Module 4

Vector Calculus
Prepared by: Dr. Rohini S

Line Integrals of Scalar Functions

If f is defined on a curve C given parametrically by

r(t) = g(t)i + h(t)j + k(t)k, a ≤ t ≤ b,

then the line integral of f over C is

Z n
X
f (x, y, z) ds = lim f (xk , yk , zk ) ∆sk , (1)
C n→∞
k=1

provided this limit exists.

How to Evaluate a Line Integral
To integrate a continuous function f (x, y, z) over a curve C:

1. Find a smooth parametrization of C,

r(t) = g(t)i + h(t)j + k(t)k, a ≤ t ≤ b.

2. Evaluate the integral as

Z Z b
f (x, y, z) ds = f (g(t), h(t), k(t)) |r′ (t)| dt.
C a

EXAMPLE 1 Integrate f (x, y, z) = x − 3y 2 + z over the line segment C joining

the origin to the point (1, 1, 1).
Solution
We choose the parametrization

r(t) = ti + tj + tk, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

√
r′ (t) = i + j + k, |r′ (t)| = 3.
Z Z 1
f (x, y, z) ds = f (t, t, t) |r′ (t)| dt
C 0
Z 1
2
√ √ Z 1
= (t − 3t + t) 3 dt = 3 (2t − 3t2 ) dt
0 0

1
 √ 2 1
= 3 t − t3 0 = 0.
—
Additivity
Line integrals have the property that if a piecewise smooth curve C is composed of
curves C1 , C2 , . . . , Cn , then
Z Z Z Z
f ds = f ds + f ds + · · · + f ds.
C C1 C2 Cn

—
EXAMPLE 2 Integrate f (x, y, z) = x − 3y 2 + z over the curve formed by two line
segments C1 ∪ C2 from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1).

Solution
For C1 : √
r(t) = ti + tj, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, |r′ (t)| = 2.
For C2 :
r(t) = i + j + tk, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, |r′ (t)| = 1.
Z Z Z
f ds = f ds + f ds
C1 ∪C2 C1 C2
Z 1 √ Z 1
= f (t, t, 0) 2 dt + f (1, 1, t) dt
0 0
Z 1 √ 2
Z 1
= (t − 3t ) 2 dt + (1 − 3 + t) dt
0 0
1 1
√ t2 t2
 
3
= 2 −t + − 2t
2 0 2 0
√
√ 1
   
1 2 3
= 2 −1 + −2 =− − .
2 2 2 2
—

2
 √
EXAMPLE 3 Find the line integral of f (x, y, z) = 2xy + z over the helix

r(t) = cos t i + sin t j + t k, 0 ≤ t ≤ π.

Solution

r′ (t) = − sin t i + cos t j + k

p √
|r′ (t)| = sin2 t + cos2 t + 1 = 2.

√ √
f (r(t)) = 2 cos t sin t + t = sin 2t + t.
Z Z π √ √
f (x, y, z) ds = (sin 2t + t) 2 dt
C 0

√ Z π √
= 2 (sin 2t + t) dt
0
π
√

1 2
= 2 − cos 2t + t3/2
2 3 0
√
2 2 3/2
= π .
3

Vector fields
A vector field is a function that assigns a vector to each point in its domain. A vector
field on a three-dimensional domain in space might have a formula like

F(x, y, z) = M (x, y, z) i + N (x, y, z) j + P (x, y, z) k.

The vector field is continuous if the component functions M , N , and P are continu-
ous; it is differentiable if each of the component functions is differentiable. The formula
for a field of two-dimensional vectors could look like

F(x, y) = M (x, y) i + N (x, y) j.

Gradient Fields
The gradient field of a differentiable function f (x, y, z) to be the field of gradient vectors
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f = i+ j+ k.
∂x ∂y ∂z
At each point (x, y, z), the gradient field gives a vector pointing in the direction of
greatest increase of f , with magnitude equal to the value of the directional derivative in
that direction. The gradient field might represent a force field, or a velocity field that
gives the motion of a fluid.

3
 EXAMPLE 1 Suppose that a material is heated, so that the resulting temperature
T at each point (x, y, z) in a region of space is given by

T = 100 − x2 − y 2 − z 2 ,

and that F(x, y, z) is defined to be the gradient of T . Find the vector field F.
Solution
The gradient field F is

F = ∇T = −2x i − 2y j − 2z k.

At each point in the region, the vector field F gives the direction in which the temper-
ature increases most rapidly. The vectors point toward the origin, where the temperature
is greatest.

Line Integral of F = M i + N j + P k
Let F be a vector field with continuous components defined along a smooth curve C
parametrized by r(t), a ≤ t ≤ b. Then the line integral of F along C is
Z Z Z
dr
F · T ds = F· ds = F · dr.
C C ds C

We evaluate line integrals of vector fields in a way similar to how we evaluate line
integrals of scalar functions.

