Geography Unit 2: Earth Systems and Climate
11.2.1: Air Pressure and Global Wind Patterns
Earth Movements
There are two main types of Earth movements:
Earth's Rotation:
This is the spinning of the Earth on its axis.
Causes day and night.
Results in different times at different locations on Earth.
Deflects winds and ocean currents (Coriolis Effect).
Earth's Revolution:
This is the Earth's movement around the Sun.
Causes the varying length of day and night throughout the year.
Results in the changes of seasons.
Heating and Cooling of Land and Sea
Land heats up and cools down faster than the sea.
The sea heats up and cools down more slowly.
This difference is due to the different spacing of molecules in solid land versus liquid sea.
Atmospheric Pressure
Atmosphere: The layers of gases surrounding the Earth.
Atmospheric (Air) Pressure: The weight of the air pushing down on the Earth's surface at a
specific point.
Low Pressure Systems: Associated with rising air and moist conditions.
High Pressure Systems: Associated with stable, dry conditions.
Factors influencing atmospheric pressure:
1. Altitude
2. Temperature
3. Earth's Rotation
Winds
There are two main types of winds:
Prevailing Winds:
Winds that blow consistently from a particular direction over a large area. Examples include:
Trade winds
Westerlies
Polar winds
Local Winds:
Winds that occur on a smaller scale in a specific local environment. Examples include:
Land and sea breezes
Mountain and valley breezes
Global vs. Local Winds
Global Winds: Occur on a large scale and over vast areas.
Local Winds: Occur on a small scale in a local environment.
Coriolis Effect
The Coriolis Effect is the deflection of moving objects (like winds and ocean currents) caused
by the Earth's rotation.
In the Northern Hemisphere, winds are deflected to the right.
In the Southern Hemisphere, winds are deflected to the left.
11.2.2: Climate of the World
Climate vs. Weather
Climate: The average measure of atmospheric conditions over a long period.
Weather: The daily conditions of the atmosphere.
Features of Climate
The three main features of climate are:
1. Temperature
2. Precipitation
3. Pressure
Factors Influencing Climate
Altitude
Latitude
Winds
Cloud Cover
Ocean Currents
Aspect (the direction a slope faces)
Distance from the sea
Types of Rainfall
There are three main types of rainfall:
1. Convectional Rainfall: Occurs when the sun heats the ground, causing water to evaporate and
rise as warm, moist air. This air cools and condenses, forming clouds and rain. Common in
equatorial regions.
2. Orographic (Relief) Rainfall: Occurs when moist air is forced to rise over a mountain or
elevated landmass. As the air rises, it cools, condenses, and precipitates on the windward side
of the mountain. The leeward side often experiences a rain shadow.
3. Depressional/Cyclonic/Frontal Rainfall: Occurs when warm air masses and cold air masses
meet. The less dense warm air is forced to rise over the denser cold air. As the warm air rises,
it cools, condenses, and leads to precipitation.
Climates in Papua New Guinea (PNG)
PNG experiences various climates, including:
Maritime climate
Equatorial climate
Mountain grassland climate
Mountain alpine forest climate
Mangrove climate
Savannah climate
Swampland climate
PNG receives significant rainfall and experiences two types of winds:
North-west monsoons
South-east trade winds
Climatic Zones of the World
The Earth is divided into five climatic zones based on temperature:
1. Hot
2. Warm
3. Cool
4. Cold
5. Very Cold
Main Types of Climates
1. Tropical Climates: Found near the equator. Examples include Equatorial, Continental, Maritime,
Monsoon, and Desert climates.
2. Temperate Climates: Found in the mid-latitudes. Includes Warm, Cool, and Cold Temperate
climates.
3. Tundra and Polar Climates: Found at high latitudes and altitudes, characterized by very cold
temperatures.
Mountain Climates
Can occur anywhere with mountain ranges.
Temperature and precipitation vary with altitude and aspect.
Land use differs at various altitudes.
11.2.3: Natural Vegetation
Plant Processes
Plants produce their own food through:
Photosynthesis: Using water, sunlight, and carbon dioxide to create food.
Transpiration: The process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from
aerial parts, such as leaves, stems and flowers.
Influences on Vegetation
Drought and cold temperatures significantly impact plant survival.
Different climates support different types of vegetation. Vegetation changes from the equator
towards the poles.
Main Types of Vegetation
1. Forests:
Tropical Forests
Deciduous Forests
Coniferous Forests
2. Grasslands:
Tropical Grassland
Temperate Grassland
3. Deserts: Characterized by very low rainfall and sparse vegetation.
Tundra Vegetation
Tundra vegetation is typically a type of grassland or desert vegetation found in cold regions.
11.2.4: Natural Disasters
Extreme Natural Events
These are natural processes occurring in the environment.
Examples: earthquakes, tsunamis, tornadoes, volcanoes, erosion, cyclones, changes in ocean
currents.
Hazards and Disasters
Hazard: An event that threatens or has the potential to destroy lives and property.
Natural Disaster: An event that causes significant harm, including destruction of property,
loss of life, and disruption of services.
Classification of Natural Hazards
Natural hazards can be classified into four main categories:
1. Geological Hazards:
Caused by processes within the Earth.
Examples: Tsunamis, volcanoes, earthquakes.
2. Geomorphologic Hazards:
Related to landforms and surface processes.
Examples: Floods, landslides, mudflows.
3. Atmospheric Hazards:
Related to weather and atmospheric conditions.
Examples: Cyclones, droughts, hail, frost, tornadoes.
4. Biological Hazards:
Caused by living organisms or their activities.
Examples: Plagues, diseases, pests, bush fires.
Natural vs. Human-Caused Hazards
Natural Hazards: Produced by environmental processes (e.g., earthquakes, volcanic activity,
floods, wildfires, droughts).
Human-Caused Hazards: Created by human actions or errors (e.g., industrial explosions,
nuclear warfare, building collapses, fires).
Vulnerability of PNG and the Pacific Region
The geographical location of PNG and the Pacific region makes it highly susceptible to many
natural hazards and disasters.
Impact of Natural Hazards and Disasters
All natural hazards and disasters cause destruction to property and homes, disrupt normal
services, and negatively affect people's lives.
Global climate change is increasing the frequency of extreme weather events, leading to
more droughts and floods, threatening populations, food security, and causing economic
disruption.
Disaster Management
Disaster Management: The process of preparing for, responding to, recovering from, and
mitigating the risks of natural disasters.
Stages of Disaster Management:
Preparation
Response
Recovery
Mitigation
Disaster management in PNG and the Pacific involves collaboration between the government,
international organizations, and NGOs.