PLATE TECTONICS :-
● The movement of large pieces of the Earth's outer layer known as tectonic
plates,which moves horizontally over the asthenosphere.
● These moving plates interact with one another causing natural phenomena such as
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, mountain formation and the creation of oceanic
basins.
● The theory of plate tectonics combines earlier ideas like a continental drift and clue
spreading to provide your understanding of how the earth’s crust has evolved for
millions of years.
THEORY OF TECTONIC PLATES:-
● The theory of plate tectonics explains that the Earth’s outer layer called the
lithosphere is divided into large and small plates that move over the semi fluid layer
beneath them known as asthenosphere.
● The continental drift theory proposed by Alfred Wegener in 1912 which suggests that
all continents were once joined together in a single landmass called pangaea and
later drifted apart.
● The seafloor spreading theory proposed by Harry Hess and Robert S. Dietz in the
1950 in which new Oceanic crust is formed at mid- ocean ridges due to volcanic
activity.
● As magma rises and solidifies,it pushes the older crust away from the ridge causing
the seafloor to spread.
● This explained how continents could move over time and was supported by evidence
such as magnetic striping on the ocean floor.
● The theory of convection currents in the mantle which drive the movement of tectonic
plates.
● As hot material rises and cooler material sinks ,it creates a circular motion that
pushes and pulls the plates above it.
● The modern plate tectonics theory explain that the movement of both continental and
oceanic plates and describes diffrent types of plate boundaries:
Divergent (Plates move apart)
Convergent ( Plates collide)
transform (Plates slide past each other)
● This comprehensive theory helps explain earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain
formation and ocean trench formation,making it one of the most important theories in
geology.
INTERIOR OF THE EARTH :-
● Our earth has a layered structure comprising the crust, mantle and core.
● The solid outer layer covering of the earth which envelopes its interior portion
is called a crust having thickness 5 to 40km.
● In between crust and core, there is a thick layer known as mantle, which has a
thickness of about 2900 km.
● The innermost shell is called the core having a thickness of about 3500 km.
● The core is divided into two parts i.e the outer core and inner core.
● The outer core is mainly composed of nickel and iron which are in liquid state
and The inner core is composed of nickel and iron.
ROLE OF WEATHERING AND EROSION:-
● Volcanic activity, weathering, erosion and mass movements etc. which are
responsible for bringing about changes on the surface of the earth.
● Humans play an important role in bringing about certain changes on the
surface of the earth.
EXTERNAL PROCESSES :-
● Natural processes which take place gradually on the surface of the earth are
called external processes.
● Weathering, erosion and mass movements are examples of it.
WEATHERING:-
● The process by which the rocks exposed on the surface get broken into
smaller pieces in the same place is known as weathering.
FACTORS INFLUENCING THE WEATHERING PROCESS :-
● Temperature and pressure - The continuous heating and cooling of rocks
makes them break apart.
● Action of water- Water collects in cracks and pores of rocks. When the
temperature falls,it freezes and expands. This widens the crack .
● Due to natural external force ,the rocks get broken down into small pieces.
● Sometimes seeds get deposited in small holes in rocks by animals, wind or
water. The roots of the plant when they go deep into the cracks of the rocks
also break them into pieces.
● Lastly animals and humans also break the rocks into pieces by their
mechanical action.
●
MAJOR TYPES OF WEATHERING :-
● Weathering is the breaking down of rocks into smaller pieces. There are three
main types of weathering:
1. PHYSICAL WEATHERING :-
● Physical weathering is the breaking of rocks without any change in their
chemical composition.
Causes:
● Temperature changes: Rocks expand during the day due to heat and contract
at night when cooled. This causes outer layers to peel off, called exfoliation.
● Frost action: Water enters cracks in rocks, freezes into ice, expands, and
widens the cracks. Rocks finally break into pieces.
Example:
Common in granitic rocks and cold region
2. CHEMICAL WEATHERING :-
● Chemical weathering occurs when rocks are broken down due to chemical
reactions with water or air.
Features:
● Soluble minerals in rocks dissolve in water.
● Produces landforms like:
Cavities
Sinkholes
Caverns
Example:
● Limestone and rock salt dissolve easily.
3. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING :-
● Biological weathering is caused by plants, animals, and human activities.
Causes:
● Plant roots grow into cracks and break rocks.
● Roots release acidic substances that slowly dissolve rocks.
● Burrowing animals like rabbits and rats loosen rocks and soil.
EROSION :-
● Erosion is the carrying away of weathered materials from one place to another.
Agents of Erosion :-
Running water
Rainwater
Glaciers
Sea waves
Wind
Factors Affecting Erosion:-
Rainfall at a place
Temperature
Slope of the land
Type of soil
Presences of Vegetation cover
Change in the Land-use pattern
Effects
● Changes the shape of mountains, hills, plateaus, and plains over millions of
years.
●
MASS MOVEMENTS:-
● Mass movement is the downward movement of rock and soil due to gravity.
● Common inMountainous regions such as:
Uttarakhand,Himachal Pradesh,Jammu & Kashmir etc.
● Examples of mass movement are Landslides, Earth flows and Mud flows etc.
● When dry soil and rock pieces move down a steep slope it is known as a
landslide.
● When rock materials like clay and slit , saturated with water,move down a
gentle slope,it is called an earth flow.
● When water saturated rock debris moves down the channels on steep hill sides
,it is called a mud flow.
●
AGENTS OF DENUDATION :-
Meaning of Denudation
● Denudation means making the land surface bare or naked.
● Agents of denudation are natural forces that change the surface of the earth
through erosion, transportation, and deposition.