Steps for Evaluating the Line Integral of F = M i + N j + P k Along C : r(t) =

g(t)i + h(t)j + k(t)k

1. Express the vector field F along the parametrized curve C as F(r(t)) by substituting
x = g(t), y = h(t), z = k(t) into the components M (x, y, z), N (x, y, z), P (x, y, z)
of F.
dr
2. Find the derivative (velocity) vector .
dt
3. Evaluate the line integral with respect to the parameter t, a ≤ t ≤ b, to obtain
Z Z b
dr
F · dr = F(r(t)) · dt.
C a dt

Z
EXAMPLE 2 Evaluate F · dr, where
C

F(x, y, z) = z i + xy j − y 2 k

along the curve C given by

√
r(t) = t2 i + t j + t k, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

4
 Solution
We have √
F(r(t)) = t i + t3 j − t2 k,
√
since x = t2 , y = t, z = t.
dr 1
= 2t i + j + √ k.
dt 2 t
Thus, Z Z 1
dr
F · dr = F(r(t)) ·
dt.
C 0 dt
Z 1 √  
3 2 1
= t(2t) + t (1) − t √ dt.
0 2 t
Z 1 
3/2 3 1 3/2
= 2t + t − t dt.
0 2
Z 1 
3 3/2 3
= t + t dt.
0 2
3 1 3/2
Z Z 1
= t dt + t3 dt.
2 0 0

3 2 1 3 1 17
= · + = + = .
2 5 4 5 4 20

Line Integrals with Respect to dx, dy, or dz

Z Z b
M (x, y, z) dx = M (g(t), h(t), k(t)) g ′ (t) dt
C a
Z Z b
N (x, y, z) dy = N (g(t), h(t), k(t)) h′ (t) dt
C a
Z Z b
P (x, y, z) dz = P (g(t), h(t), k(t)) k ′ (t) dt
C a
It often happens that these line integrals occur in combination, and we abbreviate the
notation by writing

Z Z Z Z
M (x, y, z) dx + N (x, y, z) dy + P (x, y, z) dz = M dx + N dy + P dz.
C C C C

Problem 1: Evaluate the line integral

Z
−y dx + z dy + 2x dz,
C

where C is the helix r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j + tk, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

5
 Solution We express everything in terms of the parameter t, so

x = cos t, y = sin t, z = t,

and
dx = − sin t dt, dy = cos t dt, dz = dt.
Then
Z Z 2π
−y dx + z dy + 2x dz = [(− sin t)(− sin t) + t cos t + 2 cos t] dt
C 0

Z 2π
2 cos t + t cos t + sin2 t dt
 
=
0
  2π
t sin 2t
= 2 sin t + (t sin t + cos t) + −
2 4 0

= [0 + (0 + 1) + (π − 0)] − [0 + (0 + 1) + (0 − 0)]

= π.

Work Done by a Force over a Curve in Space

Let C be a smooth curve parametrized by r(t), a ≤ t ≤ b, and let F be a continuous
force field over a region containing C. Then the work done in moving an object from the
point A = r(a) to the point B = r(b) along C is
Z Z b
dr
W = F · T ds = F(r(t)) · dt.
C a dt
Problem 2: Find the work done by the force

F = (y − x2 )i + (z − y 2 )j + (x − z 2 )k

in moving an object along the curve

r(t) = ti + t2 j + t3 k, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1,

from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1).

Solution First we evaluate F on the curve r(t):

F = (y − x2 )i + (z − y 2 )j + (x − z 2 )k

= (t2 − t2 )i + (t3 − t4 )j + (t − t6 )k = (t3 − t4 )j + (t − t6 )k.

dr
Then we find :
dt
dr d
= (ti + t2 j + t3 k) = i + 2tj + 3t2 k.
dt dt

6
 dr
Finally, we compute F · :
dt
dr
F· = (t3 − t4 )j + (t − t6 )k · (i + 2tj + 3t2 k)
dt

= (t3 − t4 )(2t) + (t − t6 )(3t2 ) = 2t4 − 2t5 + 3t3 − 3t8 .

