Decolonization and its Aftermath

East Timor
East Timor, a former Portuguese territory located on the eastern half of the island of Timor,
experienced a complex and violent decolonization process.

Independence Movement and Indonesian Invasion:

East Timor's nationalist movement, FRETILIN, won a civil war against a faction wishing to
remain with Portugal in September 1975.
The USA denounced the new FRETILIN government as Marxist, which the text notes was
not entirely accurate.
Shortly after, Indonesian troops invaded, overthrew the government, and incorporated East
Timor into Indonesia.
The USA continued to supply military aid to Indonesia, despite reports of atrocities.

Human Rights Abuses and International Response:

Estimates suggest around 100,000 people were killed and 300,000 were placed in
detention camps during the Indonesian occupation.
FRETILIN continued its campaign for independence, but international sanctions were not
applied, as East Timor was considered too small and unimportant, and its nationalists too
left-wing.
The USA consistently defended Indonesia's claim and downplayed the violence.
A significant event occurred in November 1991 when Indonesian troops killed 271 people
during a pro-independence demonstration in Dili, drawing increased international attention
to human rights abuses and arms sales to Indonesia.
In 1996, Bishop Carlos Belo and José Ramos-Horta were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace
Prize for their non-violent campaign for independence.

Referendum and Independence:

By 1999, with growing international support and the end of the Cold War, Indonesia agreed
to a referendum on "special autonomy" organized by the UN.
In August 1999, nearly 80% of East Timorese voted for complete independence.
Pro-Indonesian militias, backed by Indonesian troops, engaged in widespread violence and
destruction after the vote, killing 2,000 people and displacing 250,000.
An Australian peacekeeping force was deployed to end the violence.
In August 2001, elections for the Constituent Assembly were held peacefully, with
FRETILIN winning and Xanana Gusmao elected president.
East Timor officially gained international recognition as an independent state in May 2002,
after over 25 years of struggle.

Italian Overseas Empire

Following its defeat in World War II, Italy was required to relinquish its overseas empire. The UN
oversaw the administration and eventual disposition of these territories.

Post-War Arrangements:
 Italian African possessions were to be administered by France and Britain until the UN
made decisions.
The UN aimed to place these territories under governments sympathetic to Western
interests.
Ethiopia: Returned to the rule of Emperor Haile Selassie.
Libya: Granted independence under King Idris in 1951.
Eritrea: Made part of Ethiopia in 1952, with a measure of self-government within a federal
system.
Italian Somaliland: Merged with British Somaliland to form the independent state of
Somalia in 1960.

Unsuccessful Arrangements and Political Upheaval:

King Idris (Libya): Became unpopular due to perceived pro-Western alignment. He was
overthrown in 1969 by a socialist revolutionary movement that nationalized the oil
industry and pursued modernization. Colonel Gaddafi emerged as a new leader, seeking
Soviet aid.
Emperor Haile Selassie (Ethiopia): Became unpopular for failing to modernize Ethiopia
and improve living standards. He also revoked Eritrea's self-government rights in 1962,
leading to a war for independence. Selassie was overthrown in 1974. Colonel Mengistu
became the new leader, also turning to the USSR for aid.
Ethiopian Internal Conflicts: Mengistu faced significant challenges, including refusing to
negotiate with Eritreans and dealing with independence movements in other provinces like
Tigre and Ogaden. This led to increased military spending, poverty, and famine.

The Verdict on Decolonization

The process of decolonization was generally not a "pleasant experience" for the former colonies,
and its legacy is complex and debated.

Gains for Newly Independent States:

Increased control over internal affairs.
Advances in education and social services in some instances.
Introduction of a political culture allowing citizens to vote.

Criticisms of Colonialism and Decolonization:

Exploitative Nature: European empires were primarily driven by the desire to increase
wealth and power for the ruling nations, not by benevolent intentions. This exploitative
nature was often disguised.
Arrogance and Racism: Colonial administrators often treated native populations with
arrogance, viewing them as inferior. Evidence includes harsh retribution for resistance and
racist sentiments expressed by military personnel.
Humanitarian Crises: Colonial policies, particularly during famines or periods of
resistance, led to immense suffering and death. Examples include the Bengal famine of
1942-43, the slaughter of indigenous populations in Australia and New Zealand, and the
use of concentration camps during the Boer War.
Artificial Borders: European powers imposed arbitrary borders on colonies, often
disregarding existing ethnic and tribal divisions, which contributed to post-independence
conflicts and civil wars (e.g., Nigeria, Belgian Congo).
Lack of Preparation for Independence: Many colonies were ill-prepared for self-rule,
lacking adequate infrastructure, industrial development, and educational institutions. For
 instance, in Nyasaland (Malawi), there were very few secondary schools and no industrial
factories upon British withdrawal.
Deliberate Destruction: Some departing colonial powers, like the Portuguese in
Mozambique, deliberately destroyed infrastructure and machinery as an act of revenge.

Neo-colonialism:
Western European countries and the USA continued to exert significant economic and
political influence over newly independent states through markets and investment.
This created a situation of "power without responsibility" for the former colonial powers
and "exploitation without redress" for the former colonies.

Domination by Local Elites:

In many newly independent states, power was taken over by local political elites, rather
than leading to a fundamental social revolution.
This meant that ordinary people often did not experience significant improvements in their
living standards, despite having formal political rights like voting.
The focus shifted to "passive" political rights without corresponding social or economic
empowerment.

Western Intervention in Post-Colonial Politics:

Western countries often disapproved of governments in newly independent states that
pursued socialist policies or showed pro-communist leanings.
Responses included cutting off aid, destabilizing governments, or even orchestrating their
overthrow. This occurred in various countries, including Indo-China, Indonesia, East Timor,
Chad, Angola, Mozambique, Zaire, and Jamaica.
The text specifically highlights the US support for Indonesia's invasion of East Timor in
1975 due to FRETILIN's perceived Marxist leanings.

Economic Hardship:
Many "Third World" states faced intense poverty, economic underdevelopment, and
reliance on a few commodity exports, making them vulnerable to global price fluctuations.
Foreign loans often led to heavy debt burdens. Africa was particularly hard hit, with
average incomes in 1987 lower than in 1972.

Contrasting View: Niall Ferguson's Defense of the British Empire:

Niall Ferguson argued that the British Empire brought considerable benefits, including
pioneering free trade, capital movements, and free labor (with the abolition of slavery).
He also credited the British with developing global communication networks, establishing
law and order, and maintaining global peace.
Ferguson suggested that former British territories inherited successful structures of
liberal capitalism, parliamentary democracy, and the English language, contributing to
globalization. He controversially proposed that empire can be a form of international
government that benefits not only the ruling power but also others.

"The Great Betrayal":

Many historians argue that the decolonization process placed limitations on true
independence, dividing political rights from the ability to effect social and economic
change.
Wealthy, privileged elites often continued to dominate governments, hindering genuine
liberation for the masses.
Kwame Nkrumah described this as "neo-colonialism," characterized by "power without
responsibility" for practitioners and "exploitation without redress" for victims.
The increase in the number of nation-states from 74 in 1946 to 192 in 1995 is a direct
result of decolonization.
However, the expansion of global corporations and the influence of the US military-
industrial complex are seen as intensifying disparities in wealth and power, favoring local
oligarchies over broad liberation. This is described as "class exploitation and colonial
exploitation are two sides of the same coin."