🧠 COMPLETE STUDY GUIDE – BODY SYSTEMS & HOMEOSTASIS

1. HOMEOSTASIS
Definition
Homeostasis = the ability of the body to maintain a stable internal
environment even when the outside environment changes.
Why It’s Important
Cells can only function properly within certain limits.
Examples of Conditions the Body Regulates
Variable
Normal Value
Body temperature
~98.6°F
Heart rate
60–100 bpm
Blood sugar
~4.4–8.0 mmol/L
Oxygen levels
75–100 mmHg
2. FEEDBACK LOOPS
Homeostasis is controlled by feedback systems.
Parts of a Feedback System
Part
Function
Receptor
Detects change
Control Center
Decides what response should happen
Effector
Carries out response
Example:
Touch hot stove
Skin receptors detect heat
Brain processes signal
Muscles move hand away
Negative Feedback
Most common feedback system.
Definition:
Response reduces the original change.
Examples:
• body temperature regulation
• blood pressure regulation
• blood glucose levels
• breathing rate
Example:
Exercise → blood pressure rises → blood vessels dilate → pressure
returns to normal.
Positive Feedback
Definition:
Response increases the original stimulus until an event is complete.
Examples:
• childbirth contractions
• blood clotting
• vomiting
3. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
Biological structure from simplest to most complex:
Cells
Tissues
Organs
Organ systems
Organism
Example (Digestive System):
Level
Example
Cell
stomach cell
Tissue
epithelial tissue
Organ
stomach
Organ System
digestive system
Organism
human
4. MAJOR BODY SYSTEM FUNCTIONS
Body systems work together to maintain homeostasis.
Function
Systems
Regulation
Nervous, Excretory
Nutrient absorption
Digestive, Respiratory, Circulatory
Defense & support
Immune, Integumentary, Skeletal, Muscular, Lymphatic
Reproduction
Reproductive, Endocrine
5. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Function
Breaks down food into smaller molecules that the body can absorb
and use.
Also eliminates solid waste.
Organs of Digestive System
Mouth
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Rectum
Accessory organs:
• salivary glands
• liver
• gallbladder
• pancreas
Mouth
Mechanical digestion:
• teeth chew food
Chemical digestion:
• saliva contains amylase which begins carbohydrate digestion.
Esophagus
Food travels through the esophagus by peristalsis.
Peristalsis = wave-like muscle contractions that push food down.
Stomach
Functions:
• mechanical digestion (churning)
• chemical digestion (acid and enzymes)
Stomach acid helps break down proteins.
Small Intestine
Where most digestion and nutrient absorption occur.
Key structure:
Villi
Fingerlike projections that:
• increase surface area
• allow nutrients to diffuse into blood
Large Intestine
Main functions:
• absorb water
• compact waste into feces
Accessory Organs
Organ
Function
Liver
produces bile to break down fats
Gallbladder
stores bile
Pancreas
releases digestive enzymes + insulin
Salivary glands
produce saliva
6. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Also called the cardiovascular system.
Components
• heart
• blood vessels
• blood
Main Functions
• transport oxygen
• deliver nutrients
• remove wastes
• help fight infection
Blood Components
Component
Function
Plasma
liquid portion
Red blood cells
carry oxygen
White blood cells
fight infection
Platelets
blood clotting
Blood Vessels
Arteries
Carry blood away from the heart.
Usually oxygen-rich.
Veins
Carry blood back to the heart.
Contain valves to prevent backflow.
Capillaries
Smallest vessels.
Exchange nutrients and gases with cells.
Heart Structure
The heart is a muscular pump with 4 chambers.
Layers:
Layer
Function
Pericardium
protective covering
Myocardium
heart muscle
Septum
divides left and right sides
7. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Function
Gas exchange between the body and environment.
Oxygen enters blood
Carbon dioxide leaves blood
Structures
Nose
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
Alveoli
Diaphragm
Alveoli
Tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs.