So the work done is
Z b Z 1
dr
Work = F· dt = (2t4 − 2t5 + 3t3 − 3t8 ) dt
a dt 0

 1
2 2 3 3 29
= t5 − t6 + t4 − t9 = .
5 6 4 9 0 60
Problem 3: Find the work done by the force field

F = xi + yj + zk

in moving an object along the curve C parametrized by

r(t) = cos(πt)i + t2 j + sin(πt)k, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

Solution We begin by writing F along C as a function of t:

F(r(t)) = cos(πt)i + t2 j + sin(πt)k.

dr
Next we compute :
dt
dr
= −π sin(πt)i + 2tj + π cos(πt)k.
dt
We then calculate the dot product,
dr
F(r(t)) · = −π sin(πt) cos(πt) + 2t3 + π sin(πt) cos(πt) = 2t3 .
dt
The work done is the line integral
Z b Z 1  4 1
dr 3 t 1
F(r(t)) · dt = 2t dt = = .
a dt 0 2 0 2

Flow Integrals and Circulation for Velocity Fields

Definition If r(t) parametrizes a smooth curve C in the domain of a continuous velocity
field F, the flow along the curve from A = r(a) to B = r(b) is
Z
Flow = F · T ds. (7)
C
The integral is called a flow integral. If the curve starts and ends at the same point,
so that A = B, the flow is called the circulation around the curve.

7
 Problem 4: A fluid’s velocity field is
F = xi + zj + yk.
Find the flow along the helix
π
r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j + tk, 0≤t≤ .
2
Solution We evaluate F on the curve r(t),
F = xi + zj + yk = (cos t)i + tj + (sin t)k.
dr
and then find :
dt
dr
= (− sin t)i + (cos t)j + k.
dt
dr
The dot product of F with is
dt
dr
F· = (cos t)(− sin t) + (t)(cos t) + (sin t)(1)
dt

= − sin t cos t + t cos t + sin t.

dr
Finally, we integrate F · from t = 0 to t = π2 :
dt
Z b Z π/2
dr
Flow = F· dt = (− sin t cos t + t cos t + sin t) dt
a dt 0
 2 π/2   
cos t π 1 π 1
= + t sin t = 0+ − +0 = − .
2 0 2 2 2 2
Problem 5: Find the circulation of the field
F = (x − y)i + xj
around the circle
r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
Solution On the circle,
F = (x − y)i + xj = (cos t − sin t)i + (cos t)j,
and
dr
= (− sin t)i + (cos t)j.
dt
Then
dr
F· = − sin t cos t + sin2 t + cos2 t.
dt
Since sin2 t + cos2 t = 1, we get
dr
F· = 1 − sin t cos t.
dt
Thus Z 2π Z 2π
dr
Circulation = F· dt = (1 − sin t cos t) dt
0 dt 0
2π
sin2 t

= t− = 2π.
2 0

8
Flux Across a Simple Closed Plane Curve
If C is a smooth simple closed curve in the domain of a continuous vector field

F = M (x, y)i + N (x, y)j

in the plane, and n is the outward-pointing unit normal vector on C, the flux of F across
C is
Z
Flux of F across C = F · n ds. (8)
C
Calculating Flux Across a Smooth Closed Plane Curve
I
Flux of F = M i + N j across C = M dy − N dx. (9)
C
The integral can be evaluated from any smooth parametrization

x = g(t), y = h(t), a ≤ t ≤ b,

that traces C counterclockwise exactly once.

Problem 6: Find the flux of

F = (x − y)i + xj

across the circle x2 + y 2 = 1 in the xy-plane. (The vector field and curve are shown
previously in Figure 16.22.)
Solution The parametrization

r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π,

traces the circle counterclockwise exactly once. We can therefore use this parametrization
in Equation (9).
With
M = x − y = cos t − sin t, dy = d(sin t) = cos t dt,
N = x = cos t, dx = d(cos t) = − sin t dt,
we find
I Z 2π
cos2 t − sin t cos t + cos t sin t dt


Flux = M dy − N dx =
C 0

Z 2π Z 2π
2 1 + cos 2t
= cos t dt = dt
0 0 2
 2π
t sin 2t
= + = π.
2 4 0
The flux of F across the circle is π. Since the answer is positive, the net flow across
the curve is outward. A net inward flow would have given a negative flux.

9
Exercises
1. Find the line integrals along the given path C.
Z
(x − y) dx, where C : x = t, y = 2t + 1, 0 ≤ t ≤ 3.
C

Answer: −15
2

2. Find the line integrals along the given path C.

Z
(x2 + y 2 ) dy,
C

where C is given in the accompanying figure.

Answer:36

3. Find the work done by the force

F = xy i + (y − x)j

over the straight line from (1, 1) to (2, 3).

Answer: 25
6

4. Find the work done by the gradient of

f (x, y) = (x + y)2

counterclockwise around the circle x2 + y 2 = 4 from (2, 0) to itself.

Answer:0

5. Find the circulation and flux of the fields

F1 = xi + yj and F2 = −yi + xj

around and across each of the following curves.

