Chapter: - 1 Introduction

1.1.1 Introduction

It deals with the study of materials that are extensively used in civil engineering
design and construction processes. eg. Bricks, building stone cement, lime,
mortar, timber, metal, etc.

The main objective of this subject is to provide information on the structure and
properties of materials that are used in engineering design and to present
guidelines to assist the designer in selecting the right materials for given a job.

It plays an important role in the modern age of technology have been used since
the beginning of the time human civilization. Civil engineering materials cover a
very wide range of materials used in civil engineering construction, repair of
buildings, bridges, tunnels, roads, etc. The engineering field is not conceivable
without civil engineering material. In this subject, we deal with the material with
their

• Source
• Composition
• Properties
• Manufacturing methods and techniques and Testing

1.2 Scope of civil engineering material

To fulfill the basic needs of civilization such as food (including air and water),
shelter, and clothing, civil engineering structures are also essential to make life
easy. All civil engineering structures are constructed by integrating the
construction materials with the help of construction techniques. Shelter protects
us from regular attacks of wild animals and other people as we as from heat, rain,
wind, etc.
Food needs are not possible for human civilization throughout the year without
proper utilization of land and irrigation. For these activities, construction of
irrigation; canals, and other structures are needed. Then these food products
should be stored properly in stores. All of these need construction techniques and
construction materials:

For clothing needs, raw materials are to be produced from agricultural products
which are to be supported by civil engineering techniques a structure. All the
factories are built from construction materials using proper construction materials
and proper construction techniques.

With the rapid growth in construction technology and, in the development of

construction materials like in metal technology, plastic, R.C.C, ceramics, bricks,
fiberglass, etc which have different properties, it is possible to select suitable
construction materials to satisfy specific needs of the structure. Selection of the
appropriate construction materials in the construction activity depends upon the
knowledge of the properties of the materials, physical and chemical composition,
method of manufacture, durability, and handling methodology. So, a successful
civil engineer possesses in-depth knowledge of engineering materials. Because
of these facts, construction materials have a very wide scope in almost every field.
The use of building materials has started from the beginning of human
civilization. Since humans have learned about different properties of materials
and used them for the design of the structure.

The scope of civil engineering material includes the new work and repair and
maintenance as follows

• Building
• Civil engineering structure Like
• Dam
• Bridges
• Highway
• Pavement
• Tunnels
• Sewers
• Roofing etc

Civil engineering materials are an important contribution to our national

economy as their output governs both the rate and quality of construction
work.

Types of civil engineering materials

Materials are classified based on

1. Based on Metallurgy

It is classified into two categories

• Metal

A. Ferrous: - steel (Manufacturing by heating iron ore in the furnace with

carbon up to 2%)

That contains elements of iron

Have high carbon content which makes them vulnerable to rust when

exposed to the atmosphere

But wrought resist to corrosion due to its purity and stainless steel

protected from rust by the presence of chromium

B. Nonferrous: - Aluminum

(Nonferrous metal is metal including alloy that does not contain iron in

appreciable amount)
• Non-metal

Timber, stone, plastic

3. Based on Use

It is also classified into two categories

• Structural Engineering materials: - Stone, brick, cement, steel

• Aesthetic engineering materials: - used to get beauty to the structure e.g.

marble, chips, paints

4. Based on physical and Chemical Characteristics

• Metal and Alloys

-Made of elements or groups of elements

- It possesses metallic properties such as luster, transmission of heat (Thermal

Conductivity), malleability, ductility, and electrical conductivity.

Ductility is the property of metal associated with the ability to be stretched

into wire without breaking.

Malleability is the property of metal associated with the ability to be

hammered into a thin sheet without breaking.

Electrical conductivity is a measure of the ability of the material to conduct

an electrical current

-e.g. Iron, copper, aluminum

-Alloys are produced by melting two or more {metals brass(pital)=copper

(tama)+zinc} or metals and non-metal together {steel = iron + carbon}.

- Cast iron is an alloy made from iron, carbon and silicon

Timber
- It is a natural material, obtained from the tree.

- From prehistoric times to till date, timber has been widely used in the
construction field

- Oldest material in the construction field

-used in building construction, tunnel, bridge construction, etc. in a different

way like scaffolding, lateral support, formwork, etc

Ceramic

- These are non-metallic solids made of inorganic compounds such as oxides,

nitrides, silicide carbides, etc.

- Ceramics are generally made by taking mixtures of clay, earthen material

(sand, gravel, fibers, etc.), powder, and water, and shaping them into the
desired form.

- The term “ceramics” means hard, brittle, objects made of porcelain, china
clay, glass, etc.

- Basic properties of ceramics material are brittleness, hardness, wear

resistance or durability, opaqueness, non-corrosive, chemically inert, etc.