Features:
• very thin walls
• surrounded by capillaries
• huge surface area
Oxygen diffuses into blood while carbon dioxide diffuses out.
Each lung has about 150 million alveoli.
Breathing
Inhalation
• diaphragm contracts
• chest expands
• air enters lungs
Exhalation
• diaphragm relaxes
• chest shrinks
• air leaves lungs
8. EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Function
Removes wastes from metabolism.
Examples of wastes:
• urea
• excess salts
• toxins
Main Organs
Kidneys
Ureters
Urinary bladder
Urethra
Kidneys
Kidneys filter the blood.
Functions:
• remove waste
• balance water levels
●​ • regulate salt levels
Filtering units = nephrons.
Blood is filtered about every 45 minutes.
Steps of Excretion
Filtration
Reabsorption
Secretion
9. NERVOUS SYSTEM
Function
Controls body activities and maintains homeostasis.
Major Divisions
Central Nervous System (CNS)
• brain
• spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• nerves throughout body
Subdivisions:
• Somatic (voluntary movement)
• Autonomic (involuntary control)
Neurons
Nerve cells that transmit signals.
Parts:
Part
Function
Dendrites
receive signals
Cell body
contains nucleus
Axon
sends signals
Nerve Impulse Pathway
Signal moves:
dendrite → cell body → axon → synapse → next neuron.
10. MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Types of muscle:
Skeletal Muscle
• attached to bones
• voluntary movement
Smooth Muscle
• internal organs
• involuntary
Cardiac Muscle
• heart muscle
• involuntary
Muscles require ATP energy.
11. SKELETAL SYSTEM
Functions:
• support body
• allow movement
• protect organs
• produce blood cells
Bone marrow inside bones produces blood cells.
Connective Tissues
Ligaments → connect bone to bone
Tendons → connect muscle to bone
Joints
Types:
• ball-and-socket
• hinge
• pivot
• gliding
• immovable
12. IMMUNE & LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Purpose: defend the body from pathogens.
Immune Cells
White Blood Cells
Functions:
• attack pathogens
• produce antibodies
• perform phagocytosis (engulf bacteria)
Lymphatic System Structures
• lymph nodes
• spleen
• bone marrow
Functions:
• filter pathogens
• return fluid to bloodstream
Swollen lymph nodes usually mean infection.
13. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
The skin.
Functions:
• protection from pathogens
• temperature regulation
• prevents dehydration
• produces vitamin D
• sensory detection
• excretes sweat
14. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Uses hormones to regulate body functions.
Hormones travel through the bloodstream.
Major Endocrine Glands
Gland
Function
Pituitary
controls other glands
Hypothalamus
regulates pituitary
Pineal
sleep cycles
Thyroid
metabolism
Adrenal
stress response
Pancreas
insulin + glucagon
Ovaries/Testes
reproductive hormones
15. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Purpose:
• produce gametes (sex cells)
• enable reproduction
Male System
Organs:
• testes
• penis
• urethra
Testes produce:
• sperm
• testosterone
Female System
Organs:
• ovaries
• fallopian tubes
• uterus
• vagina
Ovaries produce:
• eggs
• estrogen
• progesterone
16. BODY SYSTEM INTERACTIONS (VERY IMPORTANT)
Body systems work together constantly.
Example: Energy Production
Digestive system breaks down food
Respiratory system supplies oxygen
Circulatory system transports nutrients and oxygen
Cells perform cellular respiration to produce ATP
17. NERVOUS SYSTEM LAB REVIEW
Touch Test
Measured two-point discrimination threshold.
Areas with more sensory receptors detect smaller distances between
points.
Reflex Test
Reflex pathway:
sensory neuron → spinal cord → motor neuron.
This happens without brain involvement, making reflexes faster.
Memory Test
Shows how the brain processes and stores information.
Blood Pressure Regulation
During exercise:
• heart rate increases
• blood pressure rises
Body response:
• blood vessels dilate
• heart rate decreases
This restores normal levels using negative feedback.
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