(a) The circle

r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
Circulation of F1 = 0, Circulation of F2 = 2π
Flux of F1 = 2π, Flux of F2 = 0

10
 (b) The ellipse
r(t) = (cos t)i + (4 sin t)j, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
Circulation of F1 = 0, Circulation of F2 = 8π
Flux of F1 = 8π, Flux of F2 = 0

6. Find the flux of the fields

F1 = 2xi − 3yj and F2 = 2xi + (x − y)j

across the circle

r(t) = (a cos t)i + (a sin t)j, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
Flux of F1 = −πa2 , Flux of F2 = πa2

Path Independence
Let F be a vector field defined on an openRregion D in space, and suppose that for any
two points A and B in D the line integral C F · dr along a path C from A to B in D is
the same over all paths from A to B. Then the integral
Z
F · dr
C

is path independent in D and the field F is conservative on D.

Potential Function
If F is a vector field defined on D and F = ∇f for some scalar function f on D, then f
is called a potential function for F.

Theorem 1: Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals

Let C be a smooth curve joining the point A to the point B in the plane or
in space and parametrized by r(t). Let f be a differentiable function with a
continuous gradient vector F = ∇f on a domain D containing C. Then
Z
F · dr = f (B) − f (A).
C

Example 1 Suppose the force field F = ∇f is the gradient of the function

1
f (x, y, z) = − .
x2 + y2 + z2
Find the work done by F in moving an object along a smooth curve C joining (1, 0, 0)
to (0, 0, 2) that does not pass through the origin.
Solution An application of Theorem 1 shows that the work done by F along any
smooth curve C joining the two points and not passing through the origin is
Z
1 3
F · dr = f (0, 0, 2) − f (1, 0, 0) = − − (−1) = .
C 4 4

11
 Theorem 2: Conservative Fields are Gradient Fields
Let F = M i + N j + P k be a vector field whose components are continuous
throughout an open connected region D in space. Then F is conservative if and
only if F is a gradient field ∇f for a differentiable function f .

Example 2 Find the work done by the conservative field

F = yz i + xz j + xy k = ∇f, where f (x, y, z) = xyz,

in moving an object along any smooth curve C joining the point A(−1, 3, 9) to B(1, 6, −4).
Solution With f (x, y, z) = xyz, we have
Z Z B
F · dr = ∇f · dr = f (B) − f (A).
C A

= xyz − xyz
(1,6,−4) (−1,3,9)

= (1)(6)(−4) − (−1)(3)(9)

= −24 + 27 = 3.

Theorem 3: Loop Property of Conservative Fields

The following statements are equivalent.
I
1. F · dr = 0 around every loop (that is, closed curve C) in D.
C

2. The field F is conservative on D.

The following diagram summarizes the results of Theorems 2 and 3.

Theorem 2 Theorem 3
I
F = ∇f on D ⇐⇒ F conservative on D ⇐⇒ F · dr = 0 over any loop in D
C

Component Test for Conservative Fields

Let F = M (x, y, z)i + N (x, y, z)j + P (x, y, z)k be a field on an open simply con-
nected domain whose component functions have continuous first partial deriva-
tives. Then F is conservative if and only if
∂M ∂P ∂N ∂M ∂P ∂N
= , = , and = . (2)
∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂z

Example 1: Show that

F = (ex cos y + yz)i + (xz − ex sin y)j + (xy + z)k

is conservative over its natural domain and find a potential function for it.

12
 Solution The natural domain of F is all of space, which is open and simply connected.
We apply the test in Equations (2) to
M = ex cos y + yz, N = xz − ex sin y, P = xy + z
and calculate
∂P ∂N ∂M ∂P ∂N ∂M
=x= , =y= , = z − ex sin y + ex sin y = z = .
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y
The partial derivatives are continuous, so these equalities tell us that F is conservative,
so there is a function f with F = ∇f (Theorem 2).
We find f by integrating the equations
∂f ∂f ∂f
= ex cos y + yz, = xz − ex sin y, = xy + z. (3)
∂x ∂y ∂z
We integrate the first equation with respect to x, holding y and z fixed, to get
f (x, y, z) = ex cos y + xyz + g(y, z).
We write the constant of integration as a function of y and z because its value may
depend on y and z, though not on x. We then calculate ∂f /∂y from this equation and
match it with the expression for ∂f /∂y in Equations (3). This gives
∂g
−ex sin y + xz + = xz − ex sin y,
∂y
so ∂g/∂y = 0. Therefore, g is a function of z alone, and

f (x, y, z) = ex cos y + xyz + h(z).

We now calculate ∂f /∂z from this equation and match it to the formula for ∂f /∂z in
Equations (3). This gives
dh
xy + = xy + z,
dz
or
dh
= z.
dz
Hence,

z2
h(z) = + C.
2
Therefore,

z2
f (x, y, z) = ex cos y + xyz +
+ C.
2
We found infinitely many potential functions of F, one for each value of C.
Example 2: Show that
F = (2x − 3)i − zj + (cos z)k
is not conservative.
Solution We apply the Component Test in Equations (2) and find immediately that
∂P ∂ ∂N ∂
= (cos z) = 0, = (−z) = −1.
∂y ∂y ∂z ∂z
The two are unequal, so F is not conservative. No further testing is required.

