The Earth's Spheres and Geomorphic Processes

Composition of the Earth

The Earth can be understood as being composed of four broadly interacting spheres:

Atmosphere:
A mixture of gases surrounding the Earth, held by gravitational attraction. It is divided into
four distinct layers based on gas mixing, chemical properties, and temperature:
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere

Hydrosphere: Encompasses all the waters on Earth.

Lithosphere:
Consists of large and small plates that slide over the asthenosphere. These plates have three
types of margins:
Divergence
Convergent
Transform fault

Biosphere: (Implied by the term "Biophysical environment" and the discussion of soil
organisms, though not explicitly detailed as a separate sphere in the provided text).

The Rock Cycle

The rock cycle describes the transformation of rocks through the interactions of Earth's internal
and external processes. This cycle is interconnected with plate tectonics, influencing the rock
cycle in both oceanic and continental crusts.

Igneous Rock: Forms from the cooling and solidification of magma through crystallization.
Sedimentary Rock: Forms from the lithification of sediments, which are created by the
erosion of igneous rock and deposited in layers.
Metamorphic Rock: Forms when existing rocks are subjected to great pressure and heat
through a process called metamorphism.
Magma: If metamorphic rock is subjected to extremely high temperatures and pressures, it
can melt to form new magma, restarting the cycle.

Soils

Soils are formed from rocks and sediments through a two-stage development process:

1. Weathering: Produces the parent material (regolith).

2. Soil Formation: The parent material is acted upon to create a soil profile.
Factors influencing soil formation and profile development include:

Parent material (rock type)

Climate
Vegetation
Topography
Time

Soil Profile: A vertical section from the soil surface down to the underlying rock, formed by
vertical movements of water and materials.

Soil Composition: A complex mixture of solid, liquid, and gaseous components.

Soil Texture: Refers to the proportion of sand, silt, and clay.

Loams: Have an ideal soil texture for growing most crops.

Soil Structure: Describes how soil grains are grouped into larger masses called peds.

Soil Functions:

Provides nutrients for plant growth.

Acts as a reservoir for plant moisture.

Soil Organisms: Include bacteria, fungi, and earthworms.

Nutrients: Chemical elements essential for plant growth and soil fertility.

Soil Processes:

Leaching: The removal of soluble materials in solution.

Podsolisation: Common in cool, wet climates with well-drained or sandy soils.
Gleying: Occurs in waterlogged, anaerobic conditions where water output is restricted.
Salination: Concentrates salts in soils in climates with high potential evapotranspiration.

Geomorphic Processes
Geomorphology: The science that studies landforms.

Geomorphic Processes: Modify the Earth's crust and the shape of the land surface.

Denudation
Denudation is the process of wearing away rocks and landforms. It is accomplished through:

Weathering: The breakdown of rocks.

Mass Wasting: The downslope movement of rock and soil under gravity.
Erosion: The wearing away of the land surface by natural agents.

Erosion Agents:

Running water
Ice
Wave action
Wind

Transportation: The carrying of material from one place to another by erosional agents.

Deposition: The dropping or settling of transported materials.

Coastal Erosion and Deposition

Coastal Erosion:
The wearing away and breaking up of rock along the coast. Wave size and sediment load
influence the rate of erosion.
Constructive Waves: Flat waves that travel further up the beach (swash), depositing
sediment.
Destructive Waves: Steep, high waves that have a strong backwash, removing sediment.

Landforms created by Wave Erosion: Headlands, caves, arches, cliffs, sea stacks, blowholes,
inlets.
Landforms created by Wave Deposition: Beaches, spits, bars, barrier islands, tombolos.

Wind (Eolian) Processes

Wind erosion, transportation, and deposition are known as eolian processes. Deserts, often
located in tropical latitudes (15° to 30° north and south of the equator), are prime areas for these
processes.

Desert Characteristics:

High evaporation rates and minimal vegetation contribute to extreme temperature

fluctuations.
Diurnal Range: The difference between the highest and lowest temperature in a day.
Insulation: Acts like a blanket to trap heat in the atmosphere.

Landforms created by Wind Erosion in Deserts: Depressions, rock pedestals, zeugens, yardangs,
inselbergs.
Landforms created by Heavy Rainfall in Deserts: Wadis, mesas, buttes, playas, pediments,
badlands, alluvial fans, canyons.

Wind Transportation: Fine particles of rock waste (desert dust) can be carried great distances.
The processes of wind transport are:

Suspension
Saltation
Surface creep

Wind Deposition: Gives rise to landforms such as:

Dunes: Made of sand.

Loess: Made of desert dust.

Internal Forces and Plate Movement

Plate Tectonics: The study of the movement of Earth's lithospheric plates and the resulting
landforms.

Types of Crust:

Continental Crust (Sial): Older, lighter, granitic rock rich in silica (Si) and aluminium (Al).
Oceanic Crust (Sima): Younger, denser, basaltic rock rich in silica (Si) and magnesium (Ma).

Plate Boundaries:

1. Convergent: Plates move towards each other.

2. Divergent: Plates move away from each other.
3. Passive: Plates slide past each other (transform fault).

Pangaea: The supercontinent proposed by Alfred Wegener, which he theorized existed in the
past.

Isostasy: A state of balance between adjacent blocks of brittle crust floating on the plastic upper
mantle (asthenosphere). To achieve isostatic balance, the crust may undergo:

Volcanism (volcanic eruption)

Diastrophism (deformation of the Earth's crust)
Folding:
Bends in layered bedrock caused by horizontal movement.
Anticlines: Upward folds.
Synclines: Downward folds.

Faulting:
Fractures in the crust along which movement has occurred, often resulting from vertical
movement.
 Types of Faults: Normal fault, reverse fault, thrust fault, strike-slip fault.

Earthquakes

Earthquake: The vibration of the Earth caused by the rapid release of energy from sudden
slippage along a fault.

Focus: The point within the Earth's crust where an earthquake originates.
Epicenter: The point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus. The strongest vibrations
are often felt here.
Magnitude: Describes the amount of energy released during an earthquake.
Tsunamis (Tidal Waves): Very large sea waves generated by submarine earthquakes that
cause sudden upward or downward movement of the seafloor. They are often caused by
earthquakes with a magnitude of 8 or higher.

Volcanoes

Volcano: An opening in the Earth's crust through which magma, ash, and gases escape from
below the surface.

Volcanology: The study of all processes by which materials are forced into or ejected onto the
Earth's surface.

Volcanic Landforms: Classified based on where magma cools:

Intrusive (Plutonic Rocks): Formed by magma cooling within the crust.

Extrusive (Igneous Rocks): Formed by lava cooling above the surface.