.
[Link] initial permutation (IP) is then performed on the plain text.
[Link], the initial permutation (IP) creates two halves of the
permuted block, referred to as Left Plain Text (LPT) and Right
Plain Text (RPT).
[Link] LPT and RPT goes through 16 rounds of the encryption
process.
[Link], the LPT and RPT are rejoined, and a Final Permutation
(FP) is performed on the newly combined block.
[Link] result of this process produces the desired 64-bit
ciphertext.
• The DES satisfies both the desired properties of
block cipher. These two properties make cipher
very strong.

• Avalanche effect − A small change in plaintext

results in the very great change in the ciphertext.

• Completeness − Each bit of ciphertext depends on

many bits of plaintext.
• You must choose a security provider to implement
your data encryption algorithm.
• There are many available providers to choose
from, but selecting one is the essential initial step
in implementation.
• Your selection may depend on the language you
are using,
• RSA (Rivest–Shamir–Adleman) is a public-key
cryptosystem that is widely used for secure data
transmission.
• In a public-key cryptosystem, the encryption key is
public and distinct from the decryption key, which
is kept secret (private).
• RSA algorithm is asymmetric cryptography
algorithm. Asymmetric actually means that it works
on two different keys i.e. Public Key and Private Key.
As the name describes that the Public Key is given
to everyone and Private key is kept private.
Example :
• A client (for example browser) sends its
public key to the server and requests for
some data.
• The server encrypts the data using client’s
public key and sends the encrypted data.
• Client receives this data and decrypts it.
The RSA algorithm holds the following features −

• RSA algorithm is a popular exponentiation in a

finite field over integers including prime numbers.
• The integers used by this method are sufficiently
large making it difficult to solve.
• There are two sets of keys in this algorithm:
private key and public key.
• The following steps to work on RSA algorithm :

The initial procedure begins with selection of two

prime numbers namely p and q, and then calculating
their product N,
N=p*q

Consider number e as a derived number which should

be greater than 1 and less than (p-1) and (q-1).

The specified pair of numbers n and e forms the RSA

public key and it is made public.
Private Key d is calculated from the numbers p, q
and e. The mathematical relationship between the
numbers is as follows :

We can also write above equation as:

ed = 1 + K (p-1)(q-1) where k =0,1,2,3…….
Encryption Formula
Consider a sender who sends a plain text message to
someone whose public key is (n,e). To encrypt the plain text
message in the given scenario, use the following syntax −
P = Plain text and C =Cypher Text

Decryption Formula
The decryption process is very straightforward and includes
analytics for calculation in a systematic approach.
Considering receiver C has the private key d, the result
modulus will be calculated as −
Write the steps of RSA Algorithm. If p=7, q=11, and e=13, Calculate 3 possible
values of d.

We can also write above equation as:

ed = 1 + K (p-1)(q-1) where k =0,1,2,3…….
At k = 8 we get whole number d=37 and at k=21
we get whole number d=97 next d = 137
• Web security is also known as
“Cybersecurity”. It basically means
protecting a website or web application by
detecting, preventing and responding to
cyber threats.
• web security is easy to install and it also
helps the business people to make their
website safe and secure.
• A web application firewall prevents
automated attacks that usually target small
or lesser-known websites.
• Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) is a security
protocol that provides privacy,
authentication, and integrity to Internet
communications.
• SSL eventually evolved into Transport Layer
Security (TLS).
• SSL, or Secure Sockets Layer, is an
encryption-based Internet security
protocol. It was first developed by Netscape
in 1995.
• SSL encrypts data that is transmitted across
the web.
• SSL initiates an authentication process called
a handshake between two communicating
devices to ensure that both devices are
really who they claim to be.
• SSL also digitally signs data in order to
provide data integrity.
• SSL supports the following information
security principles:
1. Encryption: protect data transmissions
(e.g. browser to server, server to server,
application to server, etc.)
[Link]: ensure the server you’re
connected to is actually the correct server.
[Link] integrity: ensure that the data that is
requested or submitted is what is actually
delivered.