13
Exercises
Testing for Conservative Fields
Which fields in Exercises 1–6 are conservative, and which are not?

1. F = yz i + xz j + xy cos z k

2. F = (y sin x)i + (x sin z)j + (xy cos z)k

3. F = y i + (x + z)j − y k

4. F = −yi i + x j

5. F = (x + y)i + z j + (y − x)k

6. F = (ex cos y)i − (ex sin y)j + z k

Finding Potential Functions

In Exercises 7 and 8, find a potential function f for the field F.

7. F = 2x i + 3y j + 4z k

8. F = (y + z)i + (x + z)j + (x + y)k

Solutions
1.
∂P ∂N
=x= ,
∂y ∂z
∂M ∂P
=y= ,
∂z ∂x
∂N ∂M
=z= .
∂x ∂y
Hence, F is conservative.

2.
∂P ∂N
= x cos z = ,
∂y ∂z
∂M ∂P
= y cos z = ,
∂z ∂x
∂N ∂M
= sin z = .
∂x ∂y
Hence, F is conservative.

3.
∂P ∂N
= −1 ̸= 1 = .
∂y ∂z
Therefore, F is not conservative.

14
4.
∂N ∂M
= 1 ̸= −1 = .
∂x ∂y
Therefore, F is not conservative.

5.
∂N ∂M
= 0 ̸= 1 = .
∂x ∂y
Therefore, F is not conservative.

6.
∂P ∂N
=0= ,
∂y ∂z
∂M ∂P
=0= ,
∂z ∂x
∂N ∂M
= −ex sin y = .
∂x ∂y
Hence, F is conservative.

7.
∂f
= 2x ⇒ f (x, y, z) = x2 + g(y, z),
∂x
∂f 3y 2
= 3y ⇒ g(y, z) = + h(z),
∂y 2
∂f
= 4z ⇒ h(z) = 2z 2 + C.
∂z

3y 2
f (x, y, z) = x2 + + 2z 2 + C.
2
8.
∂f
=y+z ⇒ f (x, y, z) = (y + z)x + g(y, z),
∂x
∂f
=x+z ⇒ gy = z ⇒ g(y, z) = zy + h(z).
∂y

f (x, y, z) = (y + z)x + zy + h(z).

∂f
= x + y + h′ (z) = x + y ⇒ h′ (z) = 0.
∂z

h(z) = C, f (x, y, z) = (y + z)x + zy + C.

15
The Curl Vector Field
Suppose that F is the velocity field of a fluid flowing in space. Particles near the point
(x, y, z) in the fluid tend to rotate around an axis through (x, y, z) that is parallel to a
certain vector we are about to define. This vector points in the direction for which the
rotation is counterclockwise when viewed looking down onto the plane of the circulation
from the tip of the arrow representing the vector. This is the direction your right-hand
thumb points when your fingers curl around the axis of rotation in the way consistent
with the rotating motion of the particles in the fluid. The vector is called the curl vector,
and for a vector field
F = Mi + Nj + Pk
it is defined to be
     
∂P ∂N ∂M ∂P ∂N ∂M
curl F = − i+ − j+ − k. (2)
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

Circulation Density
The circulation density of a vector field F = M i + N j at the point (x, y) is the scalar
expression
∂N ∂M
− . (1)
∂x ∂y
This expression is also called the k-component of the curl, denoted by (curl F) · k.

Exercise
In Exercises 1–6, find the k-component of curl(F) for the following vector fields on the
plane.

1. F = (x + y)i + (2xy)j Ans : (curl F) · k = 2y − 1

2. F = (x2 − y)i + (y 2 )j Ans : (curl F) · k = 1

3. F = (xey )i + (yex )j Ans : (curl F) · k = yex − xey

4. F = (x2 y)i + (xy 2 )j Ans : (curl F) · k = y 2 − x2

5. F = (y sin x)i + (x sin y)j Ans : (curl F) · k = sin y − sin x

Green’s Theorem
THEOREM 4 Green’s Theorem (Circulation–Curl or Tangential Form)
Let C be a piecewise smooth, simple closed curve enclosing a region R in the plane.
Let F = M i + N j be a vector field with M and N having continuous first partial
derivatives in an open region containing R. Then the counterclockwise circulation
of F around C equals the double integral of (curl F) · k over R.
I I ZZ  
∂N ∂M
F · T ds = M dx + N dy = − dx dy.
C C R ∂x ∂y

16
Example 3 Verify both forms of Green’s Theorem for the vector field

F(x, y) = (x − y)i + xj

and the region R bounded by the unit circle

C : r(t) = (cos t)i + (sin t)j, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

Solution. First we evaluate the counterclockwise circulation of F = M i + N j around

C. On the curve C we have x = cos t and y = sin t. Then

M = x − y = cos t − sin t, N = x = cos t,

dx = d(cos t) = − sin t dt, dy = d(sin t) = cos t dt.