- Ceramics materials in civil engineering fields are brick tiles, glazed

ceramics, glass etc.

Types of ceramics

1. Traditional Ceramics: -

- They were made from a crude naturally occurring mixture having

inconsistent purity.

- They have been used essentially in manufacturing porcelain tiles, silicate

glass, etc.
2. New Generation Ceramics

-They possess exceptional electrical, magnetic, chemical structural and

thermal properties of a material

- This type of ceramic is widely used in computers,

Polymers

Polymers are organic substances and derivatives of carbon and hydrogen.

- They possess high corrosion resistance and they can be molded into various
shapes

- For eg. Polyethylene, polystyrene, bitumen, tar, PVC, glue, and various type
of rubber.

Natural Polymers: - Wool, Silk, natural rubber, etc.

Synthetic polymer: -Synthetic rubber, PVC, etc.

Uses in many engineering applications like pipe.

• Composites

-Composition of metal with ceramics or organic polymers

-Although much dissimilarity may exist between different materials, they

frequently can be utilized in conjunction to produce a material with a unique

properties and behaviors.

- Composites possess diverse characteristics such as high strength with

non-corrosiveness strength with brittleness compressive strength tensile

strength etc. e.g. RCC, fiberglass, etc

Properties of civil engineering materials

1. Physical Properties

 Density

The density of a substance is its mass per unit volume.

𝜌 = m/V

 Specific Gravity

The ratio of the weight /mass of a given volume of solids to the weight /mass
of equal the volume of water at 4degree Celcius.

Specific gravity = Weight or mass of object/ (weight or mass of water at 4

degree Celicius)

 Opacity :It is a condition of lack of transparency or translucence. Some

materials are highly transparent like glasses. There are three types of material
based on transparency are

Transparent material: - Allow light to pass through them to a large

[Link] window glass

Translucent material: - Partially allow light to pass through them. E.g.

semi-permeable glass

Opaque material: -Do not allow light to pass through them. e.g. wood, metal
etc.

 Porosity

-Ratio of the volume of voids to Volume of granular material.

- Between 0 and 1 or Percentage between 0% and 100%

- n = Vv /V
 Water Absorption Capacity

The ability of material to retain (hold) water.

 Fire resistivity

The ability of a material to resist the action of high temperature without any
appreciable deformation and substantial loss of strength.

2. Thermal Properties

The properties of the material that determine how it reacts when it is subjected
to excessive heat or fluctuations over time are called thermal properties. These
are

 Heat Capacity /specific heat

It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of

material by one degree.

C = dQ/dT

 Thermal Conductivity

It is the rate at which heat can flow through the material under the influence
of temperature gradient.

k=dQ/dt ∗L / A (T2−T1)

where,

dQ/dt = rate of heat flow

L= length or thickness of the material

A surface area of material (mm2)

Thermal Stability

A material can resist deformation due to thermal changes.

E.g. Asbestos

 Thermal Expansion

When the temperature of a material increases, a change (usually expansion) in

its volume is observed, this change is known as thermal expansion.

Example: Lengthy structures such as railways and bridges need expansion

joints in the structure
Fig: Expansion joints in a bridge

3. Mechanical properties: - These properties are important to determine the

load-resisting capacity, durability, flexibility, etc.

• Strength: - The ability of the material to resist various forces to which it is

subjected during a test or in service.
 Compressive Strength: -Maximum stress, that a material can
withstand/resist under compressive load without failure. Eg: stone,
concrete, etc have good compressive strength.

 Tensile Strength: - Maximum stress, that a material can

withstand/resist under tensile load without failure

 Shear Strength: - Maximum stress, which a material can

withstand/resist under shear load without failure.
 Fig: Shear strength
 Flexural strength: - It is also called modulus of rupture or bend
strength. It can be defined as the strength of the material in bending
expressed as the stress on the outermost fibres of the bend test
specimen at the instant of failure.

 Impact strength: - Material can resist sudden shock or impact.

• Hardness: -Ability of a material to resist penetration by another body. Or
in another words, Hardness is the ability of a material to cut another
material. This property is used in selection of cutting tool materials.
• Ductility: - The material can withstand elongation and bending without
breaking. It is measured as percentage elongation. E.g. making wire by
elongation. Large deformation without failure is ductility.
• Fatigue –It is the property to resist the deformation produced by repeated
cyclic loading over the materials. Eg roads, bridges etc.
• Toughness: -It is the ability of the material to resist fracture due to high
impact loads like hammer blow and to absorb a certain energy. It is
measured in terms of energy absorbed per unit volume before it fractures.
Eg: Cast iron has good toughness.
 Fig : Cast iron pipe

• Resilience: -It is the property of the material to absorb or store energy to

when it is subjected to impact loads and shocks. Materials releases the
stores energy on removal of load. This property is necessary for spring
materials
• Creep: - When a material is subjected to constant stress at high temperature
for a period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation
which is known as creep. Or It is the slow and progressive deformation of
material under constant stress.