Main Agents of Denudation
Rivers
Rainwater
Ice or Glaciers
Sea waves
Winds
1. Rivers
● Rivers carry large amounts of broken rocks from mountains to lowlands.
● They erode land and form:
Valleys
Gorges
2. Rainwater
● Rainwater enters rocks through pores and cracks.
● Underground water may reappear as springs.
● In areas with soluble rocks like limestone or salt:
● Water forms caves and other landforms.
● Water as an Agent of Degradation
Water enters cracks in rocks.
● In cold weather it freezes and expands.
● The crack widens [Link], the rock breaks apart.
3. Ice or Glaciers
● Large moving masses of ice on mountains are called glaciers.
● Melting glaciers give rise to rivers.
● Glaciers erode land and change:
● V-shaped valleys into U-shaped valleys.
4. Sea Waves
● Sea waves erode coastal areas.
● They also deposit materials along the shore.
● Work of sea waves includes:
Erosion
Transportation
Deposition
5. Winds
● Wind action is strongest in desert regions.
● Winds remove dry dust and sand easily.
Examples:
Thar Desert in Rajasthan
Sahara Desert in Africa
ROLE OF MAN IN CHANGING THE LAND SURFACE:-
● Human activities also degrade land.
● Harmful Human Activities
● Cutting trees indiscriminately leads to wasteland.
● Excessive building activities degrade surrounding land.
● Factory wastes and poisonous effluents pollute and damage land.
● Dumping city waste causes land degradation
WORK OF THE RIVER AS AN AGENT OF EROSION AND DEPOSITION :-
Stages of a River.
A river is divided into three stages according to slope and water flow:
[Link] Course / Mountain Stage
[Link] Course / Plain Stage
[Link] Course / Delta Stage
1. THE UPPER COURSE/ MOUNTAIN RANGES :-
Features :- The land slope is very steep.
The river flows very fast.
Main work: erosion and transportation.
● By eroding its sides and bed it develops gorges,v shaped valleys, waterfalls
and rapids.
● When the river flows through an area made up of hard rock it makes a narrow
valley with steep walls called a gorge.
● When a river flows through an area of soft rocks then sides of the river are
easily eroded there by making sufficiently widened valleys called v- shaped
valleys.
● A waterfall is a sudden descent of water over a big vertical formed in a river
bed.
e.g - Angel falls in Venezuela
● Sometimes the bed of the river is both sloping and rocky with many up and
down [Link] the river jumps over and falls downwards continuously,
thereby making many rapids.
● A series of rapids,big and small, are called cascades.
THE MIDDLE COURSE OR THE PLAIN STAGE :-
● It becomes quite gradual so the river flows down and becomes feet both for
navigation and irrigation.
● The river when it overflow its Bank deposit the alluvial sediments,which it
brings from the mountains on the both sides which is fertile nature.
● When the course of a river lies in the flat plain, irregularities of the ground
force the river to swing from side to side, thereby making big loops such as
loops formed by the river in the flat plain are called meanders.
THE LOWER COURSE OR THE DELTA STAGE:-
● It merges into the sea and its speed now slows down and it becomes quite
difficult for it to carry the sediments it had brought with it.
● The level of its bed rises and the river gets divided into many channels called
distributaries before it falls into the sea.
● Thus are formed the deltas of the river which contain deposits of alluvium and
hence they are fertile.
COMPARISON OF MOUNTAIN GLACIERS AND CONTINENTAL GLACIERS:-
Mountain Glacier:-
● They move down from the mountain tops along the valleys.
● They move slowly as their movement is retarded by the valley floor.
● They melt away along their ages and thus give birth to rivers.
● e.g The river Ganga and Yamuna
● The movement of the mountain glaciers also erodes a V-shaped valley into a
U-shaped valley.
Continental Glaciers :-
● Glaciers which are comparatively bigger in size and slower in movement are
called continental glaciers.
● They are thick ice sheets covering the entire land surface which generally
occur in polar regions.
●
MAJOR LANDFORMS OF THE EARTH :-
● The surface of the Earth is uneven and forms different landforms such as:
● Mountains
● Plateaus
● Plains
MOUNTAIN:-
● A mountain is a high landmass with steep slopes which usually occur in
chains or ranges.
Examples :-
● Himalayas and Pamir (Asia)
● Alps (Europe)
● Rockies (North America)
● Andes (South America)
Young Mountains
● Very high with pointed peaks.
● Examples: Himalayas, Alps, Andes, Rockies.
Old Mountains
● Lower in height with rounded tops due to erosion activity by water and wind.
● Examples: Aravalli and Appalachian mountains
There are another three types of mountains
[Link] Mountains :-
● Formed due to internal movements of the Earth.
● As a result of the cooling and contracting of the molten magma, the crust at
several places becomes eroded and folds are made.
Examples :
● Himalayas
● Alps
● Appalachians
● Ural Mountains
2. Block Mountains :-
● Formed when large land masses break and move vertically.
Examples :
● Rhine Valley and Vosges Mountains.
3. Volcanic Mountains :-
● Volcanic Mountains are formed due to volcanic activity.
● e.g- Mt. Kilimanjaro in Africa
Mt. Fujiyama in japan
PLATEAUS:-
● A plateau is a broad and more or less sharply above the neighbouring lowland
which is called tableland.
● It is generally rugged and rocky in nature.
● The Tibetan plateau is the highest in the world. So it called as ‘ the roof of the
world ‘
PLAINS:-
● A relatively flat and low lying vast expanse of land is called a plain.
● Most plains are formed by Major Rivers and their tributaries which have been
bringing and depositing slit, stones and sand along their courses for ages
together.
● The Great Northern plains of India is formed by the deposits brought by the
river Ganga and her tributaries.