Therefore, I I
F · T ds = M dx + N dy
C C
Z 2π Z 2π
= (cos t − sin t)(− sin t) dt + (cos t)(cos t) dt
0 0
Z 2π
= (− sin t cos t + 1) dt = 2π.
0
This gives the left side of Green’s Theorem. Next we compute the curl integral. Since

M = x − y, N = x,

∂N ∂M
= 1, = −1,
∂x ∂y
we obtain
ZZ   ZZ
∂N ∂M
− dx dy = (1 − (−1)) dx dy
R ∂x ∂y R
ZZ
=2 dx dy = 2(area of the unit circle) = 2π.
R
Thus both sides are equal, verifying Green’s Theorem.

Example 4 Evaluate the line integral

I
xy dy − y 2 dx,
C

where C is the square cut from the first quadrant by the lines x = 1 and y = 1.
Solution. Using Green’s Theorem to convert the line integral into a double integral
over the square R,
I ZZ  
∂N ∂M
M dx + N dy = − dx dy.
C R ∂x ∂y

17
 Here
M = −y 2 , N = xy.
Then
∂N ∂M
= y, = −2y.
∂x ∂y
Hence
ZZ   ZZ ZZ
∂N ∂M
− dx dy = (y − (−2y)) dx dy = 3y dx dy.
R ∂x ∂y R R

For the square 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1,

Z 1Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
1 3
3y dx dy = [3xy]0 dy = 3y dy = .
0 0 0 0 2

Exercise
In Exercises 1–4, verify the conclusion of Green’s Theorem by evaluating both sides of
Equation for the field F = M i + N j. Take the domains of integration in each case to be
the disk R : x2 + y 2 ≤ a2 and its bounding circle

C : r = (a cos t)i + (a sin t)j, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.

1. F = −yi + xj

2. F = yi

3. F = 2xi − 3yj

4. F = −x2 yi + xy 2 j

Solution:

R : x2 + y 2 ≤ a2 , C : r(t) = (a cos t)i + (a sin t)j, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π

Green’s Theorem states

I ZZ  
∂N ∂M
M dx + N dy = − dA
C R ∂x ∂y

1. F = −yi + xj

M = −y, N =x

∂N ∂M
= 1, = −1
∂x ∂y
∂N ∂M
− =2
∂x ∂y
Area integral:

18
 ZZ
2 dA = 2(area of disk) = 2(πa2 ) = 2πa2
R
Line integral:

x = a cos t, y = a sin t

dx = −a sin t dt, dy = a cos t dt

M = −a sin t, N = a cos t

M dx + N dy = (−a sin t)(−a sin t dt) + (a cos t)(a cos t dt)

= a2 (sin2 t + cos2 t)dt = a2 dt

I Z 2π
M dx + N dy = a2 dt = 2πa2
C 0
Hence verified.

2. F = yi

M = y, N =0

∂N ∂M
= 0, =1
∂x ∂y
∂N ∂M
− = −1
∂x ∂y
Area integral:
ZZ
−1 dA = −πa2
R
Line integral:

M = y = a sin t

M dx = (a sin t)(−a sin tdt) = −a2 sin2 t dt

I Z 2π
2
M dx = −a sin2 t dt
C 0

= −a2 (π) = −πa2

Verified.

3. F = 2xi − 3yj

19
 M = 2x, N = −3y

∂N ∂M
= 0, =0
∂x ∂y
∂N ∂M
− =0
∂x ∂y
Area integral:
ZZ
0 dA = 0
R
Line integral:

M = 2a cos t, N = −3a sin t

M dx + N dy = (2a cos t)(−a sin tdt) + (−3a sin t)(a cos tdt)

= −5a2 sin t cos t dt

I Z 2π
2
= −5a sin t cos t dt = 0
C 0
Verified.