This is the property of a material to undergo deformation even for a

negligible load due to long time intervals under the action of construction
load or increasing load.

This property is useful for machine components subjected to high

temperatures like turbines, IC engines, etc.

• Stiffness: - Stiffness is the extent to which a material resists elastic

deformation or deflection.
• Elasticity: -A material can gain its initial shape and size after the load is
removed. Eg: Rubber
• Plasticity:- The ability of the material to change its shape under load
without cracking and retain its shape after the load is removed. Plastic
deformation will take place only when it exceeds the elastic limit.
• Brittleness:- A material is said to be brittle if it cannot undergo elastic or
plastic deformation but it breaks under the external force. Materials having
elongation less than 5% are considered as brittle materials. This property
is opposite to ductility.

4. Electrical Properties

• Resistivity

The electric property of material due to which it resists the flow of electricity
through it.

Materials with high resistivity are usually used for insulation or for the control
of electric current.

• Conductivity

It is the reciprocal of Resistivity. Electrical property of material due to which

electric current flows through the material. SI unit is Siemens per meter.
Materials with high conductivity are often used in applications such as
electrical wiring, electronic components, etc.

Eg: Copper, a metal with high conductivity is used commonly for electrical
wiring.

• Electric Permittivity

Permittivity is the ability of a material to store electrical energy in an electric

field. Materials with high permittivity are often used in applications such as
capacitors and energy storage [Link] strength: -
Dielectric strength is the ability of a material to withstand electric stress
without breaking down.

Materials with high dielectric strength are often used in applications such as
electrical insulation and capacitors,

Example: Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is a polymer with high dielectric

strength and is commonly used in electrical insulation.

5. Chemical Properties

Acidity, Alkalinity, Corrosion, etc.

6. Magnetic Properties

Magnetic permeability

The ability of the material to become magnetized. E.g. By rubbing a piece of

iron with a magnet the iron becomes magnetized. It means iron has some
degree of magnetic permeability. Its unit is Newton per square ampere.

Magnetic retentivity

A material can retain its magnetism after the removal of the magnetizing
force. Once the magnetizing force has been removed, the magnetism within
the material will either remain or decay away quickly or slowly depending
upon the retentiveness of the material. E.g. Soft iron has lower but hard steel
has higher magnetic retentivity.

1.5 Material environment interaction

There is no use of material without interaction with the environment. Different

materials show different results after the interaction with the environment,
according to our requirements and the nature of the material best material to
suit our needs should be selected for construction work. The major
environmental factors interacting with the materials

1. Temperature:

Concrete: Temperature variations can cause concrete to expand and contract,

leading to thermal cracking. Extreme temperatures can also affect the curing
process of concrete, potentially compromising its strength and durability.

Asphalt: High temperatures can soften asphalt pavements, causing rutting and
deformation. Freeze-thaw cycles in colder climates can lead to cracking and
deterioration of asphalt surfaces.

Fig: Rutting in asphalt.

Fig: Freeze-thaw effect in ashphalt

Metals: Metals such as steel expand and contract with temperature changes,
which can induce stress and fatigue over time. Proper design and expansion
joint installation are crucial to accommodate thermal movements.

2. Humidity

Some materials are hygroscopic (tends to absorb moisture from the

atmosphere) and easily absorb the moisture from the atmosphere and easily
affected like lime, paper products, paints, timber, etc. Similarly, some plastics
are hygroscopic and most of the plastics are non-hygroscopic. After absorption
of moisture from the atmosphere, the materials may swell, and curl physically
as well as chemical changes may also take place. Rusting in iron can be
enhanced by moisture present in the atmosphere. Higher humidity in concrete
also results in the setting time rate and later in the growth of algae and other
organic life resulting deterioration of the concrete.

3. Rain
Some materials are highly affected by water and rain and some are not. On
one external side of the buildings, such materials are to be used that are less
affected by rain (i.e. Dense concreting, plastic) and other environmental
factors. In highly rainy areas proper waterproofing should be done otherwise
it may create serious problems in the future. Similarly, timber, doors, windows
on external faces should be of better timber to resist moisture and rain than on
the interior part of buildings.

4. Fire

Materials like plastics, wood, paper products, petrol, etc. are more
combustible than metals, glasses etc. In industrial areas, kitchens, and living
rooms, the appropriate materials should be selected i.e. Concrete, Brick, stone,
etc.