4. F = −x2 yi + xy 2 j

M = −x2 y, N = xy 2

∂N ∂M
= y2, = −x2
∂x ∂y
∂N ∂M
− = x2 + y 2
∂x ∂y
Area integral (polar coordinates):

x2 + y 2 = r 2 , dA = r dr dθ
ZZ Z 2π Z a
2 2
(x + y )dA = r2 (r dr dθ)
R 0 0
Z 2π Z a
= r3 dr dθ
0 0

2π
a4 a4 πa4
Z
= dθ = (2π) =
0 4 4 2
Line integral:

20
 x = a cos t, y = a sin t

M = −a3 cos2 t sin t

N = a3 cos t sin2 t

M dx + N dy = a4 cos2 t sin2 t dt + a4 cos2 t sin2 t dt

= 2a4 cos2 t sin2 t dt

I Z 2π
4
= 2a cos2 t sin2 t dt
C 0
2 2 1
Using sin t cos t = 8
(1 − cos 4t),
Z 2π
π
cos2 t sin2 t dt =
0 4
πa4
I π 
= 2a4 =
C 4 2
Hence verified.

Surface Integral
Surface Integral of a scalar function
For a surface S given implicitly by F (x, y, z) = c, where F is a continuously differentiable
function, with S lying above its closed and bounded shadow region R in the coordinate
plane beneath it, the surface integral of the continuous function G over S is given by the
double integral over R,

|∇F |
ZZ ZZ
G(x, y, z) dσ = G(x, y, z) dA, (3)
S R |∇F · p|
where p is a unit vector normal to R and ∇F · p ̸= 0.
EXAMPLE Integrate G(x, y, z) = xyz over the surface of the cube cut from the
first octant by the planes x = 1, y = 1, and z = 1.
Solution

21
 We integrate xyz over each of the six faces and add the results. Since xyz = 0 on the
faces that lie in the coordinate planes, the surface integral reduces to
ZZ ZZ ZZ ZZ
xyz dσ = xyz dσ + xyz dσ + xyz dσ.
cube surface Side A Side B Side C

Side A: z = 1, region Rxy : 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1.

For this surface,

p = k, ∇f = k, |∇f | = 1, |∇f · p| = 1.

|∇f |
dσ = dA = dx dy.
|∇f · p|

xyz = xy(1) = xy.

ZZ ZZ Z 1 Z 1
xyz dσ = xy dx dy = xy dx dy.
Side A Rxy 0 0

1 1 1
x2
Z  Z
y 1
= y dy = dy = .
0 2 0 0 2 4
By symmetry, the integrals over Sides B and C are also 41 .
ZZ
1 1 1 3
xyz dσ = + + = .
cube surface 4 4 4 4
Problem: Integrate G(x, y, z) = x + y + z over the surface of the cube cut from the
first octant by the planes x = a, y = a, and z = a.
Solution:
We compute the surface integral
ZZ
(x + y + z) dσ
S

over the cube in the first octant.

The cube has six faces, but on the coordinate planes (x = 0, y = 0, z = 0), the
integrand reduces:

x + y + z = y + z, x + z, x + y
However, these faces contribute, so we compute all six faces.
—
Face 1: z = a
Region: 0 ≤ x ≤ a, 0 ≤ y ≤ a

dσ = dx dy, x+y+z =x+y+a

ZZ Z a Z a
(x + y + a) dx dy = (x + y + a) dx dy
0 0

22
 a a
x2
Z 
= + yx + ax dy
0 2 0
Z a 2  Z a 2 
a 2 3a
= + ay + a dy = + ay dy
0 2 0 2
3a3 a3
= + = 2a3
2 2
—
Face 2: z = 0

x+y+z =x+y
ZZ Z a Z a
(x + y) dx dy = (x + y) dx dy
0 0
a a a
x2 a2
Z  Z  
= + yx dy = + ay dy
0 2 0 0 2
a3 a3
= + = a3
2 2
—
Face 3: x = a

x+y+z =a+y+z
ZZ Z a Z a
(a + y + z) dy dz = (a + y + z) dy dz
0 0
a a Z a
y2 a2
Z  
2
= ay + + zy dz = a + + az dz
0 2 0 0 2
Z a 2 
3a
= + az dz = 2a3
0 2
—
Face 4: x = 0

x+y+z =y+z
ZZ Z a Z a
(y + z) dy dz = (y + z) dy dz
0 0
a a a
y2 a2
Z  Z  
= + zy dz = + az dz
0 2 0 0 2

= a3
—
Face 5: y = a

23
 x+y+z =x+a+z
ZZ Z a Z a
(x + a + z) dx dz = (x + a + z) dx dz
0 0
a a a
x2 a2
Z  Z  
2
= + ax + zx dz = + a + az dz
0 2 0 0 2

= 2a3
—
Face 6: y = 0

x+y+z =x+z
ZZ Z a Z a
(x + z) dx dz = (x + z) dx dz
0 0
a a Z a 2
x2
Z  
a
= + zx dz = + az dz
0 2 0 0 2

= a3
—
Total Surface Integral:

= 2a3 + a3 + 2a3 + a3 + 2a3 + a3

= 9a3
—
Final Answer:
ZZ
(x + y + z) dσ = 9a3
S

Problem: Integrate G(x, y, z) = x+y +z over the portion of the plane 2x+2y +z = 2
that lies in the first octant.
Solution:
We evaluate the surface integral
ZZ
(x + y + z) dσ
S

over the given plane.

—
Surface: z = 2 − 2x − 2y
Region in the xy-plane:

0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0≤y ≤1−x

24
—
For this surface:
p = k, ∇f = (−2, −2, 1)

p
|∇f | = (−2)2 + (−2)2 + 12 = 3

|∇f · p| = |1| = 1

|∇f |
dσ = dA = 3 dx dy
|∇f · p|
—
Substitute into the integral:

x + y + z = x + y + (2 − 2x − 2y) = 2 − x − y
ZZ ZZ
(x + y + z) dσ = (2 − x − y)(3) dx dy
S R
ZZ
= (6 − 3x − 3y) dx dy
R
—
Evaluate the integral:
Z 1 Z 1−x
= (6 − 3x − 3y) dy dx
0 0

1 1−x
3y 2
Z 
= (6 − 3x)y − dx
0 2 0
Z 1  
3 2
= (6 − 3x)(1 − x) − (1 − x) dx
0 2
Z 1 
9 3 2
= − 6x + x dx
0 2 2
 1
9 2 1 3
= x − 3x + x
2 2 0

9 1
= −3+ =2
2 2
—
Final Answer:
ZZ
(x + y + z) dσ = 2
S

25
Surface Integral of a Vector Field
Let F be a vector field in three-dimensional space with continuous components defined
over a smooth surface S having a chosen field of normal unit vectors n orienting S. Then
the surface integral of F over S is
ZZ
F · n dσ.
S
This integral is also called the flux of the vector field F across S.
If the surface S is defined by f (x, y, z) = C then, the normal unit vector is given by
∇f
n=
|∇f |
EXAMPLE Find the flux of F = yz i + x j − z 2 k through the parabolic cylinder
y = x2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ z ≤ 4, in the direction indicated.
Solution
The surface is given by
f (x, y, z) = x2 − y = 0.

∇f = (2x) i − j.

√
|∇f | = 4x2 + 1.
The unit normal vector is
∇f 2x i − j
n= =√ .
|∇f | 4x2 + 1
—
Taking p = j, we have
√
|∇f | 4x2 + 1 √
dσ = dA = dx dz = 4x2 + 1 dx dz.
|∇f · p| 1

26
 —
On the surface y = x2 , the vector field becomes

F = x2 z i + x j − z 2 k.

—
Now compute
2x i − j
F · n = (x2 z i + x j − z 2 k) · √ .
4x2 + 1
2x(x2 z) − x 2x3 z − x
= √ =√ .
4x2 + 1 4x2 + 1
—
Thus,
−2x3 z + x √ 2
F · n dσ = √ · 4x + 1 dx dz = (2x3 z − x) dx dz.
2
4x + 1
—
Flux Integral:
ZZ Z 4 Z 1
F · n dσ = (2x3 z − x) dx dz.
S 0 0
—
Evaluate:
Z 4 Z 1 
3
= (2x z − x) dx dz
0 0
Z 4 1
x4 x2
= −2z − dz
0 4 2 0
Z 4 
z 1
= − dz
0 2 2
1 4
Z
= (z − 1) dz
2 0
4
1 z2

1
= − z = (8 − 4) = 2.
2 2 0 2
EXAMPLE Find the flux of F = yz j + z 2 k outward through the surface S cut
from the cylinder y 2 + z 2 = 1, z ≥ 0, by the planes x = 0 and x = 1.
Solution
The outward normal field on S may be calculated from the gradient of

f (x, y, z) = y 2 + z 2 .

∇g 2y j + 2z k 2y j + 2z k
n=± =p = √ = y j + z k.
|∇g| 2
4y + 4z 2 2 1

27
 With p = k, we also have

|∇f | 2 1
dσ = dA = dA = dA.
|∇f · p| |2z| z

We can drop the absolute value since z ≥ 0 on S.

The value of F · n on the surface is

F · n = (yz j + z 2 k) · (y j + z k)

= y 2 z + z 3 = z(y 2 + z 2 ).
Since y 2 + z 2 = 1 on S, we get
F · n = z.
The surface projects onto the shadow region Rxy , which is the rectangle in the xy-plane
shown in Figure 16.55. Therefore, the flux of F outward through S is
ZZ ZZ   ZZ
1
F · n dσ = z dA = dA = area(Rxy ) = 2.
S Rxy z Rxy

Note: These notes have been prepared with reference to Thomas Calculus, 14th
Edition (available at: [Link]
[Link] ). Some parts, especially a few solutions, were developed with
the help of ChatGPT. While care has been taken, there may still be minor errors. Readers
are encouraged to verify the content.

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